TEACHING NOTES

SURFACE TENSION & VISCOSITY

It concern only with liquids, not gases. Since it is a molecular phenomenon so, we need to know what forces
operate between molecules.
a). Adhesive force: Force of attraction b/w molecules of different pair of substances. E.g. gum has greater
adhesive force than water or alcohol.
Example
(i) Two drops of a liquid Two drops of a liquid coalesce into one when brought in mutual contact
because of the cohesive force.
(ii) It is difficult to separate two sticky plates of glass wetted with water because a large force has
to be applied against the cohesive force between the molecules of water.
(iii) It is very difficult to break a drop of mercury into small droplets because of large cohesive
force between mercury molecules.
b). Cohesive force: attraction force b/w molecules of same substances.
" This force is different from gravitational force and doesn't obey Newton's inverse square law. It
varies as 8th power of distance between molecules.
" It is appreciable when the distance between molecules is small and inappreciable when distance
between molecules is large.
" It is greatest in case of solids, less for liquids and least for gases.
Surface tension is interplay of these cohesive and adhesive forces.
Example
(i)Adhesive force enables us to write on the black board with a chalk.
(ii)Adhesive force helps us to write on the paper with ink.
(iii) Large force of adhesion between cement and bricks helps us in construction work.
(iv) Due to force of adhesive, water wets the glass plate.
(v) Fevicol and gum are used in gluing two surfaces together because of adhesive force.

EXPLANATION OF SOME OBSERVED PHENOMENA

1. Lead balls are spherical in shape.
2. Rain drops and a globule of mercury placed on glass plate are spherical.
3. Hair of a shaving brush/painting brush, when dipped in water spread out, but as soon as it is taken out.
Its hair stick together.
4. Similarly, insects can walk on the free surface of water without drowning.
5. Bits of Camphor gum move inregularly when placed on water surface.
6. If we place a greased needle on a blotting paper and put the paper lightly on water, the blotting paper
will soon sink to the bottom, but the needle will keep floating on the surface. Careful observation will
show that there is small depression formed below and around the needle and the free surface of water
is slightly extended. The weight of the needle is balanced by surface tension. This experiment clearly
shows that the liquid surface behaves as though it were covered with an elastic membrane, having a
natural tendencyto contract. (Since the liquid is trying to pull the molecules together). Here, the needle
is pushing on the liquid surface, so the surface tries to push the needle back.

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 B lott ing pap er
n eedle

SURFACE TENSION
Surface Tension is a property of liquid at rest by virtue of which a liquid surface gets contracted to a
minimum area and behaves like a stretched membrane.
Surface Tension of a liquid is measured by force per unit length on either side of any imaginary line
drawn tangentially over the liquid surface, force being normal to the imaginary line as shown in fig. i.e.
Surface tension.

Total force on either of the imginary line (F)

(T) = Length of the line (l )

