Industrial Crops & Products 184 (2022) 115093

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Industrial Crops & Products

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Development of sandwich using low-cost natural fibers: Alfa-Epoxy

composite core and jute/metallic mesh-Epoxy hybrid skin composite
Selsabil Rokia Laraba a, b, Amine Rezzoug c, *, 1, Rafik Halimi c, Luo Wei a, Yuhao yang d,
Said Abdi b, Yulin Li a, Wei Jie a
a
Key Laboratory for Ultrafine Materials of Ministry of Education, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, PR China
b
Laboratoire des Sciences et de Génie des Matériaux, LSGM, Université des Sciences et de la Technologie Houari Boumediene, USTHB, Algiers, Algeria
c
Research Center in Industrial Technologies (CRTI), P.O.Box 64, Cheraga 16014 Algiers, Algeria
d
High performance polymer composites laboratory, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310014, China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Alfa grass is one of the most abundant and renewable natural fiber resources in North Africa. In this regard, this
Alfa fiber work aimed to valorize this plant by preparing a sandwich panel composed of Alfa fiber-based core and a hybrid
Jute fiber polymer matrix composite (jute and metallic mesh) as skin. The mechanic properties of the parts (the core, skin
Bio-based composite sandwich
and whole sandwich composite) were evaluated by bending, tensile and non-destructive tests. Thanks to Alfa
Mechanical characterization
Fracture analysis
fiber-based core, the resulting sandwich performance was higher compared to other bio-based ones such as cork-
based sandwiches but had higher density. The hybridization of the jute improves the rigidity of the skin (about
65% of Young and flexural modulus, respectively) but decries the tensile strength by about 23%. The sandwich
breaking was strongly influenced by the stacking sequence of the skin, the presence of metallic mesh at the
interface core/skin led to delamination, which reduces the mechanical properties of the sandwich. Overall, this
sandwich could find useful application as a non-structural component in building materials (separation or roofs
panels).

1. Introduction and cheap (Rangappa et al., 2021). It is also a resource that does not
pollute the landmass and reduces greenhouse gasses, consumes less
Although the use of materials based on natural fibers is ancient in energy for manufacturing, and is less abrasive to tooling (Vinod et al.,
history (for example, brick-based on mud and fibers, basketry, spinning 2020). Furthermore, they are less irritating to the respiratory systems
and paper), researchers have been reinterested in this kind of material and skin (Huang et al., 2016; Rajak et al., 2019). On the other hand,
recently. Indeed, with the environmental awareness at the end of this natural fibers have many advantages in terms of properties such as low
century; the term green, sustainable, and eco-friendly products become density, good specific tensile strength and modulus, and good
unavoidable for almost every development plan of all countries or vibro-acoustic properties (Kureemun et al., 2018; Liu and Tisserat, 2018;
companies to reduce environmental hazards (Vinod et al., 2020). Silva et al., 2020). These economic and environmental benefits make
Therefore, researchers are studying the possibility of replacing synthetic them a great candidate for sustainable development, especially in rural
fibers such as glass, Kevlar or carbon with natural ones (Bourmaud et al., areas of developing countries (Ashok et al., 2019).
2018). Despite the high mechanical or thermal properties of synthetic Nevertheless, at their first stage of development, the natural fibers
fibers, they have drawbacks that include: i) not recyclable, ii) need a lot exhibited difficulties transferring results from the laboratory to indus­
of energy for their production, iii) harmful when manipulated (Rajak trial production for real applications. This was mainly caused by the
et al., 2019). poor mechanical properties and low moisture absorption compared to
In fact, natural fibers (Lignocellulosic) possess several merits mineral and synthetic fiber (Silva et al., 2020). Recently, these in­
compared to synthetic ones. First, they are obtained from abundantly conveniences were partially overcome with the development of fibers
available sources in nature, which are easily renewable, biodegradable, treatment and allowed the increase of their popularity in the

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (A. Rezzoug).
1
https://orcid.org/0000–0003-3837–4027 A.Rezzoug

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2022.115093
Received 12 October 2021; Received in revised form 28 February 2022; Accepted 13 May 2022
Available online 24 May 2022
0926-6690/© 2022 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
S.R. Laraba et al. Industrial Crops & Products 184 (2022) 115093

