Module 9: - Enzymes are specific.

This high specificity

of enzymes can be explained by this lock
ENZYMES and key model.
- According to the lock and key model,
enzymes will only act upon a specific
 Are biological catalysts
substrate.
 They speed up the rate of chemical reactions by
lowering its activation energy
 They are protein-derivatives thus made from
amino acids or polypeptide chains
 An enzyme acts upon a substrate by enhancing
the capability of a chemical reaction to act.
 In a chemical reaction, the enzyme catalyzes the
reaction but will not affect the chemical
composition of a chemical reaction just like a
real inorganic catalyst.
2. INDUCED FIT MODEL

3. When the active site on the enzyme makes

contact with the proper substrate, the
enzyme molds itself to the shape of the
molecule
4. This theory of enzyme-substrate interactions
has two advantages compared to the lock
and key model:

It explains how enzymes may exhibit broad

specificity (e.g. lipase can bind to a variety of lipids)
1. COENZYME/COFACTOR
It explains how catalysis may occur (the
- It activates the apoenzyme. A conformational change stresses bonds in the
COENZYME is a vitamin substrate, increasing reactivity)
derivative while a COFACTOR is a
mineral derivative
2. APOENZYME
- inactive form of an enzyme. when a
cofactor or coenzyme activates the
apoenzyme, the complex is called a
HOLOENZYME
3. ACTIVE SITE
- the site where the substrate  will
bind. ENZYME REACTIONS
4. SUBSTRATE
- A molecule where an enzyme will Free Energy (∆𝐺) − The energy associated
act upon. When a substrate is with a chemical reaction that can be used to
bonded in the active site, we call it do work
the Enzyme-Substrate complex Activation Energy
- Amount of energy required to start a
MODELS OF ENZYME ACTION chemical reaction
- The activation energy of a chemical reaction
1. LOCK AND KEY MODEL is closely related to its rate. Specifically, the
higher the activation energy, the slower the
chemical reaction will be
 Transition State - The peak of the required rises again, then the enzyme gets reactivated
activation energy for a specific chemical once more
reaction POWER OF HYDROGEN(pH)
The role of catalysts is to lower the - Each enzyme has an optimum pH range.
activation energy of the chemical reaction Changing the pH outside of this range will
without changing the composition of the slow enzyme activity. Extreme pH values
reactants. since there is no change in the can cause enzymes to denature, slowing and
reactants, there will be no change in the stopping the enzyme activity
product. thus making the chemical reaction SUBSTRATE CONCETRATION
faster. - • Increasing substrate concentration also
increases the rate of reaction to a certain
point. Once all of the enzymes have bound,
any substrate increase will not affect the rate
of reaction, as the available enzymes will be
saturated and working at their maximum
rate.
- the enzyme molecules are saturated with
substrate. The excess substrate molecules
cannot react until the substrate already
bound to the enzymes that have reacted and
been released (or been released without
reacting)