Unit of Surface Tension

In C. G. S. system the unit of surface tension is dyne/cm (dyne cm–1) and SI system its units is Nm–1
Surface energy
The course of reasoning given below is usuallyfollowed to prove that the molecules of the surface layer
of a liquid have surplus potential energy.A molecule inside the liquid is acted upon by the forces of
attraction from the other molecules which compensate each other on the average. If a molecule is
singled out on the surface, the resulting force of attraction from the other molecule is directed into the
liquid. For thi reason the molecule tends to move into the liquid, and definite work should be done to
bring it to the surface. Therefore, each molecule of the surface layer has excess potential energy equal
to this work. The average force that acts on any molecule from the side of all the others, however, is
always equal to zero if the liquid is in equilibrium. This is why the work done to move the liquid from a
depth to the surface should also be zero. What is the origin, in this case, of the surface energy ?
[Sol. The forces of attraction acting on a molecule in the surface layer from all the other molecules produce
a resultant directed downward. The closest neighbours, however, exert a force of repulsion on the
molecule which is therefore in equilibrium.
Owingto theforces of attraction andrepulsion, the density (1)
of the liquid is smaller in the surface layer than inside.
Indeed, molecule 1 (figure) is acted upon by the force of
repulsion from molecule 2 and the forces of attraction (2)
from all the other molecules (3, 4, ......). Molecule 2 is
acted upon by the forces of repulsion from 3 and 1 and (3)
the forces of attraction from the molecules in the deep (4)
layers. As a result, (5)
distance 1-2 should be greater than 2-3, etc.
(6)
This course of reasoning is quite approximate (thermal motion, etc. is disregarded), but nevertheless it
gives a qualitatively correct result.
An increase in the surface of the liquid causes new sections of the rarefied surface layer to appear.
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 Here work should be performed against the forces of attraction between the molecules. It is this work
that constitutes the surface energy.
We know that the molecules on the liquid surface experience net downward force. So to bring a
molecule from the interior of the liquid to the free surface, some work is required to the done against
the intermolecular force of attraction, which will be stored as potential energy of the molecule on the
surface. The potential energy of surface molecules per unit area of the surface is called surface is called
surface energy. Unit of surface energy is erg cm–2 in C.G..S. system and Jm–2 in SI system. Dimensional
formula of surface energy is [ML°T–2] surface energy depends on number of surfaces e.g. a liquid drop
is having one liquid air surface while bubble is having two liquid air surface.
Relation between surface tension and surface energy
Consider a rectangular frame PQRS of wire, whose arm RS can slide on the arms PR and QS. If this
frame is dipped in a soap solution. then a soap film is produced in the frame PQRS in fig. Due to
surface tension (T), the film exerts a force on the frame (towards the interior of the film). Let l be the
length of the arm RS, then the force acting on the arm RS towards the film is F = T × 2l [Since soap film
has two surfaces, that is way the length is taken twice.]
 work done, W = Fx = 2Tlx
Increase in potential energy of the soap film.
= EA = 2Elx = work done in increasing the area (W)
where E = surface energy of the soap film per unit area.
According the law of conservation of energy, the work done
must be equal to the increase in the potential energy.
W
 2Tlx = 2Elx or T = E =
A
Thus, surface tension is numerically equal to surface energy or work done per unit increase surface area.
Ex. A film of water is formed between two straight parallel wires each 10cm long and at a separation 0.5
cm. Calculate the work required to increase 1mm distance between them. Surface tension of water
72 × 10–3 N/m. Ans: = 1.44 × 10–5
Excess pressure within a curvature [General]:
Imagine a small curvilinear element ABCD of a liquid surface lobe at rest.
ABCD : a small curvilinear rectangular element of the surface
position of ABCD after a displacement normal to the
A'B'C'D' :
surface under the action of excess pressure
x, y : lengths of the sides of the rectangular surface
r1, r2 : radii of curvature of the sides of the rectangle
O1, O2 : Center of radii of curvature of curve AB & BC.
z : virtual displacement
p : excess pressure
WD in displacing the curvature from ABCD to A’B’C’D’ = T*increase in surface area.
(p x y ) z  T   x  x  y  y   x y 
D’

y + y z C’
 1 y 1 x 
 p  T       (1) D
x + x
 y z x z  A’ B’ C
y
Consider the triangle OAB & OA’B’ x
A B
x  x r1  z 1 x 1
      (2) r1 r2
x r1 x z r1
1 1  O2
Thus, p  T    : Surface pressure
 r1 r2  O1

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 1 1 
Excess pressure: p  T    : [general]
 r1 r2 
2T
Drop and air bubble: Pi  Po 
R
4T
Soap bubble: Pi  Po 
R
T
Straight Cylinder: p
r
1 1 
Tablet: p T   
r R
1 1 
Inverse tablet: p T   
r R
1 1
Catenoid:  0
r1 r2

h R
r
y A po
l po
B
d

Ex. A mercurydrop of radius 1 cm is sprayed into 106 droplets of equal size. Calculate the energyexpanded
if surface tension of mercury is 35 × 10–3 N/m.
Ans. W = 4R2T (n)1/3 – 1

Ex. If a number of little droplets of water, each of radius r, coalesce to form a single drop of radius R, show
that the rise in temperature will be given by
3T  1 1 
  
J r R
where T is the surface tension of water and J is the mechanical equivalent of heat.

Ex. A charged bubble : If bubble is charged, it’s radius increases. Bubble has pressure excess due to
charge too. Initially pressure inside the bubble
4T
= pa + r
1

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 4T 2
for charge bubble, pressure inside = pa + r – , where  surface is surface charge density..
2 2 0
Taking temperature remains constant, then from Boyle’s law
 4T  4  4T 2  4
 p a   r 3 = p a   
2 0  3 r2
3
 r1  3 1  r2
From above expression the radius of charged drop may be calculated. It can conclude that radius of
charged bubble increases, i.e. r2 > r1.