manufacture of products such as protective casings for electronic de­ commercial potential.
vices, reinforcements in the building and construction industry (low-­ Besides the core materials, using a natural fiber-based composite as
cost interior housing, roofing sheets, bricks, and furniture panels), skins also contribute to the durability of sandwich structures (Ramesh
automotive interiors, and packaging industries where high et al., 2020). Hybrid Jute- metallic mesh composites are used in this
load-carrying capacity is not required and where the prohibitive cost of study. In fact, in many engineering applications, the metallic skins for
reinforcements restricts the use of conventional polymer matrix com­ sandwiches regress by the emergence of PMC. Thanks to his competitive
posite (PMC) (Ashok et al., 2019; Rangappa et al., 2021; Vinod et al., prices combined with acceptable mechanical properties, jute is majorly
2020). used in PMC for housing, fishing boats, etc (Manalo et al., 2017; Prabhu
In parallel, bio-based composite sandwich structures are being et al., 2020). Besides being easy to weave, jute exhibits good properties
developed. However, the natural fibers cannot be used for the applica­ compared to many natural fibers such as abaca, hemp or flax. However,
tions that require a height strength, such as aerospace, marine, and mechanical properties of jute-based PMC are extremely low compared to
automotive industries. On the other hand, the bio-based composite carbon or even glass-based PMC, especially in flexion behavior, where it
sandwich composites could be interesting for structures that did not is a key property for the skin (Hachemane et al., 2013). Hybrid com­
need height strength like cladding, structural roofs, floor panels, and posites could be used when cost reduction combined with good perfor­
walls in civil infrastructure applications. In this case, thermal and phonic mance is the prime consideration (Sanjay and Yogesha, 2018).
insulation, corrosion resistance, reduced weight or fast installation are Therefore, instead of using expensive fibers, the use of metallic mesh
the most wanted properties of buildings (Manalo et al., 2017). In fact, that possesses good flexural properties seems to be a good solution.
the natural fibers could provide these requirements and also improve the Researchers conclude that the hybridization of a PMC by a steel wire
building materials in terms of sustainability (Lakreb et al., 2015; Manalo reinforcing provides additional flexural performance and increases the
et al., 2017; McCracken and Sadeghian, 2018a). resistance of the impact penetration of the sandwich panel (Loganathan
The development of sandwich composites with acceptable properties et al., 2020; Prakash and Jaisingh, 2018).
and minimal environmental impact is a trend research area, which could It appears from the literature that the Alfa fiber continues to be
promote local and durable development (Rangappa et al., 2021). In this interesting to study as reinforcement for PMC. However, compared to
study, an available fiber (Alfa) was chosen as reinforcement of the other fibers, the Alfa has not yet an industrial application. In this
sandwich core. Alfa grass (Stipa tenacissima L.) is an endemic tussock context, this work is an attempt to develop an Innovative bio-based
grass of the western Mediterranean; it grows spontaneously on the sandwich produced with low-cost natural fiber-based composites parts
semi-arid grounds in northwest Africa and southern Spain (Fig. 1). Alfa (Alfa fiber and jute fabric reinforcement for core and laminates skin
is identified as the most dominant species in Algeria’s steppes. In fact, parts, respectively). Before the assembly of the sandwich, their parts
Algeria has the largest geographical area of the Alfa plant, covering were characterized separately through mechanical testing, ultrasonic
about four million hectares (El-Abbassi et al., 2020; Slimani et al., characterization, and microstructural analysis. The main motive of this
2010). In this perspective, a significant amount of research activities has work is to evaluate the Alfa-fiber suitability as core material of sandwich
been conducted on composites reinforced with Alfa fibers and represent panels for building application. Moreover, the hybridization effects of
the most studied fiber in North African countries (El-Abbassi et al., the metallic mesh on the jute-based skin behavior were evaluated by
2020). Thereby, Alfa fibers works show a massive interest in the use as using different laminate stacking sequences (four different resulting
reinforcement for composites. On that basis, the Alfa meets the composites). Finally, the sandwich was evaluated through bending test.
requirement of core material in terms of low density (890 kg/m3) (Latif
et al., 2019). Alfa is available at highly competitive prices compared to 2. Experimental procedures
synthetic fiber or even natural fibers such as flax or sisal. Many works
show that Alfa fiber has mechanical properties in the same magnitude as 2.1. Material: component overview
those of sisal and jute fibers (Bourmaud et al., 2018). Also, the revalo­
rization of Alfa grass would be a good element to improve the Fig. 2. shows the schematic concept of the studied sandwich. Alfa
socio-economic condition of these semi-arid areas (promote employ­ fibers were used as reinforcement to fabricate the core, and hybrid PMC
ment opportunities for people) and constitutes an essential element to based on a jute-metallic wire was used as a skin. The choice of the
fight desertification (Ben Mariem and Chaieb, 2017). However, despite architectural arrangement was established regarding the literature re­
extensive research done so far, they have yet to reach their full view, which indicates many benefits of using these materials (e.g., low-

Fig. 1. Alfa fibers potential: (left) Geographical repartition of Alfa grass (Ben Mariem and Chaieb, 2017) and (right) prices range of commercially available natural
fibers and E-glass fibers (2004–2014 data) (Bourmaud et al., 2018).

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S.R. Laraba et al. Industrial Crops & Products 184 (2022) 115093