Module 10

FACTORS AFFECTING ENZYME REACTIONS ENERGY TRANSFORMATIONS IN LIVING

THINGS
TEMPERATURE
- generally speeds up a reaction, and lowering ATP-ADP CYCLE
temperature slows down a reaction. - an energy-
However, extremely high temperatures can producing process inside an organism.
cause an enzyme to lose its shape (denature) this involves two major processes,
and stop working. Hydrolysis, and Phosphorylation.
- each enzyme has a certain temperature at 1. Adenosine Triphosphate
which it is more active. This point is called - ATP is a nucleotide consisting of adenine,
the optimal temperature, which ranges from ribose, and three phosphate groups. it is
37 to 40C°. quoted to be the energy currency of the
- enzyme activity gradually lowers as the body. it is spent in order to acquire energy.
temperature rises more than the optimal HYDROLYSIS REACTION IN ATP-ADP
temperature until it reaches a certain - Hydrolysis happens when a water molecule
temperature at which the enzyme activity breaks the bond between a
stops completely due to the change of its phosphoanhydride (oxygen-phosphorus
natural composition. linkage) linkage setting a free phosphate
- if the temperature lowers below the optimal molecule forming Adenosine diphosphate
temperature, the enzyme activity lowers (ADP).
until the enzyme reaches a minimum - An enzyme ATPase will be used for this
temperature at which the enzyme activity is reaction
the least. The enzyme activity stops PHOSPHORYLATION
completely at 0°C but if the temperature
 - the linking of a free inorganic phosphate to - Contain carotenoids )red, orange, and yellow
ADP to form ATP and releasing water. An pigment)
enzyme 3. LEUCOPLAST
ATPSynthase will help this chemical - Contain no pigment
reaction to move forward - Used to store starch
CHLOROPLAST
PLANTS - a plant cell
AUTOTROPHS organelle that belongs to
- Self-produces the family of Plastids
that holds the
LOCATION: chlorophyll pigment and i s
found inside the mesophyll
1. LEAVES
layer of leaves.
A. STOMA
- This organelle is the site
B. MESOPHYLL CELLS
of photosynthesis
STOMATA (STOMA)
- Organelle where photosynthesis takes place
- Pores in a plant’s cuticle through which
1. DOUBLE MEMBRANE
water and gases are exchanged between
- the chloroplast is
the plant
enveloped by a bilipid layer where
and the atmosphere.
molecules pass-through
2. STROMA
- the spaces inside the chloroplast
where the light-independent reaction of
photosynthesis happens. it surrounds the
grand
3. THYLAKOID
PLASTIDS - it is the coin-like structure in
- Plastids are the site of manufacture and the chloroplast. The Thylakoid is site of the
storage of light-dependent reactions and is where we
important chemical compounds used by can find the chlorophyll. a stack of
the cells of thylakoids is called a granum (grana if
autotrophic eukaryotes. They often contain plural). a granum is composed of 10-20
pigments used thylakoids.
in photosynthesis, and the types of pigments CHLOROPHYLL MOLECULES
in a plastid - Located in the thylakoid membranes.
determine the cell's color. • Chlorophyll have Mg+ in the center.
- A Proplastid is a primary plastid that can be • Chlorophyll pigments harvest energy
seen in (photons)
meristematic cells that give rise to a specific by absorbing certain wavelengths (blue-420
plastid nm and red-660 nm are most important).
- Chlorophyll consists of a porphyrin ring and
COMMON KINDS OF PLASTIDS a hydrocarbon side chain. The porphyrin
ring, with a magnesium atom in its center,
1. CHOROPLAST contains a
- Contain chlorophyll that absorbs sunlight in system of alternating double and single
photosynthesis bonds; these bonds are commonly found in
- Produce and store glucose molecules
2. CHROMOPLAST that strongly absorb certain wavelengths of
visible light and reflect others (chlorophyll
 reflects green). the methyl group (—CH3) process that uses light energy
distinguishes chlorophyll a from chlorophyll (photons) and water (H2O) to
b, which has a carbonyl group (—CHO) in produce organic
this position. The hydrophobic hydrocarbon macromolecules (glucose).
side chain anchors chlorophyll to the
thylakoid
membrane.

