Auxiliary Power Units and Engine Starting

The Auxiliary Power Unit (APU)

The use of an APU on an aircraft also meant that the aircraft
was not dependent on ground support equipment at an
airfield.
It can provide the necessary power for operation of the aircraft’s
Electrical, Hydraulic and Pneumatic systems.
The power unit selected to do this task is a Gas Turbine
Engine. (APU located at the tail of the aircraft)

The APU can use the same fuel system as the main engines so
reducing the need for additional systems.
The type of engine layout normally used is that of the Free
Turbine, Turboshaft Engine.
A turboshaft engine is both small and lightweight yet produces
around 600 hp.
The free turbine is usually designed to run at constant speed, this
ensures that a generator run by the APU maintains a constant
frequency without the need for an additional constant speed
drive unit.
APU Operations in Flight
The APU was further developed so that it could also be operated
in the air, providing a back-up source of power to the systems
in the event of an engine failure.
This requirement has become more important with the
introduction of twin engine aircraft now flying long haul
routes under Extended Twin Operations’ (ETOPS)
regulations.
The design philosophy behind the APU is to keep it simple,
rugged and reliable.
It must however be able to be started in flight at high
altitudes, and continue to operate under load at even higher
altitudes.

APU Control and Operation

The pilot has very little in the way of indication when starting
and running the APU compared to the aircraft’s main engines.

Indications of turbine temperature, compressor speed and

system fault indicating lights may be displayed.

Extensive use is made of Automatic Sensors which will shut

the APU down in the event of an APU fire, system
malfunctions or operating limits being exceeded.

The APU inlet may be of single or double-entry design and

will typically have a motorized door which opens when the
APU master switch is selected and will close automatically
after a cooling period on shutdown.
With modern technology the pilot’s flight deck controls for the APU
are very few. They usually consist of:
a) A power on start switch. (PWR ON)
b) A normal stop switch.
c) A manual emergency shut down and fire suppression control.
There is an external APU control panel to facilitate the shutting
down of the APU from somewhere other than the flight deck.

The APU’s turboshaft engine can easily be started by an

electric starter motor powered from the aircraft’s battery.

When started the APU is usually allowed to stabilize in rpm and

temperature before it is used to power the aircraft’s systems.

The APU may not be able to power all the aircraft’s systems,
but it will provide sufficient services that the aircraft can be
operated safely.

The APU is in operation normally on the ground during start

and taxi of the aircraft and operated in the air as previously
 stated in the event of failure of a main engine. It is also
normally selected prior to landing.

Ram Air Turbines

In addition to an APU some aircraft may be fitted with a Ram
Air Turbine (RAT) to provide power to aircraft systems in
emergency situations.
The RAT consists of a turbine wheel which is driven by
airflow due to the aircraft’s forward speed (Ram Air).
The turbine can be
internally mounted in
the aircraft, and the
ram air directed onto
it via a control valve.
Alternatively, the
turbine can be extended
into the airflow.
The design is normally
fail safe.
If power is lost on the
aircraft, the RAT will
automatically be selected to run.
The turbine drives a gearbox to which can be fitted a Generator
or a Hydraulic Pump.
These will power essential electrical supplies or flying
controls in an emergency.
The Requirements of a Starting System
In order to start a gas turbine engine there are three basic
requirements:
a) The compressor/turbine assembly must be rotated to get air
into the combustion chambers.
b) Fuel must be provided in the combustion chambers.
c) Ignition must also be provided in the combustion chambers to
start the air/fuel mixture burning.
Extra to these basic requirements are two others:
a) The necessity to motor over the engine with no igniters
operating. This is sometimes called a’ blow out’ or ‘motoring over
cycle’. The necessity to motor over the engine will usually only occur
when there has been a failure to start, sometimes called a “wet
start” where the engine is dried out by motoring it over, or after a
“hot-start” where the engine is cooled down by motoring it over.
b) The need for the igniters to be operated independent of the start
cycle.