oven (Memmert UM100, Germany). This protocol was chosen according

to the recommendation of Hanana et al. (Hanana et al., 2015),
El-Abbassi et al. (El-Abbassi et al., 2015), and was applied according to
the work of Rokbi et al. (Rokbi et al., 2018).
The used jute fabric is a bidirectional fiber fabric (burlap). The latter
was obtained from coffee bags destined for the packaging. The jute
fabric was prepared with the same protocol used for the Alfa fiber; the
only difference is the concentration of the alkaline solution (2% NaOH
for the jute fiber kept at room temperature for 24 h). In fact, the lignin
and hemicellulose contained in jute fibers are also soluble in alkaline
solution; thus, it reduces fiber diameter, increases the density and im­
proves adhesion with the matrix (Hachemane et al., 2013; Mir et al.,
2013).
The metal mesh structure is made of steel wire with a diameter of
0.17 mm and a pitch distance of 1.5 mm (Altek metal, Turkey). The
choice of metallic wire mesh was motivated regarding of the result ob­
tained by Prakash et al. (Prakash and Jaisingh, 2018) and Hasselbruch
et al. (Hasselbruch et al., 2015). They attribute to this kind of fabric a
good elongation at break and low density combined with very low cost.
The main properties of the jute fabric and the steel wire mesh are given
in Table 2.
Fig. 2. Sandwich design: (a) Assembly of the skin with the core; and (b)
Stacking sequences of the skin (hybrid jute fabric/ metallic mesh-Epoxy).
2.2. Specimen preparation
cost reinforcement for the core and hybridization for the skin). More
The core and the skin were prepared separately with two different
details related to these choices will be discussed with the presentation of
processes of manufacturing. The skin was produced by vacuum molding
the components.
using the wet lay-up method (Fig. 3(a1)), which is suitable to obtain a
The matrix was an Epoxy resin which is recognized as the most
thin PMC laminate. Four types of composite laminates of three plies
available and performed resin for the PMC materials. The Epoxy resin
(400 ×400 mm2) with about 2.5–3 mm of thickness were fabricated.
was supplied by HUNTSMAN under the commercial reference of EPO­
The stacking sequences of jute and metallic mesh fabric lead to Jute-
CAST® 50-A1 resin/hardener 9816 (Huntsman Advanced Materials
based, metallic mesh-based, or hybrid skins (Fig. 2(b)). On the other
Americas Inc, Los Angeles, CA, USA).
hand, to obtain a thick core, Alfa-Epoxy composite was elaborated using
The core material was reinforced by Alfa fibers, provided from the
Resin Transfer Molding (RTM). Short random Alfa fibers were put on an
steppe of Djelfa Province (Algeria). The choice was motived by its ad­
aluminum mold of 20 mm thick. After that, the resin was injected into
vantageous mechanical properties combined with its ecological and
the mold by a vacuum system to impregnate the fibers (Fig. 3(a2)).
economic characters (Fig. 1). Table 1 present the chemical composition
The core and the skin were cut according to the dimension of the
of Alfa compared with other fibers to situate their potential perfor­
desired sample for each test and assembled using the same resin (EPO­
mance. Alfa fibers appear to have less cellulose percentage than the well-
CAST® 50-A1) to form the sandwich material. In order to achieve a good
established natural fibers; but could have properties closest to the
bond, the sandwiches were subjected to pressure using weights. Finally,
emergent fibers, such as coir and banana fibers.
sandwich panels with four types of laminates skin were produced, as
Treatment was conducted to obtain the desired Alfa fibers. The stems
shown in Fig. 3b1-b3).
of the grass were cleaned to remove all impurities and were cut into
small pieces (about 50 mm), then were ground mechanically to obtain
fiber lengths ranging from 1 to 3 mm. The undesirable components such 2.3. Analysis methods
as pectin, lignin, and hemicelluloses (non-cellulosic substances) were
removed using chemical treatment. Alkaline treatment, which is The mechanical properties of the core and skin were assessed using
considered as an economic and ecological technique, was used. The fi­ tensile and bending tests. The tensile test of the core was conducted,
bers were completely dipped in salted water (35 g/l) at 60 ◦ C for 24 h. according to ISO 3167 standards, on an MTS E45 machine equipped
They were rinsed with distilled water and then were emerged in a NaOH with a 10 KN capacity load cell (MTS Systems Corporation, USA). In
solution of 4% (Sigma-Aldrich, USA). Next, the fibers were rinsed mul­ turn, the skins were subject to tensile tests according to NF EN ISO 527–4
tiple times in distilled water to remove the NaOH and obtain a neutral standards. The tests were carried out on an Instron 5980 machine (5980
pH, then dried for 24 h, and finally steamed at 105 ◦ C for 12 h in the Floor Model Universal Testing Systems®, INSTRON, USA), equipped
with a 100 KN capacity load cell. The skin samples dimensions were
300 mm × 40 mm x ≈ 2.5 mm. Aluminum heels were bonded on the
Table 1 extremity of skin samples to avoid the rupture at the ends and to allow
Chemical composition (wt%) of Alfa fibers and other natural fibers. the transfer of stress to the useful part of the specimen (Belouadah et al.,
Component Cellulose Hemicellulose Lignin Reference 2020). The experiments were performed at room temperature and a
(wt%)

Alfa fiber 45 25 23 (El-Abbassi et al., 2020) Table 2

Hemp fiber 64 16 4 (Laborel-Preneron et al., Some properties of skin reinforcement (jute fabric and metallic mesh).
2016)
Properties Jute fabric Metallic mesh
Coir fiber 43 0.25 46 (Laborel-Preneron et al.,
2016) Density (g/cm3) 1.46 7.8
Jute fiber 72 13 (Laborel-Preneron Weight (g/m2) 160–200 300
13 et al., 2016) Tensile strength (MPa) 11.8 513.07
Banana fiber 26 17 (Laborel-Preneron Tensile modulus (GPa) 32–44.66 190.77
25 et al., 2016) Breaking elongation (%) 12.85 7.99

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S.R. Laraba et al. Industrial Crops & Products 184 (2022) 115093

Fig. 3. The sandwich manufacturing process: (a1) and (a2) the fabrication procedure of the skin and of the core, respectively; (b1) The obtained sandwich; (b2) and
(b3) Cross-section micrographs of the skin and the core, respectively.