Ex. Aminute spherical air bubble is rising slowlythrough a column of mercurycontained in a deep jar. If the
radius of the bubble at a depth of 100cm is 0.1 mm, calculate its depth where its radius is 0.126 mm,
given that the surface tension of mercury is 567 dyne/cm. Assume that the atmospheric pressure is
76cm of mercury.
Ans. h2 = 9.48 cm.

ANGLE OFCONTACT
The angle which the tangent to the liquid surface at the point of contact makes with the solid surface
inside the liquid is called angle of contact. Those liquids which we the wall of the container (say in case
of water and glass) have meniscus concave upwards and their value of angle of contact is less than 90°
(also called acute angle). However, those liquids which don’t wet the walls of the container (say in case
of mercury and glass) have meniscus convex upwards and their value of angle of contact is greater than
90° (also called obtuse angle). The angle of contact of mercury with glass about 140°, whereas the
angle of contact of water with glass is about 8°. But, for pure water, the angle of contact  with glass is
taken as 0°.

Ex. A ring is cut form a platinum tube of 8.5 cm internal and 8.7 cm external diameter. It is supported
horizontally from a pan of a balance so that it comes in contact with the water in a glass vessel. What
is the surface tension of water if an extra 3.97 g weight is required to pull it away from water?
(g = 980 cm/s2).
Ans. 72.13 dyne/cm

EXCESS OF PRESSURE INSIDE A CURVED SURFACE

A. Plane surface : If the surface of the liquid is plane [as shown in fig. (a)], the molecule on the liquid
surface is attracted equally in all directions. The resultant force due to surface tension is zero. The
pressure, therefore on the liquid surface is normal.
B. Concave surface : If the surface is concave upward [as shown in fig. (b)], there will be upward
resultant force due to surface tension acting on the molecule. Since the molecule on the surface is in
equilibrium, there must be an excess of pressure on the concave side in the downward direction to
2T
balance the resultant force of surface tension pA – pB = .
r Page-5
C. Convex surface : If the surface is convex [as shown fig.(c)], the resultant force due to surface tension
acts in the downward direction. Since the molecule on the surface are in equilibrium, there must be an
excess of pressure on the concave side of the surface acting in the upward direction to balance the
downward resultant force of surface tension. Hence there is always in excess of pressure on concave
side of a curved surface over that on the convex side.
2T
pB – pA =
r
Ex. A barometer contains two uniform capillaries of radii 1.44 × 10–3 m and 7.2 × 10–4 m. if the height of
the liquid in the tube is 0.2m more than that in the wide tube, calculate the true pressure difference.
Density of liquid = 103 kg/m3, surface tension = 72 × 10–3 N/m and g = 9.8 m/s2.
Ans. 1860 N/m2

Capillarity
A glass tube of very fine bore throughout the length of the tube is called capillary tube. If the capillary
tube is dipped in water, the water wets the inner side of the tube and rises in it [shown in figure (a)]. If
the same capillary tube is dipped in the mercury, then the mercury is depressed [shown in figure (b)].
The phenomenon of rise or fall of liquids in a capillary tube is called capillarity.

Particle applications of capillarity

1. The oil in a lamp rises in the wick by capillary action.
2. The tip of nib of a pen is split up, to make a narrow capillary so that the ink rises upto the tin or nib
continuously.
3. Sap and water rise upto the top of the leaves of the tree by capillary action.
4. If one end of the towel dips into a bucket of water and the Other end hangs over the bucket the towel
soon becomes wet throughout due to capillary action.
5. Ink is absorbed by the blotter due to capillary action.
6. Sandy soil is more dry than clay. It is because the capillaries between sand particles are not so fine as
to draw the water up by capillaries.
7. The moisture rises in the capillaries of soil to the surface, where it evaporates. To preserve the moisture
m the soil, capillaries must be broken up. This is done by ploughing and leveling the fields.
8. Bricks are porous and behave like capillaries.
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Capillary rise (height of a liquid in a capillary tube) ascent formula
consider the liquid which wets the wall of the tube, forms a concave
meniscus shown in figure. Consider a capillary tube of radius r dipped
in a liquid of surface tension T and density p. Let h be the height
through which the liquid rises in the tube. Let p be the pressure on the
concave side of the meniscus and pa be the pressure on the convex
side of the meniscus. The excess pressure
2T
(p – pa) is given by (p – pa) =
R