Starter Motor
The most common methods of rotating the HP compressor on
modern civil aircraft are:
a) The Air Starter Motor.
b) The Electric Starter Motor.
Any starter system will have a ‘duty cycle’ the time limit that the
starter is allowed to be ‘energized’ and may have to be followed
by a cooling down period before re-energizing.
The Air Starter Motor
The air starter motor is possibly the most popular starting system
presently in use.
It is light, simple to use and very economical utilizing low pressure
air. The air starter motor fastened to the accessory gearbox of the
engine. The sources of air available for engine start, in order of
preference they are:
a) The Aircraft APU.
b) The Ground Power Unit.
c) A Cross-bleed Start, where air from an already started engine
is used.
Air from one of
these sources
is fed through
an electrically
controlled start
valve to the air
inlet to rotate
the turbine
rotor and is
then
exhausted.
The turbine
turns the
reduction gear to rotate the engine drive shaft through the sprag
clutch ratchet.

The Electric Starter Motor

The electric starter motor was the original means of starting a gas
turbine engine and is still used in smaller executive jets and
helicopters, however it has fallen out of favour in modern larger
engines because of its weight.

Normal Start Cycle

The system shows each engine has an air turbine starter motor which
is supplied with low pressure high volume air from the APU, Ground
Cart or other engine.
The air supply will not reverse into the engine compressor because of
a non-return valve at the LP outlet and a non-return valve facility in
the HP Shut Off Valve.
During the engine start sequence the instruments which require the
most attention are the EGT (exhaust gas temperature) gauge, and
the HP compressor rotational speed gauge (N2),
Other instruments that require to be monitored are fuel flow, LP
rotation N1, duct pressure and start valve warning light, if applicable.

Upon start selection, the starter motor is powered.

Initially fuel and ignition is not supplied, the compressor begins
to accelerate under the influence of the starter motor and starts
to force air through the combustion chambers.
When the compressor has achieved the rpm stated for that
engine the fuel and ignition is activated by selection of the
switch, the switch is then held until the start is successful.
Light up is indicated by an increase in EGT and must occur
within a specified time (20 secs typically).
The initial increase is quite sharp, there being an excess of fuel
in the combustion chamber, once this is burnt off however, the
rise steadies.
 The Fuel Control Unit (FCU) progressively increases the fuel
flow as the compressor accelerates towards idle.
Continued acceleration of the engine brings the compressor to
self-sustaining speed, the speed at which the engine can
accelerate without the help of the starter motor. (DGCA)
between 15-20s.
However, the starter motor is not de-selected at this point, it is
kept supplying power until the engine has accelerated a little
more.
This gives the engine a better chance of smoothly reaching idle
rpm.
Self-sustaining speed is approximately 30% N2 (High
Pressure Compressor).
When the engine has stabilized at ground idle the fuel and
ignition switch can be released and the after start checks
carried out.
Idle rpm is approximately 60% N2 and 25% N1.

Operation of the Blowout Cycle

To prevent “torching”, the fuel has to be allowed to drain away
or evaporate (blown out) before another attempt can be made to
start the engine.
In most modern turbofan engines the air turbine starter motor
will have a ‘duty cycle’ of 3-5 minutes! If the engine fails to
light up within the specified time limit then the fuel and ignition
switch may be selected off but the starter motor will continue to
turn the compressor and ‘blow out’ the unburnt fuel until a
second attempt to start is carried out. This of course must be
within the ‘duty cycle’ of the starter.
In-flight Starting
In the event of an engine flaming out, it may be required to
activate the fuel and ignition without operating the starter motor
to achieve an airborne windmill air start.
Evidence that an attempt to relight has been successful will be
obtained from the EGT and rpm gauges, a rise in the value of
either of these shows that a light up has occurred.
Starting Malfunctions
As has already been stated the two instruments which require
the most attention during engine start are the EGT gauge and
the (HP) compressor rotational speed gauge.
It is worth remembering also that it is prudent to keep one’s
hand on the engine fuel and ignition switch during the start
cycle until the parameters indicate that they have stabilized.

