Answers

Providing answers for a writing course is less clear-

cut than for other language areas. In some exercises
there is only one possible answer, but in other cases
several possibilities exist. Teachers need to use
common sense, and accept any reasonable answer. In
the case of exercises where students can choose their
own topic and it is therefore impossible to provide an
answer, students still appreciate having an example
answer, and so some have been included.
Academic writing quiz

1. b (see Unit 1.2)

2. c (see Unit 1.1)

3. a (see Unit 1.4)

4. c (see Unit 1.11)

5. b (see Unit 1.3)

6. c (see Unit 1.5)

7. a (see Unit 1.8)

8. b (see Unit 1.6)

9. c (see Unit 1.10)

10. a (see Unit 1.11)

11. b (see Unit 1.12)

12. c (see Unit 1.2)

Academic writing quiz

1. b (see Unit 1.2) 2. c (see Unit 1.1) 3. a (see Unit 1.4) 4. c (see Unit 1.11)
5. b (see Unit 1.3) 6. c (see Unit 1.5) 7. a (see Unit 1.8) 8. b (see Unit 1.6)
Answers: Part 1
9. c (see Unit 1.10) 10. a (see Unit 1.11) 11. b (see Unit 1.12) 12. c (see Unit 1.2)
1.1 Background to writing

1 The purpose of academic writing

Other reasons might include:
• to present a hypothesis for consideration by others
• to make notes on something read or heard
Possibilities include:
• semi-formal vocabulary, lack of idioms
• use of citation/ references
• normally impersonal style
• use of both passive and active

2 Common types of academic writing

Notes – A written record of the main points of a text or lecture, for a student’s
personal use.

Report – A description of something a student has done, e.g. conducting a

survey.

Project – A piece of research, either individual or group work, with the topic
chosen by the student(s).

Essay – The most common type of written work, with the title given by the
teacher, normally 1000–5000 words.

Dissertation/ Thesis – The longest piece of writing normally done by a

student (20,000+ words) often for a higher degree, on a topic chosen by the
student.

Paper – A general term for any academic essay, report, presentation or article.
3 The format of long and short writing tasks
(a) abstract

(b) references

(c) appendix

(d) acknowledgements

(e) literature review

(f) case study

4 The features of academic writing

(a) title

(b) sub-title

(c) heading

(d) sentence

(e) phrase

(f) paragraph

6 Simple and complex sentences

(Example sentences)

(a) In 2007 the company produced nearly 165,000 vehicles.

(b) Vehicle production fell in 2008.

(c) In 2009 fewer vehicles were made than in the four previous years.

(d) Between 2005 and 2009 vehicle production peaked in 2007, when the
number reached 164,000.
7 Writing in paragraphs
See Unit 1.10. Organising paragraphs 1 for initial questions

para 2 begins: But a new use for charcoal …

para 3 begins: The other benefit of biochar …

para 4 begins: But other agricultural …

1.2A Reading: finding suitable sources

1 Academic texts

Text 1 – yes – it summarises some relevant research, and includes citations

Text 2 – no – apparently an informal personal report

Text 3 – possibly – appears to be a newspaper article but includes relevant

information

Text 4 – yes – an academic article with citations

Possible answers:
Feature Example

1 Formal vocabulary
… the marketing planning process in tourism marketing…

… the extent of political-economic dependency…

2 Use of references (Buckley and Witt, 1990; Hall, 1991)

3 Impersonal style
… it has also long been recognised that…
 … it is important to study the tourists’ attitude.
4 Long, complex sentences Equally, from a political perspective, the nature of state involvement in and
policies for tourism is dependent on both the political-economic structures
and the prevailing political ideology in the destination state, with
comparisons typically made between market-led and centrally planned
economies.

2 Types of text
Possible answers:
Text type Advantage Disadvantage

Textbook Written for students May be too general

Website Usually up-to-date Possibly unreliable or unedited

Journal article Often focuses on a special area May be too specialised or complex

Official report (from government) Contains a lot of detail May have a narrow focus

Newspaper or magazine article Easy to read and up-to-date May not be objective and not give
sources

e-books Easily accessible Must be read on screen

4 Using library catalogues

Titles 2 and 5 are up-to-date and appear to be general introductions. Titles 1, 3
and 6 are more localised and specialised.

1.2B Reading: developing critical approaches

1 Reading methods

Choosing suitable texts

Look at title and

sub-title
 Survey text features (e.g.
abstract, contents, index)

Skim text for gist – is it Scan text for

relevant? information you need
(e.g. names)

Read extensively when

useful sections are
found

Read intensively to
make notes on key
points

Possible answers:

text genre recognition

dealing with new vocabulary

3 Reading abstracts

(a) Background position – A growing chorus of scholars … American

democracy.

(b) Aim and thesis of article – This article questions … engaged citizenship.

(c) Method of research – Using data from … political participation.

(d) Results of research – Rather than the erosion … in America.

4 Fact and opinion

Fact Opinion
1 Smoking can be dangerous to health Fact

2 Smoking is addictive Fact

3 Smoking should be banned Opinion

4 Smoking is dangerous so it should be banned Fact Opinion

Fact or opinion?
Facts – true Opinions –
or false? agree or
disagree?

1 Britain has the highest crime rate in the world Fact False

2 In Britain, hundreds of crimes are committed Fact True

every day

3 Many criminals are never caught Fact True

4 The police are inefficient Opinion ?

5 The police should be abolished Opinion ?

6 Practice
(a)
1 Probably unreliable. The adjectives used (easily, quickly) and the lack of concrete information
suggest that this text is not to be trusted. In addition, commonsense should suggest that you
cannot legally earn hundreds of pounds in a few hours.