WAVELENGTH OF LIGHT

SHORT WAVE
- More energy
LONG WAVE
- Less energy
 Plants are green because the green REDOX REACTION
wavelength is reflected, not absorbed. - The transfer of one or more
FALL COLORS electrons from one reactant to
- In addition to the chlorophyll pigments, another.
there are other • Two types:
pigments present. 1. Oxidation
- During the fall, the green chlorophyll - The loss of electrons from a substance or the
pigments are gain of oxygen
greatly reduced revealing the other 2. Reduction
pigments. - The gain of electrons to a substance or the
- Carotenoids are pigments that are either red loss of oxygen
or yellow.
PIGMENT BREAKDROWN OF PHOSTOSYNTHESIS
- any chemical compound which absorbs
LIGHT DEPENDENT REACTION (LIGHT
visible radiation
REACTION)
between about 380 nm (violet) and 760 nm
- Produces energy from solar power
(ruby-red)
(photons) in the form of ATP and
1. ACCESORY PIGMENTS
NADPH.
- Absorb the light that cannot be absorbed by
- Occurs in the Thylakoid membranes
Chlorophyll a.
- During the light reaction, there are two
The energy absorbed from these accessory
possible routes for electron flow.
pigments will be
A. CYCLIC ELECTRON FLOW
passed to Chlorophyll a sufficing the
- Occurs in the thylakoid membrane.
limitations of the pigment
• Uses Photosystem I only
and broadening the energy absorbing
• P700 reaction center- chlorophyll a
capacity of the plant
• Uses Electron Transport Chain
- CHLOROPHYLL B, CARETENOIDS,
(ETC)
LUTEIN
• Generates ATP only
MODULE 11 ADP + P ATP

PHOTOSYNTHESIS (PART 1)

PHOTOSYNTHESIS
- An anabolic, endergonic,
carbon dioxide (CO2) requiring
 CHEMIOSMOSIS
- Power ATP synthesis
- Located in the thylakoid membranes
- Uses ETC and ATP synthase (enzyme) to
make ATP
- Photophosphorylation:
addition of phosphate to ADP to
make ATP.

B. NONCYCLING ELECTRON FLOW

CALVIN CYCLE (LIGHT
INDEPENDENT REACTION/CARBON
FIXATION)
- Uses energy (ATP and NADPH)
from light rxn to make sugar
(glucose).
- Occurs in the thylakoid membrane
• Uses PS II and PS I
MODULE 12: PHOTOSYNTHESIS (PART 2)
• P680 rxn center (PSII) - chlorophyll a
• P700 rxn center (PS I) - chlorophyll a LIGHT INDEPENDENT REACTION
• Uses Electron Transport Chain (ETC) (CALVIN CYCLE)
• Generates O2, ATP and NADPH - Carbon fixation occurs in the stroma through
• one-way flow of electrons from a sequence of 13 reactions of
H2O to NADP the Calvin cycle.
- It is an anabolic pathway building
carbohydrates from smaller molecules and
consuming energy.
- Carbon enters the calvin cycle in the form
of CO2 and leaves in the form of
sugar
- The product of calvin-benson cycle is not
glucose but the 3-carbon sugar
Glyceraldehyde-3-Phosphate (G3P)

3 MAIN STAGES IN CALVIN CYCLE

CO2 UPTAKE
- CO2 reacts with 5-carbon ribulose
bisphosphate (RuBP)
 - Catalyzed by ribulose bisphosphate
carboxylase/oxygenase
(rubisco)
- The unstable 6-carbon product breaks down
into two molecules of 3-
carbon phosphoglycerate (PGA)
- The carbon of the CO2 molecule has been
“fixed” to a carbon skeleton
CARBON REDUCTION
- Energy from ATP and NADPH are used to
convert the PGA molecules to
glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P)
- Exergonic reaction of two molecules of G3P
leads to formation of a
glucose or fructose
RuBP Regeneration
- 10 G3P molecules (30 carbons) remain in
the Calvin cycle
- Through a series of 10 reactions, these
molecules are rearranged into
6 molecules of ribulose phosphate PHOTORESPIRATION
- Ribulose phosphate is phosphorylated by - Occurs on hot, dry, bright days. Stomates
ATP to produce RuBP, which close.
is used to restart the cycle - Fixation of O2 instead of CO2 .
- Produces 2-C molecules instead of 3-C
sugar molecules.
- Produces no sugar molecules or no ATP.
 Photorespiration Reduces Photosynthetic
Efficiency
- Photorespiration does not produce ATP On
hot, dry days, C3 plants, i.e. soybeans and
wheat, close stomata to conserve water
 Photosynthesis rapidly uses up CO2 in the
leaf and O2 accumulates in the chloroplasts
O2 binds to rubisco, which then acts as an
oxygenase and degrades certain molecules to
 RuBisCO has a down side, it is not exclusive CO2 and H2O
in catalyzing CO2 but it also reacts with
PHOTOSYNTHETIC PATHWAYS
O2when this happens, instead of Calvin
Cycle,Photorespiration happens. - In order to reduce photorespiration, other
photosynthetic pathways are happening in
specialized plants. The most common that
we have discussed is also called C3
PATHWAY
C4 PLANTS
- Hot, moist environments.
- 15% of plants (grasses, corn, sugarcane).
- Divides photosynthesis spatially.
- Light rxn - mesophyll cells. - This is evident in plants that has very
- Calvin cycle - bundle sheath cells. minimal water source since the stomata are
C4 PATHWAY closed during the day.
- The C4 pathway is designed to efficiently
fix CO2 at low concentrations and plants
that use this pathway are known as C4
plants.
- These plants fix CO2 into a four carbon
compound (C4) called oxaloacetate. This
occurs in cells called mesophyll cells