cross-head speed of 2 mm/min for both core and skin. Where Pmax and m are: maximum reported load and the maximum
The tensile strength (σ) is given by the following Eq. (1): deflection before failure, respectively. L, b, and d represent the span
σ = F/S (1) length, the width and the thickness of the sample, respectively.
The samples were analyzed by ECLIPSE LV100ND optical micro­
And Young modulus (E) is determined from Hooke’s law (2) as the scope (OM) and an SMZ745 stereoscopic microscope (Nikon, Japan) to
slope at the elastic zone. obtain the fibers volume fraction and the porosity fraction. A free soft­
σ=E∗ε (2) ware ImageJ (https://imagej.nih.gov/ij/) was used for stereological
measurements. At least ten images were taken at various positions to get
Where F is the maximum load encountered before failure, S is the the average values. The fractography and the micrographs of the sam­
specimen section and ε is the deformation. ples were observed using a scanning electron microscope (ZEISS Sigma
The three-point bending test for both core and skin was conducted on 300 VP, Carl Zeiss, Germany). As composite materials are bad electrical
an MTS E45 machine according to ASTM D790 standard. A rectangular conductors, a carbon spray (Aerodag® G, Acheson Industries Inc, USA)
sample of about 100 × 10 × ≈ 2.5 mm3 is horizontally positioned on was applied.
two supports with a span length of about 50 mm (this regarding the Ultrasonic measurements were performed on core material in
thickness of the samples, since the span length = the thickness X 16) and through-transmission mode (contact technique). Longitudinal and shear
a traverse speed of 1.0 mm/min. measurements were made using 2.25 MHz (Olympus/Panametrics
The Three-point bending test was also carried out on the sandwich V125) and 1 MHz (Olympus/Panametrics V153) contact transducers,
samples with two hybrids skin in accordance with the current standard respectively. A pulse generator (35 MHz-5800Pr OLYMPUS) was used to
(ASTM D790–02). Sandwich beams with a nominal length of 300 mm provide electrical power in a pulse duration of 5 μs. The detected signals
and a nominal width of 40 mm, and about 26 mm of thickness were were amplified and transferred to a digital oscilloscope (1 GHz-Wave­
tested on Instron 5980 machine. The distance between the supports was Sufer10 TELEDYNE Lecroy).
250 mm (span), and the traverse speed was 10 mm/min. At least three
samples were tested for each test series (tensile and bending). 3. Results and discussion
From the bending test, the flexural strength (σf) and flexural modulus
(Ef) are calculated by the following Eqs. (3) and (4), respectively: 3.1. Core characterization
3P L
σf = max2 (3) Sandwich structure behavior depends strongly on material proper­
2bd
ties and the combination of their parts. In fact, the core and skins were
characterized separately before characterizing the sandwich system.
m L3
Ef = (4) Before the fabrication of the different composites, the fibers were
4bd3

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S.R. Laraba et al. Industrial Crops & Products 184 (2022) 115093

treated. The bulk Alfa stems (average of 2.5 mm in diameter) were mold filled with Alfa fibers was possible without large defects, as shown
mechanically carded into separate bundles of diameter ranging from in Fig. 3(b1) and (b3). The obtained Alfa fibers rate in the core was
100 to 250 µm and about 3 mm length composed of element fibers. 26.76 ± 10.79%, which indicated a heterogeneous distribution of fibers.
Fig. 4 exhibits the morphological changes after the fibers treatment. This heterogeneity can be explained by the reaction of Alfa fibers
SEM longitudinal view of the carded (untreated) Alfa leaf reveals the regarding the flow of epoxy resin during molding. This results in some
presence of a very rough surface with trichomes at the extern part of the rich or poor Alfa fibers areas and some preferential orientation direction
bundle (Fig. 4(a1)). Also, the smooth surface at the left part of the (see Fig. 3(b3)). Despite this, the distribution and dispersion of fibers
bundle reveals the presence of impurities such as fats and waxes remain satisfactory since no agglomerations are observed. Also, the
covering the fiber. After Alfa fibers treatment, the presence of fibers cells reinforcement rate value is reasonable given the limited fibers fraction
is clearly identified and relatively free from non-structural matter lignin, that is usually obtained in the case of natural fiber and the RTM process
hemicelluloses, pectin, and waxes (Fig. 4(a2)). The NaOH treatment (Khalid Rehman et al., 2014). The images analysis measurements reveal
cleaned the fibers without showing obvious damage. This could provide a porosity of 6.06 ± 3.6%. This indicates that the voids are formed
adhesion mechanisms between cells walls and thermoset matrix by within the matrix during the elaboration process (RTM), which is less
improving the wettability of fibers, as indicated by several researchers efficient as compared to vacuum resin molding for example (Chawla,
(Bourmaud et al., 2018; El-Abbassi et al., 2020; Hanana et al., 2015). 2012). Knowing that increase in voids content in composites leads to a
Also, the observed removal of non-cellulosic content could improve decrease in the mechanical performance. In fact, a decrease of about
water absorption of the fibers by decreasing their hydrophilicity (Madhu (10–20%) in tensile strength and (10%) in flexural strength corresponds
et al., 2018). However, the treated fibers still present a slightly rough to an increase of 1% in porosity (Rajak et al., 2019). Hence, a better
surface (presence of some trichomes) with some impurities and middle performance should be reached if voids are eliminated by improving the
lamellae residues. This may be attributed to a low level of retting due to parameters of manufacturing processes.
the Alfa stem structure. The residual impurities and this surface aspect As shown in Fig. 3(b1), Alfa fibers did not follow the flow direction of
could probably affect the interfaces within the composite and result in epoxy during injection when compared to injected flax and jute studied
moderate mechanical properties, as indicated by Yan et al., 2016. by Tanguy et al., 2018. The Alfa behavior appears to be similar to the
Nerveless, this treatment could greatly improve the mechanical prop­ flax. In fact, the highly individualized and flexible fibers are more
erties of Alfa compared to the untreated one (Boukhoulda et al., 2017; difficult to orient within the resin flow (Alfa and flax) compared to jute
Hanana et al., 2015). for example. Overall, the chosen parameters to prepare Alfa fibers
The cross-section (Fig. 4(b1) and (b2)) clearly highlights the internal appear to lead to a relatively random orientation, which may result in
structure of bundles that are formed by nearly polygonal cells with a isotropic properties. In fact, ultrasonic measurement reveals that the
central lumen, cell walls, and middle lamellae. This structure of the leaf Alfa fibers are distributed homogeneously in the matrix, as indicated by
forms long fibers with a diameter of about 10 µm on average (varying the same ultrasound propagation speed (about 2400 m/s) in the three
from 5 to 15 µm). directions. The density of the obtained Alfa-epoxy composite was
During the elaboration, complete penetration of epoxy resin into the 1.05 g/cm3, which was slightly lower compared to other natural fiber

Fig. 4. Structure of Alfa fibers: (a1) and (a2) SEM images of untreated and treated Alfa fibers, respectively; (b1) OM cross-section of the stem of Alfa embedded in
resin; (b2) zoom view of the packed cellulose filaments.