Where R is the radius of the meniscus. Due to this excess pressure, the liquid will rise in the capillary
tube till it becomes equal to the hydrostatic pressure hpg. Thus in equilibrium state.
2T
Excess pressure = Hydrostatic pressure or = hpg
R
Let  be the angle of contact and r be the radius of the capillary tube shown in the fig.
OC r 2T cos 
From OAC, = cos  or R = cos   h =
OA rg
The expression is calledAscent formula.
Discussion.
(i) For liquids which wet the glass tube or capillary tube, angle of contact  < 90º. Hence cos  = positive
 h = positive. It means that these liquids rise in the capillary tube. Hence, the liquids which wet
capillary tube rise in the capillary tube. For example, water milk, kerosene oil, patrol etc.

(ii) For liquids which do not wet the glass tube or capillary tube, angle of
contact  > 90º. Hence cos  = negative  n = negative. Hence, the
liquids which do not wet capillary tube are depressed in the capillary
tube. For example, mercury.

1
(iii) T,  and g are constant and hence h  . Thus, the liquid rises more in a narrow tube and less in a
r
wider tube. This is called Jurin’s Law.
(iv) If two parallel plates with the spacing ‘d’are placed in water reservoir,
then height of rise
 3Tl = lhdg
2T
h=
dg

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(v) If two concentric tube of radius ‘r1’ and ‘r2’ (inner one is solid) are
placed in water reservoir, then height of rise
 T [2r1 + 2r2] = [r22h – r12h] g
2T
h = (r  r )g
2 1

(vi) If weight of the liquid in the menscus is to be consider :

1 2
T cos  × 2r = [r2h + r × r12h] g
3
 r 2T cos 
h  3  = rg
 

(vii) When capillarytube (radius, ‘r’) is in vertical position, the upper meniscus is concave and pressure due
to surface tension is directed vertically upward and is given by p1 = 2T / R1 where R1 = radius of
curvature of upper meniscus.

The hydrostatic pressure p2 = hg is always directed downwards.

If p1 > p2 i.e. resulting pressure is directed upward. For equilibrium, the pressure due to lower meniscus
should be downward. This makes lower meniscus concave downward (fig. (a)). The radius of lower
2T
meniscus R2 can be given by R = (p1 – p2).
2
If p1 < p2 i.e. resulting pressure is directed downward for equilibrium, the pressure due to lower
meniscus should be upward. This makes lower meniscus convex upward (fig. b).
2T
The radius of lower meniscus can be given by R = p2 – p1.
2

2T
If p1 = p2, then is no resulting pressure, then p1 – p2 = R = 0 or R2 =  i.e. lower surface will be
2
FLAT. (fig.c).

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(viii) Liquid between two plates : When a small drop of water
is placed between two glass plates put face to face, it forms
a thin film which is concave outward along its boundary.
Let ‘R’ and ‘r’ be the radii of curvature of the enclosed
filmin
two perpendicular directions.

Hence the pressure inside the film is less than the atmospheric pressure outside it by an amount p given
1 1  T
by p = T    and we have, p = .
r r  r
If d be the distance between the two plates and  the angle of contact for water and glass, then, from

d 1 2 cos 
the figure, cos  = 2 or = .
r r d

1 2T
Substituting for in, we get p = cos .
r d
 can be taken zero water and glass, i.e. cos  = 1. Thus the upper plate is pressed downward by the
2T
atmospheric pressure minus . Hence the resultant downward pressure acting on the upper plate is
d
2T
. If A be the are of the plate wetted by the film, the resultant force F pressing the upper plate
d
2TA
downward is given by F = resultant pressure × area = . For very nearly plane surface, d will be
d
very small and hence the pressing force F very large. Therefore it will be difficult to separate the two
plates normally.