NOTES:

- Photosynthesis converts inorganic carbon

dioxide to glucose
- it only occurs in plants, algae, and other
photosynthetic bacteria
- light energy triggers the reaction
CAM PLANTS - in the Light-dependent reaction, oxygen is
- Hot, dry environments. 5% of plants (cactus produced from the hydrolysis of H2O
and ice plants). - the productsof Light-dependent reaction will
- Stomates closed during day. be used in the Light Independent Reaction
- Stomates open during the night. Light rxn - and vice versa
occurs during the day. - the Light Dependent Reactionhappens in
- Calvin Cycle - occurs when CO2 is present. thethylakoid while Light Independent
happens in the stroma
- the end product of Photosynthesis is Glucose

MODULE 13, 14 & 15: CELLULAR

RESPIRATION
CAM PATHWAY
CELLULAR RESPIRATION
- the Acid Metabolism separates the carbon
- It is a set of metabolic pathways that
fixation and calvin cycle by time.
converts Glucose to Adenosine Triphosphate
 - The main goal of Cellular Respiration is to - makes use of Acetyl CoA to produce
manufacture the most number of ATP out of coenzymes required for Electron Transport
a single molecule of Glucose Chain
ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN
- the ATP producing pathway, electrons
transport to several electron acceptor
2 TYPES OF RESPIRATION complexes to enable a chemiosmosis
AEROBIC RESPIRATION
- The use of Oxygen in the respiration
process. Cellular Respiration is a kind of
Aerobic Respiration
-----REACTIONS INVOLVED IN
AEROBIC RESPIRATION------
 Dehydrogenations: two hydrogen
atoms are removed from the
substrate and transferred to NAD+
or FAD
 Decarboxylations: part of a
carboxyl group (COOH) is
removed from the substrate as a
molecule of CO2  WHERE DOES CELLULAR
 Preparation reactions: molecules RESPIRATION TAKE PLACE?
are rearranged so they can undergo - Glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm
further dehydrogenations or - Kreb’s Cycle and ETC takes place in the
decarboxylations mitochondria
ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION
- respiration process that does not use oxygen.
Ethyl alcohol fermentation is an example
 EXERGONIC REACTION
(ERGON=WORK)
- A spontaneous chemical reaction in which
there is a net release of free energy.
 ENDERGONIC REACTION
- A non spontaneous chemical reaction, in
which free energy is absorbed from the
surroundings to form the products of the
reaction.

MITOCHONDRIA
- are membrane-boundcell organelles
----3 MAJOR METABOLIC PATHWAYS----- (mitochondrion, singular) that generate
most of the chemical energy needed to
GLYCOLYSIS
- – Converts Glucose to Pyruvic Acid power the cell's biochemical reactions
KREB’S CYCLE - Chemical energy produced by the
mitochondria is stored in a small
 molecule called adenosine triphosphate
(ATP).
- contain their own small chromosomes.
Generally, mitochondria, and therefore
mitochondrial DNA, are inherited only
from the mother