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S.R. Laraba et al. Industrial Crops & Products 184 (2022) 115093

composites but significantly higher compared to balsa wood or cork core

± 3.05 MPa). The tensile strength of the skin LS1 was reported to double
materials (Karaduman and Onal, 2016; McCracken and Sadeghian,
the value of LS4, reviling the high deformation behavior of the jute. On
2018a).
the other side, the result indicates that the metallic mesh reinforcement
Table 3 summarizes the obtained tensile properties of the Alfa-Epoxy
provides more rigidity for the skin. Fig. 6(a) shows that the Young’s
core and their comparison with similar works. Variation in the elonga­
modulus reaches a maximum value of 3.77 ± 0.50 GPa for LS4 and a
tion and the tensile strength are observed, which are in accordance with
minimal of 1.94 ± 08 GPa value for the LS1 (100% jute). The hybridi­
the result of fibers volume fraction and porosity. The presence of a
zation between the jute and the metallic mesh results in intermediate
heterogeneous distribution of pores leads to a heterogeneous distribu­
values (3.22 ± 0.63 and 2.95 ± 0.04 GPa) for LS2 and LS3, respectively.
tion of stresses. Furthermore, the presence of macroporosity is a source
Flexural curves clearly indicate the advantage of using the metallic
of weakness. Considering the dimension of the standardized sample
mesh (Fig. 5(b)). Flexural strength and modulus of skin with various
(section of 10 ×2.5 mm2 in traction and in bending), open pores of
hybridization compositions are presented in Fig. 6(b). The variation in
500–1000 µm probably are the causes of the mechanical properties
flexural properties does not follow the trend to the corresponding tensile
falling. This could be confirmed by the ultrasonic measurement when
properties. It is shown that LS4 exhibited the highest flexural strength
the measured young modulus is higher by about 60%. In ultrasonic
and elastic modulus. In contrast, LS1 and LS2 display the lowest values,
measurement, the signal is obtained only from areas free from macro
whereas LS3 shows intermediate ones. LS4 has about 38% higher value
defects. Furthermore, the results obtained from numerical modeling are
of flexural strength and a ≈ 65% higher value of flexural modulus than
even higher because the model considers the presence of micropores
LS1 (100% jute). So, instead of using the natural fibers alone, using the
only. The presence of these macropores could be attributed to the
hybrid composite allows getting benefits from different reinforcements.
fabrication process, where the impregnation of the fibers is more diffi­
From Fig. 6(c), it is clear that the density of skin increases with
cult compared to other processes (i.e., the vacuum molding), leading to
increasing the plies number of metallic mesh. In contrast, the fiber
lower mechanical properties (Hamamousse et al., 2019; Mechakra et al.,
volume fraction decries when using the metallic mesh. The images
2015). Despite the fact that RTM leads to this defect, this process is more
analysis revealed that LS4 has the lowest fiber volume fraction (about
suitable for the fabrication of thick core compared to other processes. In
10%), and LS1 (100% jute) has the highest one (about 40%). The hybrid
addition, the effect of these macropores is less important in the sandwich
skins have a fiber volume fraction of about 30% and 35% for LS3 and
since the thickness of the panel is ≈ 20 mm.
LS2, respectively (calculated approximately using imageJ). The low
The flexural modulus, flexural strength, and elongation at break
fiber volume fraction of LS1 could be attributed to the pitch distance in
were 3.73 ± 0.11 GPa, 55.76 ± 7.3 MPa, and 3.5 ± 0.2 mm, respec­
the metallic mesh (1.5 mm) compared to the compact jute fabric.
tively. The flexural testing shows less variation compared to tensile test
Fig. 7 shows SEM images of skin laminates after the bending test. It
reviling good repeatability. This means that the results are less affected
can be observed that the surface morphology of the laminate (LS1) ex­
by the defects; in this case, the Alfa-Epoxy core can better resist flexural
hibits a rough and sharp shape indicating multiple fractures occurred on
stress compared to tensile stress. This could be attributed to the fact that
the jute reinforcement before rupture (Fig. 7(a)). As indicated by Sanjay
Alfa fiber highly contributes to resisting the stresses and strains caused
and Yogesha, 2018, this shape could be interpreted by the good bonding
by rain or wind within the leaves (Bourmaud et al., 2018). Even if the
nature of jute fiber with the matrix. In contrast, laminate (LS4) exhibits a
Alfa short fiber slightly improves the tensile properties of the epoxy
smooth shape morphology indicating a brittle fracture in the epoxy-rich
matrix; It should be noted that this kind of fiber strongly delays the
area (Fig. 7(d)), which could be explained by the low fiber fraction of
propagation of microcracks by changing their direction and enlarging
this laminate. In comparison, LS2 and LS3 present an intermediate
their edge angle (Hamza et al., 2013).
fracture shape between LS1 and LS4. Also, it can be seen that the fracture
progressed linearly in the matrix until reaching the reinforcement fibers
3.2. Skin characterization
(low magnification in macro images), and micro-cracks are formed on
the matrix (reviled in Fig. 7(b) and (d)). This observation indicates that
Fig. 5 presents the curves obtained after tensile and bending tests on
the matrix is the weakest area and the reinforcement constitutes an
the skin samples. The results highlight the hybridization effect on the
obstacle to crack propagation. Similarly, Jothibasu et al., 2020 has
mechanical behavior of the skin. The typical stress-strain curves of skins
observed that crack initialization starts in the matrix, and propagates
are shown in Fig. 5(a). The most representative curve of each test series
until reaching the jute fibers. Moreover, metallic mesh in the center of
was chosen. All samples show linear behavior until final failure, similar
the laminate (LS2) presents better adhesion compared to those situated
to conventional composite material reinforced by carbon or glass fibers.
at the edge (LS3) when they are pulled out (see Fig. 7(b) and (c)). In fact,
Nevertheless, a deflection is observed, showing that the curve slope is
it has been shown that the presence of the wire mesh at the middle plane
affected by the ductility of the reinforcements. The tensile strength,
of the laminate provides better adhesion (Loganathan et al., 2020). The
Young’s modulus, and the breaking elongation obtained values are
images reveal a complete penetration of resin in the wire mesh without
illustrated in histograms (Fig. 6(a)). The histograms clearly exhibit the
major defects such as cavities at the interface. Nevertheless, the metallic
impact of the hybridization on material stiffness. The tensile strength
wire mesh/Epoxy interface deboning at the edge of the sample could be
increases with the volume fraction of the jute. In fact, the greater tensile
attributed to the brittle fracture of the matrix in this area. Also, the
strength is obtained when using 100% jute reinforcement (40.38