Ex. A liquid of specific gravity 1.5 is observed to rise 3.0 cm in a capillary tube of diameter 0.50 mm and
the liquid wets the surface of the tube. Calculate th excess pressure inside a spherical bubble of 1.0 cm
diameter blown from the same liquid.Angle of contact = 0°.
Ans. 440 dyne/cm2.

Ex. A drop of water volume 0.05 cm3 is pressed between two glass-plates, as a consequence of which, it
spreads and occupies an area of 40 cm2. If the surface tension of water is 70 dyne/cm, find the normal
force required to separate out the two glass plates in newton.
Ans. 45 N

Ex. A glass plate of length 10cm, breadth 1.54 cm and thickness 0.20 cm weigh 8.2 gm in air. It is held
vertically with the long side horizontal and the lower half under water. Find the apparent weight of the
plate. Surface tension of water 73 dyne per cm, g = 980 cm/sec2.
Ans. 8.1796 gm

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Ex. A glass tube of circular cross-section is closed at one end. This end is weighted and the tube floats
vertically in water, heavy end down. How far below the water surface is the end of the tube? Give :
Outer radius of the tube 0.14 cm, mass of weighted tube 0.2 gm, surface tension os water 73 dyne/cm
and g = 980 cm/sec2.
Ans. 4.31 cm.

Ex. A glass U-tube is such that the diametre of one limb is 3.0 mm and that of the other is 6.00 mm. The
tube is inverted vertically with the open ends below the surface of water in a beaker. What is the
difference between the heights to which water rises in the two limbs? Surface tension of water is 0.07
nm–1. Assume that the angle of contact between water and glass is 0°.
Ans. 4.76 mm

Ex. Two narrow bores of diameters 3.0 mm and 6.0 mm are joined together to form a U-shaped tube
open at both ends. If the U-tube contains water, what is the difference in its levels in the two limbs of
the tube? Surface tension of water at the temperature of the experiment is 7.3 × 10–2 Nm–1. Take the
angle of contact to be zero.
Ans. 5.0 mm.

Capillary rise in a tube of insufficient length

We know,the height through whicha liquid rises inthecapillary
tube of radius r is given by
2T 2T
 h= or h R = = constant
Rg g
When the capillary tube is cut and its length is less then h (i.e.
h). then the liquid rises upto the top of the tube and spreads
in such a way that the radius (R) of the liquid meniscus
increases and it becomes more flat so that hR = hR =
Constant. Hence the liquid does not overflow.
r r
If h < h then R > R or cos  > cos 
 cos  < cos    > 

Ex. If a 5cm long capillary tube with 0.1 mm internal diameter open at both ends is slightly dipped in water
having surface tension 75 dyne cm–1, state whether (i) water will rise half wayin the capillary. (ii) Water
will rise up to the upper end of capillary (iii) What will overflow out of the upper end of capillary.
Explain your answer.
Ans. 0.0306 cm
Applications of surface tension
(i) The wetting property is made use of in detergents and waterproofing. When the detergent materials
are added to liquids, the angle of contact decreases and hence the wettability increases. On the other
hand, when water proofing material is added to a fabric, it increases the angle of contact, making the
fabric water-repellant.
(ii) The antiseptics have very low value of surface tension. The low value of surface tension prevents the
formation of drops that may otherwise block the entrance to skin or a wound. Due to low surface
tension the antiseptics spreads properly over the wound. The lubricating oils and paints also have low
surface tension. So they can spread properly.
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(iii) Surface tension of all lubricating oils and paints is kept low so that they spread over a large area.
(iv) Oil spreads over the surface of water because the surface tension of oil is less than the surface tension
of cold water.
(v) A rough sea can be calmed by pouring oil on its surface.

Effect of temperature and impurities on surface tension

The surface tension of a liquid decreases with the rise in temperature and vice versa. According to
n
  
Ferguson, T = T0 1   where T0 is surface tension at 0°C,  is absolute temperature of the liquid,
 C 
C is the critical temperature and n is a constant varies slightly from liquid and has means value 1.21.
This formula shows that the surface tension becomes zero at the critical temperature, where the while
machinery parts get jammed in winter.
The surface tension of a liquid change appreciably with addition of impurities. For example, surface
tension of water increases with addition of highly soluble substances like NaCl, ZnSO4 etc. On the
other hand surface tension of water gets reduced with addition of sparingly soluble substances like
phenol, soap etc.