The Wet Start

The failure to start, more commonly known as the wet start,
is indicated by the EGT not rising and the engine rpm
stabilizing at the maximum that the starter motor can achieve.
This long period, during which fuel is being pumped into the
engine, means that the engine is becoming saturated with it.
This is confirmed by the fuel flowmeter indication.
The danger exists that this fuel, if ignited, will cause a very
large jet of flame to issue from the exhaust system, the
phenomenon called ‘torching’.
 To prevent this happening, before attempting a second start a
“motoring over” or “blow out” cycle must be carried out.
In preparation for the “blow out”cycle, do not terminate the start
cycle when the ‘wet start’ is diagnosed, just close the HP fuel
and ignition switch and allow the starter to continue to turn
the compressor for a specified time before attempting a
restart.

The Hot Start

It is really only possible to determine that a hot start is
happening by comparing its indications to those of a normal
start.
In many cases the only chance of stopping the temperature
limit being exceeded lies in having the ability to switch off
that engine’s fuel and ignition switch as quickly as possible.
The reasons for a hot start lie almost entirely in having too
much fuel and not enough air to cool the gases through the
turbine.
This can be caused by a variety of reasons, such as the throttles
either not being set to idle during the preflight check or being
knocked away from the idle position, or alternatively the engine
not rotating fast enough or partial seizure because of ice.
This is a very common fault and is most likely to be caused by a
tailwind during the second start of the day.

The Hung Start

The indications of a ‘hung start’ are the EGT being higher
than would be expected for the rpm at which the engine has
stabilized, which is lower than self-sustaining speed.
The HP cock must be closed and the problem investigated, the
usual answer being the fact that there is not sufficient airflow
 through the engine to support efficient combustion (e.g.
contaminated compressor).
This of course means that the gases from the combustion
chambers will not have sufficient power to assist the starter
motor in accelerating the engine beyond self-sustaining speed,
once the starter motor cycle has finished, the engine rpm
remains stable below the figure that will enable it to accelerate
away to idle speed.

Engine Rundown Time

Engine Rundown Time or Spooldown Time is the time taken for
the engine to stop after the HP fuel cock is closed.
Mental note should be taken of the Rundown Time of each engine and
comparison made, thereby giving advance warning of engine
malfunction.

START INDICTATION REASON PREVENTIVE ACTION

WET NO RISE IN EGT HIGH ENERGY IGNITER BLOW OUT CYCLE/MOT

START (NO UNIT FAILURE(HEIU) OVERING CYCLE(2MIN)
COMBUSTION) & COOLING PERIOD 5
MINS
HOT EGT EXCEEDING  EXCESSIVE FUEL IN CUT OFF FUEL SUPPLY
START LIMITS CHAMBER
 BLOCKED ENGINE
INTAKE
 TAILWIND
HUNG  HIGH EGT  HIGH ALTITUDE SHUT OFF FUEL SUPPLY
START FOR THIS STARTING
RPM  CONTAMINATED
 N2 NEVER COMPRESSOR
 REACHES BLADE
SELF  NOT ENOUGH AIR
SUSTAININ TO SUPPORT
G SPEED COMBUSTION