----STRUCTURE OF
MITOCHONDRIA----
 OUTER MEMBRANE
- Contains porins that enable passage of
molecules
 CRISTAE
- – fluid filled spaces in the mitochondria
where Krebs’ Cycle happens
 MATRIX
- it expands the surface area of the inner
membrane. Where ETC happens
GLYCOLYSIS
- Is a metabolic pathway that converts
glucose molecule to pyruvic acid
- Happens in the cytosol
- Does not require oxygen

MODULE 16: CELLULAR RESPIRATION –

ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN

PYRUVIC ACID METABOLISM

-THE BY-PRODUCT OF GLYCOLYSIS IS
PYRUVIC ACID AND THE MOLECULE
THAT WILL REACT WITH KREB CYCLE IS
ACETYL COENZYME-A
 PYRUVATE IS CONVERTED TO
ACETYL CoA
- Undergoes oxidative decarboxylation
- A carboxyl group is removed as CO2 ,  THE CITRIC ACID CYCLE
which diffuses out of the cell - Citrate goes through a series of
- Occurs in mitochondria of eukaryotes chemical transformations, losing two
- The two-carbon fragment is oxidized carboxyl group as CO2
and is attached to coenzyme A, yielding - One ATP is formed (per acetyl group) by
acetyl coenzyme A (acetyl CoA) substrate- level phosphorylation
- Most of the oxidative energy is
transferred to NAD+ , forming 3 NADH
- Electrons are also transferred to FAD,
forming FADH2

KREB’S CYCLE NOTE:

----HISTORY---
- Discovered by Hans Krebs in 1937 In a single turn of the cycle,
- He received the Nobel Prize in physiology
or medicine in 1953 for his discovery - two carbonsenterfrom acetyl CoA and
- Forced to leave Germany prior to WWII two molecules of carbon dioxide are
because he was Jewish released;
 Kreb’s Cycle / Tricarboxylic Acid - three molecules of NADH and one
- the citric acid cycle takes place in the molecule of FADH2 are generated; and
matrix of mitochondria - one molecule of ATP or GTP produced.
- The eight steps of the cycle are a series  TOTAL BY-PRODUCTS OF KREB’S CYCLE
of redox, dehydration, hydration, and - 6 NADH
decarboxylation reactions that produce - 4 CO2
two carbon dioxide molecules, one - 2 ATP
GTP/ATP, and reduced forms of NADH - A FADH2
and FADH2
- Begins when acetyl CoA transfers its
two-carbon acetyl group to the four-
carbon acceptor compound
oxaloacetate, forming citrate, a six-
carbon compound:
 and used to transport H+ through
the membrane.
o Oxygen is the final electron
acceptor and it joins with the H + to
produce H2O. (If there is no oxygen,
the electron chain cannot continue
because there is no way to release
electrons)
- Electrons from NADH and FADH2 travel
down the electron transport chain to
O2
OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION - Oxygen picks up H+ to form water.
- Most ATP production occurs by - Energy released by these redox
oxidative phosphorylation reactions is used to pump H+ from the
- involves electron transport and mitochondrial matrix into the
chemiosmosis and requires an intermembrane space.
adequate supply of oxygen
 ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN
- The mitochondria has two membranes--
the outer one and the inner membrane
- The H+ which are brought to
mitochondria accumulate between
these two membranes.
o the last component of aerobic
respiration and is the only part of
glucose metabolism that uses
atmospheric oxygen
o The ETC happens in the outer
membrane of the mitochondria
o The ETC has 4 complexes:
o Complex I converts NADH to NAD+
+ H+
o Complex II converts FADH2 to FAD
o Complex IV Converts 2H+ and ½ O2
to water
o The total ATP produced in ETC is 32
ATP
o The electrons are passed back and
forth across the membrane where CHEMIOSMOSIS
their energy is gradually decreased
 - the H+ diffuses back across the inner
membrane through ATP synthase
complexes, driving the synthesis of ATP

----SUMMARY-----

GARCIA, DANIELLE RAVEN V.

12STEMA2