Table 3
Comparison of tensile properties of Alfa-Epoxy with other results from the literature.
Composite tensile properties

Composite Tensile strength (MPa) Young’s modulus (GPa) Strain to failure Process Reference
Matrix-Fibers (%)

Alfa-Epoxy 9.22 ± 1.1 2.16 ± 0.08 1.22 ± 0.34 RTM Current work
(Tensile)
Alfa-Epoxy (Ultrasonic) – 3.47 ± 0.26 – RTM Current work
Alfa-Epoxy (modeling) – 4.4 – – Current work
Alfa/PP 31.5 1.25 – Extrusion (Arrakhiz et al. 2012)
Alfa/PP 20.45 ± 0.42 2.30 ± 1.50 3.84 ± 0.34 Vacuum molding (Mechakra et al., 2015)
Alfa/Epoxy 27.4 ± 1.6 2.23 ± 0.15 2.62 ± 0.08 Vacuum molding (Hamamousse et al., 2019)

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S.R. Laraba et al. Industrial Crops & Products 184 (2022) 115093

Fig. 5. Mechanical behavior of the skin: (a) Tensile stress-strain curves; (b) Flexural stress-displacement curves.

Fig. 6. Hybridization effect (jute/metallic mesh): (a) Tensile properties; (b) Flexural properties; and (c) Density of skin.

plastic deformation of the wire helps the cracks propagation in these density. From the diagram, both hybrid skins LS2 and LS3 show a bal­
plies. Moreover, it is clear that there is no debris of Epoxy present on the ance between the evaluated properties. Nevertheless, the LS3 presents a
wire surface or vis versa in the bottom and top of plies (the surface is significantly higher flexural modulus (about 55% higher) compared to
almost clean). In contrast, when the wire is situated in the middle of the LS2. On the other hand, from the diagram, It appears that LS1 and LS4
skin laminate, cohesive failure could be observed (Fig. 7(d)). These re­ do not have a hexagonal shape, indicating that they have higher values
sults indicate relatively poor interface adhesion, thereby reducing load for some properties and lowest for other ones. Similar improvements of
sharing capability at this interface. Despite this, the metallic wire mesh the mechanical properties by such hybridization were reported by
improves the flexural properties of the skin considerably. From the Loganathan et al., 2020. They have reported that the incorporation of
tensile results, the low tensile strength and breaking elongation values of steel wire mesh in the midplane of banana fiber composite improved the
LS4 also could be related to the lack of adhesion between the metallic flexural modulus by 62.50%. Also, Krishnasamy et al., 2020 reported an
wire mesh and the matrix. For the improvement of the metal/polymer improvement of the tensile strength (14.12%) when using Al and Cu
adhesion, some treatments of the metallic fiber are suggested for future mesh. This, Indicates that a low volume fraction of wire metallic mesh is
works (i.e., silane coupling agent (Prakash and Jaisingh, 2018)) or beneficial for natural fiber. Moreover, the stacking sequence of the
sandblasted (Karunagaran et al., 2020)). laminate should be optimized to get a balance between the properties of
Fig. 8 shows a polar diagram that helps to get the performance the different reinforcements (Jothibasu et al., 2020; Sanjay and Yoge­
overview of laminates skin. Knowing that the skin within the sandwich sha, 2018).
works in both flexural and tensile conditions, the more appropriate skin Also, the density of the skin is affected by the hybridization and in­
should have a balance between the flexural, tensile proprieties, and creases with the substitution of jute by the metallic mesh from 1.11 to

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S.R. Laraba et al. Industrial Crops & Products 184 (2022) 115093

Fig. 7. Macro images and SEM fractography of skin after bending test. (a) and (d) Not hybrid laminates LS1 and LS4, respectively; (b) and (c) Hybrid laminates LS3
and LS4, respectively.