Questions
1. Which of the following statements would be more correct with
regard to an APU?
a. APUs provide emergency hydraulics power for the brakes
only
b. APUs provide electrical, pneumatic and hydraulic power for
ground use only
c. APUs provide electrical, pneumatic and hydraulic power for
air use only and can provide an amount of thrust
d. APUs provide electrical, pneumatic and hydraulic power for
ground and air use and can provide an amount of thrust **
2. In the event of an APU fire on the ground it:
a. will need to be shut down immediately
b. will shut down immediately
c. will auto shutdown and fire bottle automatically operate **
d. will need to be shut down immediately and the fire bottles
will be required to be fired immediately
3. Which of the following would result in an automatic shutdown
of an APU?
1. Overspeed of compressor
2. Over-temp of lubrication system
3. Turbine over-temp
4. Combustion chamber over-temp
5. Compressor outlet pressure exceeded
6. Low pressure of lubrication system
a. 1, 2, 3 and 6 **
b. 1, 2, 4 and 6
c. 2, 3, 5 and 6
 d. 2, 3, 4 and 6
4. A Ram Air Turbine is used to provide:
a. emergency hydraulic power for the flaps and slats only
b. emergency hydraulic power for the undercarriage
c. emergency hydraulic power for the elevator, rudder and
ailerons along with possible emergency electrical power **
d. emergency hydraulic power for the brakes along with possible
emergency electrical power
5. The power to start an APU comes from:
a. ground power unit
b. aircraft main DC battery **
c. aircraft main engine generator
d. aircraft main AC battery
6. A typical APU can provide:
a. air for air conditioning on the ground
b. air for engine starting
c. electrical power for ground or in-flight use
d. all of the above **
7. The advantage of an air starter system is that:
a. it is safer in operation than other systems, and no fire risk
b. it is light, simple and economical **
c. it provides a more rapid start
d. it is totally self-contained and needs no external source of
power
8. A “Hung Start” is indicated by:
a. high EGT - high fuel flow - low rpm
b. low EGT - idle fuel flow - low rpm
c. low EGT - high fuel flow - high rpm
d. high EGT - idle fuel flow - low rpm **
9. If a gas turbine engine fails to light up within the specified
time:
a. it must be motored over with the HP fuel cock shut
b. the fuel system must be drained
c. no further attempt to start may be made until the fuel has
evaporated
 d. it must be motored over with the HP fuel cock shut and no
igniters selected **
10. A Relight is:
a. the action of restarting a flamed out engine, usually while
airborne **
b. what occurs when the engine drain valve is stuck open
c. the initiation of the after-burning system
d. what must be prevented after a “wet start”
11. A “Hung Start” occurs when:
a. the engine accelerates but does not light up
b. the engine stabilizes above self-sustaining speed
c. the engine lights up but does not accelerate to self-sustaining
speed **
d. there is a double igniter failure
12. After engine start, the engine igniters are normally
deactivated by:
a. an electric interlock system
b. a speed switch **
c. the time switch
d. centrifugal force
13. Failure of the engine to light up is shown by:
a. the failure of the engine to turn and no TGT
b. low rpm fuel flow indication, and no TGT **
c. TGT increasing but no rpm
d. no rpm and no TGT

14. The term “self sustaining speed” means that:

a. the aircraft can roll forward with no further opening of the
throttles
b. the speed from which the engine can accelerate to full power
within 5 seconds
c. the engine will run independently of external help
d. the speed from which the engine can accelerate to idle
without the help of the starter motor **
15. Before opening the high-pressure fuel shut off valve during
the engine start:
a. the compressor must be turning at the correct rpm in the right
direction **
b. the Low Pressure compressor must be stationary
c. the Low Pressure fuel cock must be shut
d. the Low Pressure compressor must be rotating faster than the
High Pressure
16. The air supply to operate an air starter usually comes from:
a. an external installation
b. storage bottles carried in the aircraft
c. the auxiliary power unit **
d. a cross-bleed start
17. The air supply for an air start system is:
a. at a relatively low pressure, but high volume **
b. filtered to prevent damage to the starter motor
c. preheated to avoid icing in the starter nozzle guide vanes
d. at a high pressure but low volume
18. The starter motor is disengaged from the engine start system:
a. as soon as the engine lights up
b. just above self-sustaining speed **
c. at 26% HP rpm
d. just below self-sustaining speed
19. In a twin spool engine self-sustaining speed is normally
reached at:
a. 60% N2
b. 60% N1
c. 30% N2 **
d. 30% N1
20. In a twin spool engine the typical idle speeds are:
a. 60% N2 25% N1 **
b. 25% N2 60% N1
c. 40% N2 30% N1
d. 80% N2 45% N1
Answers
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
d c a c b d b d d a c b

13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
b d a c a b c a