VISCOSITY
When a layer of a fluid slips or tens to slip on another layer in contact, the two layers exert tangential
forces on each other. The directions are such that the relative motion between the layers is opposed.
this property of a fluid to oppose relative motion between its layers is called viscosity. The forces
between the layers opposing relative motion between them are known as the forces of viscosity. Thus,
viscosity may be thought of as the internal friction of a fluid in motion.
If a solid surface is kept in contact with a fluid and is moved, forces of viscosity appear between the
solid surface and the fluid layer in contact. the fluid in contact is dragged with the solid. If the viscosity
is sufficient, the layer moves with the solid and there is no relative slipping. When a boat moves slowly
on the water of a calm river, the water in contact with the boat is dragged with it, whereas the water in
contact with the bed of the river remains at rest. Velocities of different layers are different. Let v be the
velocity of the layer at a distance z from the bed and v +dv be the velocity at a distance z +dz (figure).

v+dv
dz
v

Thus, the velocity differs by dv in going through a distance dz perpendicular to it. The quantity dv/dz
is called the velocity gradient.
The force of viscosity between two layers of a fluid is proportional to the velocity gradient in the
direction perpendicular to the layers. Also the force is proportional to the area of the layer.

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 Thus, if F is the force exerted by a layer of area A on a layer in contact,
F  A and F  dv/dz
or, F = –  A dv/dz
The negative sign is included as the force is frictional in nature and opposes relative motion. The
constant of proportionality  is called the coefficient of viscosity.
The SIunit of viscositycan beeasilyworked out from equation. It is N-s/m2 . However, the corresponding
CGS unit dyne-s/cm2 is in common use and is called a poise in honour of the French scientist Poiseuille.
We have
1 poise = 0.1 N-s/m2
Ex. A metal plate of surface area 0.01 m2 is placed on a layer of benzene of thickness 0.1 mm. In order to
move the plate horizontally with a velocity of 1 m/s, find the force to be applied.
Ans: 0.065 N

Ex. The velocity of water in a river is 18 km/hr near the surface. If the river is 5 m deep, find the shearing
stress between the horizontal layers of water.
Ans: 10–3 N/m2

Ex. A large wooden plate of area 10 m2 floating on the surface of a river is made to move horizontally with
a speed of 2 m/s byapplying a tangential force. If the river is 1 m deep and the water in contact with the
bed is stationary, find the tangential force needed to keep the plate moving. Coefficient of viscosity of
water at the temperature of the river = 10–2 poise.

Ans. 0.02 N.

Ex. The velocity of water in a river is 18 km/hr near the surface. If the river is 5 m deep, find the shearing
stress between the horizontal layers of water. The coefficient of viscosity of water = 10–2 poise.
Ans. 10–3 N/m2

1. A block of weight W slides

down an inclined plane while
lubricated by a thin film of
oil, as in figure. The film
contact area is A & its
thickness is h. Assuming a
linear velocity distribution in
the film, derive an expression
for the “terminal” velocity v
of the block. Also find the
velocity of the block as a function of time.
Ans: v  W sin  .h /  A

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Stokes law:
The viscous force on a spherical body of radius ‘r’ moving with velocity
‘v’ through a long column of highly fluid of viscosity  is given by:
r r
F  6   r v (do not confuse with air drag: F  k v 2 )
i.e. when a spherical body falls, the force acting on it are:
 Viscous force: (upwards)
 Buoyancy due to air: (upwards)
 Air drag: (upwards)
 Gravitational force: (downwards)
Gradually the velocity increases, and with that also increases the viscous
force & air drag (since they are also the function of velocity). Thus after
some time the net force acting on the body is zero. Thus the body acquires
a constant terminal velocity.

Spherical ball of radius r & density  falling in a fluid having density 

4 4 dv
 r 3 g       6  r v   r 3 
3 3 dt
   9 dv 2   g r2
 g 1   2 v   Terminal velocity, v o 
   2r  dt 9
dv
   v  B F
dt
  dv 
    dt  
  v 
   t  ln    v   c mg
a

At t  0, v  0  c  ln 
9 9
2      g r 2      

 
t t
v  1 e  t
 1e 2r 2    v 1  e 2r 2  
 9   o
 
   

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