1.68 g/cm3 (Fig. 6(a)). This was obviously attributed to the metallic stiffness with limited additional weight to the skin. So, we choose the
mesh density (7.8 g/cm3) compared to the jute and the Epoxy (1.46 and LS2 and LS3 skins for the fabrication of the sandwich.
1 g/cm3, respectively). The hybridized laminates LS2 and LS3 have an
intermediate density of 1.23 et 1.48 g/cm3, respectively. This adding 3.3. Sandwiches composite characterization
weight is the major disadvantage of using metallic mesh. Despite this,
the hybrid skins are still interesting alternatives (lightweight) to metallic Bending tests were performed for two formulations of sandwich,
ones (heavy) in many applications (Manalo et al., 2017). In addition, consisting of Alfa-Epoxy core and hybrid skins LS2 and LS3 (LS2/Alfa-
hybridization of jute/metallic fabric is beneficial in the sense that there Epoxy/LS2 and LS3/Alfa-Epoxy/LS3), respectively. Fig. 9 represents
is a compromise between rigidity and tensile strength (good compati­ load-displacement curves corresponding to bending tests, and Fig. 10
bility of the metallic mesh with the jute). shows the fracture morphology after bending tests. From Fig. 9, it is
Despite the cited properties above, the impact behavior of the skin is noted that the load increases linearly with the displacement until brittle
very important for the sandwich (Manalo et al., 2017; Sarasini et al., fracture of samples. A slight deviation from linearity in the load/
2018). This property was not studied in this work, but from Prakash and deflection relationship is observed at the final stage of the test, where the
Jaisingh work (Prakash and Jaisingh, 2018), it could be predicted that slope of the curve decreases, indicating the loss of stiffness for the LS2/
the metallic wire mesh in the composite act as an impact load absorber. Alfa-Epoxy/LS2 sample. No buckling areas were observed during the
From this result, we can conclude that the hybridization improves the test, which can be explained by good compatibility among the various

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S.R. Laraba et al. Industrial Crops & Products 184 (2022) 115093

show a slight standard deviation (ranging from 1981.87 to 2182.37 N

for the peak load and from 5.44 to 6.01 GPa for the flexural modulus).
This indicates that the fracture mechanism takes place at the same
condition for each sample. The results of bending tests were compared to
other close studies of bio-based sandwiches. Hami et al., 2014 have
found that the agglomerated cork core gives the sandwich an important
advantage in density and thermal insulation, but peak load ranges from
349.88 to 644.77 N, which is lower compared to the current study result.
Nearly all tested samples failed by transversal fracture of the core
due to compressive bending stresses. Photos of this failure mode can be
seen in Fig. 10. Given that the rigidity of the Alfa-Epoxy is higher
compared to foam cores used for sandwich materials (Manalo et al.,
2017). The sandwich doesn’t present crushing or Indentation fractures
aspects (Fig. 9). The core is subjected to shear at bending test leading to
fragile rupture (Fig. 10(a) and (b)). As a core material, the Alfa-based
core improves sandwich resistance to the local indentation in the same
way as reported in the case of the balsa core (Kepler, 2011). Since the
core is subjected to shear at bending test within the sandwich, shear
Fig. 8. Performance overview of laminate skins (mechanical properties modulus and Poisson’s ratio of the core were also determined using
and density). ultrasonic measurement. The obtained values are 1.62 and 0.37 GPa,
respectively. This indicates that despite the disadvantage of the density,
parts of sandwiches composites. the Alfa-Epoxy core has an average shear modulus value of more than
The high flexural modulus of LS3 compared to LS2 doesn’t contribute ten times that of cardboard (McCracken and Sadeghian, 2018a)
to improving the stiffness of the sandwich on average. The flexural (127 MPa) for example. The epoxy is considered in this work to facilitate
properties results don’t show a considerable difference in flexural the fabrication of the composites regarding its compatibility with nat­
modulus when using the different skins. Flexural modulus average ural fibers. However, the density of the chosen matrix (about 1000
values were 5.71 ± 0.28 and 5.58 ± 1.86 GPa for LS2/Alfa-Epoxy/LS2 Kg/m3) is higher than the commonly used polymer core materials such
and LS3/Alfa-Epoxy/LS3 sandwich, respectively. However, it has been as rigid polyurethane (PU) foam and polyvinyl chloride (PVC) foam
shown that top and bottom skins influence the flexural strength and ranging from 30 to 400 kg/m3 (Manalo et al., 2017). Even if the density
stiffness of sandwiches (Manalo et al., 2017). In our case, the influence of Alfa-Epoxy core (1050 kg/m3) are higher than foam core, it’s still
of skins was observed in the repeatability of the results and the fracture acceptable for the building application if compared with concrete for
mechanism. In fact, a high variation of flexural properties of example (de Brito and Kurda, 2020; Matalkah et al., 2017).
LS3/Alfa-Epoxy/LS3 has been recorded (from 2.3 to 5.8 GPa for the The skin provides tensile and compressive stresses resistance for the
flexural modulus and from 463.07 to 2121.49 N for the peak load). This sandwich under flexure, while the Alfa-based core contributes to shear
could be interpreted by the poor metallic mesh/Epoxy adhesion, which stresses resistance and increases the moment of inertia by increasing the
initiates fracture at the interface between the skin and the core. The SEM distance between skins. Since the skin is stronger than the core, the
fractography show clearly the delamination that occurred at the LS3 failure is initiated by core failure. This is very common for sandwich
skin/core interface and the formation of cracks at the metallic materials (Betts et al., 2017; McCracken and Sadeghian, 2018a). The
mesh/Epoxy interface (Fig. 10(d)). In contrast, the fracture of the relative core density and rigidity promote the shear failure modes. When
sandwich LS2/Alfa-Epoxy/LS2 occurred without debonding at the load approaches the peak load, the failure of the core increases
skin/core interface (Fig. 10(c)). In fact, the results of testing, in this case, compressive strain at the top of the sample and hence causes the failure

Fig. 9. Skins effect on the load-displacement evolutions of the sandwich samples at the three-point bending test.

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S.R. Laraba et al. Industrial Crops & Products 184 (2022) 115093

Fig. 10. Fractography pictures and SEM images of the sandwich failure after bending test: (a) and (b) Fractography in the core region (Alfa-Epoxy); (c) and (d)
Fractography at the skin/core interface region.

of the top skin. This indicates that skin LS2 fails by face wrinkling and provide sufficient bonding. In fact, it has been shown that sandwich
LS3 by adhesive-bond failure, both of them yielding in compression. behavior is highly sensitive to initial imperfections (Wadee, 2000). This
This result is in agreement with Manalo et al. (Manalo et al., 2017) re­ means that sandwich failure depends on the core defect and therefore is
view studies. In fact, the compatibility between the core and the skin is open to optimizing with improving the process of fabrication or the Alfa
decisive; since it’s frequently the most vulnerable part of the sandwich treatment, and hence this sandwich has the potential to be improved in
(McCracken and Sadeghian, 2018b). The mechanical performance of the this direction.
sandwich LS2/Alfa-Epoxy/LS2 could be attributed to the adequate
joining of the skin with the core (Fig. 10(c)). 4. Conclusion
According to SEM fractography, two failure modes are observed;
shear cracking reviling by a fragile break (Fig. 10(C)) and adhesive-bond This work was devoted to providing useful information about the
failure, which consists of core/skin delamination (Fig. 10(d)). It’s well- possibilities offered by natural fibers (Alfa and jute) for incorporating
known that the incompatibility between the hydrophilic fibers and the bio-composite in sandwiches structures. From the experimental results,
hydrophobic matrix is the major limitation of developing natural fibers- the following conclusions can be drawn:
based composites (Ramesh et al., 2017). This is why more fibers pulled
out are observed compared to conventional composites (glass or carbon • Resin Transfer Molding (RTM) is a suitable process to prepare thick
reinforcement). Failure might initiate between Alfa/epoxy interface or core material; however, it’s presented some limitations (high
porosities and propagate nearly perpendicularly to the thickness of the porosity) that should be overcome to improve the mechanical
sample through a brittle failure of the epoxy (Fig. 10(a) and (b)) (plastic properties of Alfa-Epoxy composite.
deformation of the core was not observed in this case). In some cases, the • Despite the disadvantage of the relatively high density, the me­
fibers were free from the resin, indicating the NaOH treatment doesn’t chanical properties of Alfa-Epoxy composite are sufficient as core

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S.R. Laraba et al. Industrial Crops & Products 184 (2022) 115093

parts compared to bio-based core materials such as cork or cardboard El-Abbassi, F.E., Assarar, M., Ayad, R., Bourmaud, A., Baley, C., 2020. A review on alfa
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mance in terms of adhesion and mechanical properties (peak load: reinforcement for plaster based composites. Ind. Crops Prod. 49, 357–365.
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CRediT authorship contribution statement Sanjay, M., 2020. Investigation on the mechanical behavior of areca sheath fibers/
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Selsabil Rokia Laraba: experimental work, conceptualization, data
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analyses and writing (original draft preparation). Amine Rezzoug: nonwoven fabric reinforced sandwich composites. Compos. Part B: Eng. 93, 12–25.
conceptualization, investigation, experimental work and editing. Rafik Karunagaran, N., Bharathiraja, G., Muniappan, A., Yoganandam, K., 2020. Energy
absorption and damage behaviour of surface treated glass fibre/stainless steel wire
Halimi: experimental work, validation and involved in the discussion.
mesh reinforced hybrid composites. Mater. Today.: Proc. 22, 1078–1084.
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validation and involved in the discussion. Said Abdi: project adminis­ Sci. Technol. 71, 46–51.
tration, validation. Yulin Li: methodology, reviewing and editing (final Khalid Rehman, H., Mohammad, J., Rashid, U., 2014. Biomass and bioenergy: processing
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draft). Wei Jie: supervision, project administration. Krishnasamy, P., Rajamurugan, G., Thirumurugan, M., 2020. Performance of fiber metal
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Declaration of Competing Interest Kureemun, U., Ravandi, M., Tran, L., Teo, W., Tay, T., Lee, H., 2018. Effects of
hybridization and hybrid fibre dispersion on the mechanical properties of woven
flax-carbon epoxy at low carbon fibre volume fractions. Compos. Part B: Eng. 134,
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial 28–38.
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence Laborel-Preneron, A., Aubert, J.-E., Magniont, C., Tribout, C., Bertron, A., 2016. Plant
the work reported in this paper. aggregates and fibers in earth construction materials: a review. Constr. Build. Mater.
111, 719–734.
Lakreb, N., Bezzazi, B., Pereira, H., 2015. Mechanical behavior of multilayered sandwich
Acknowledgment panels of wood veneer and a core of cork agglomerates. Mater. Des. 65 (1980–2015),
627–636.
Latif, R., Wakeel, S., Zaman Khan, N., Noor Siddiquee, A., Lal Verma, S., Akhtar Khan, Z.,
The authors would like to acknowledge the efforts of Dr. Djamel 2019. Surface treatments of plant fibers and their effects on mechanical properties of
BASSAID during the sample’s preparation at Algerian Airline Company fiber-reinforced composites: A review. J. Reinf. Plast. Compos. 38, 15–30.
(Air Algérie), Dr. Hichem Zergane and Zouheyr BELOUADAH for Liu, Z., Tisserat, B.H., 2018. Coating applications to natural fiber composites to improve
their physical, surface and water absorption characters. Ind. Crops Prod. 112,
providing helpful suggestions regarding this study. Besides, the authors 196–199.
recognize the immense help of the Fabrication and Characterization Loganathan, T., Kumar, Vinoth, Ayyappa, K., Mahendran, K., Venkatachalam, G, G.,
Workshop technicians (CRTI). Further, Ms. Asma MOUHOUB and Mr. 2020. Mechanical and vibrational property evaluation of banana fiber epoxy
sandwich composite with steel wire mesh core. J. Nat. Fibers 1–14.
Yanis TAÏBI are recognized for their contribution to this work.
Madhu, P., Sanjay, M., Senthamaraikannan, P., Pradeep, S., Saravanakumar, S., Yogesha,
B., 2018. A review on synthesis and characterization of commercially available
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