2 Probably reliable. The advice the writer is giving appears commonsense, although not everyone
might agree with all of it (e.g. cooking is fun).

3 Probably reliable. The facts given can be confirmed by students’ own experience.

(b)

Positive aspects: Contains some relevant ideas. The studies mentioned could be
followed up using a search engine.

Negative aspects: Rather superficial and informal in style. No citations.

7 Critical thinking
The responses to these questions will vary from student to student, which is the
nature of the critical approach.

1.3 Avoiding plagiarism

3 Degrees of plagiarism
(1) Y

(2) Y

(3) Y

(4) N

(5) Y

(6) N

(7) Y

(8) N

(9) Y/N

(10) Y

4 Avoiding plagiarism by summarising and paraphrasing

(a) acceptable – a correctly referenced summary

(b) plagiarised – original wording with minor changes to word

order
(c) acceptable – a correctly referenced quotation

(d) technically plagiarism – mistake in date means the citation is

incorrect

(e) plagiarised – some original wording and no citation

5 Avoiding plagiarism by developing good study habits

(Possible further suggestions)
• check that your quotations are exactly the same wording as the original
• when paraphrasing, alter the structure as well as the vocabulary

1.4 From understanding titles to planning

2 Analysing essay titles

Analyse – break down into the various parts and their relationships

Assess – decide the worth or value of a subject

Describe – give a detailed account of something

Discuss – look at various aspects of a topic, compare benefits and drawbacks

Examine – divide into sections and discuss each critically

Illustrate – give examples

Outline – give a simple, basic account of the main points of a topic

State – explain a topic briefly and clearly

Suggest – make a proposal and support it

Summarise – deal with a complex topic by reducing it to the main elements

(NB. `summarise’ and `outline’ are very similar)

3 Practice
(a) How/ why/ what

Asking for a description of the process of and reasons for segmentation, and
analysis of the social and economic forces involved.

(b) Describe

List the most likely causes of this situation.

(c) How

Explain the ways psychology can help to cut down the incidence of bullying.

(d) Is/ Should

Consider whether criminal law is becoming more subjective, and discuss the
desirability of this trend.

(e) Discuss/ indicating

Describe how earthquakes affect different types of structures with reference to

the soil characteristics, and explain how the structures can be made more
resilient.

4 Brainstorming
Possible benefits

Young children more open, less inhibited

They appear to have better memories

May improve understanding of their own language

Possible drawbacks
Young children may not understand the necessary grammar

They may not grasp the cultural context of a second language

5 Essay length
(NB. These figures are only a guide and individual students may have a
different approach).

(a) Describe/ How

Approximately 50:50

(b) How/ Illustrate

Approximately 40:60

(c) Outline/ Suggest

Approximately 50:50

(d) What/ how

Approximately 30:70

6 Outlines
(b)

(i) Lists can help develop a logical structure and make it easier to allocate space,
but are rather inflexible.

Mind maps are more flexible as extra items can be added easily.

(ii) Possible list outline:

Reducing harmful impacts

limit numbers of visitors

keep visitors in limited area

control new developments carefully

provide new infrastructure e.g. roads of value to all

give locals opportunity to start new businesses

1.5 Finding key points and note-making

1 Why make notes?

(a) to prepare for essay writing

(b) to avoid plagiarism

(c) to keep a record of reading/ lectures

(d) to revise for exams

(e) to help remember main points

2 Note-making methods
The notes are paraphrased, not copied from the text. The source is included.

3 Finding key points

(Example titles)

Marketing to the older generation

Selling to retired people

An ageing market

Key points:

(a) The generation born after the second world war, sometimes called the baby-
boomers, are now reaching retirement age, and businesses are starting to realise
that they are a wealthier market than any previous retirement group.
(b) There are, however, certain difficulties in selling to this market. Some
customers resent being addressed as `old’ since they see themselves as more
youthful, while there is a huge variation in the profile of the baby boomers.

4. Finding relevant points

Key points:

1 Currently over two-thirds of Americans are believed to be either overweight

or obese, but recently it has been discovered that the situation may have
stabilised.

2 This trend may have important consequences for the healthcare system:
according to a recent study (Finkelstein et al., 2009) an obese American is likely
to cost the system over 40 per cent more than someone with normal weight.

3 … but medical researchers still struggle to understand the basic causes of the

problem, which is that obesity in America is now three times greater than 50
years ago.

4 … those with irregular and badly paid employment are more likely to eat

what is convenient and tasty…

Another possibility is that food is now cheaper relative to income …

… fewer calories are used in doing domestic chores around the house …
5 Although Americans often dislike being told what to do by their government,
these campaigns may be finally having an effect.

6 Practice A
(Example notes)
Source: (Herapath, T. (2010) Journal of Transatlantic Contexts 14, p. 319)

Have Americans stopped getting fatter?

(1) 2/3 Americans overweight, but lately growth in obesity seems to have
stopped

(2) may reduce future healthcare costs (obesity adds 40 per cent to medical

expenses – Finkelstein et al., 2009)

(3) no agreement on reasons for obesity in US

(4) three possible causes: (a) more people have disorganised lives (b) food has
become cheaper (c) people do less physical work

(5) new trend may be result of govt. action on food labelling and children’s diets

7 Practice B
(Example notes)

Source: (Kitschelt, P. (2006) How the Brain Works. Berlin: Freihaus p. 73)

The brain and the memory process

OPEN BOX: UNDERLINE HEADING
1) Siesta can help improve memory > learning
‘THE BRAIN AND THE MEMORY ...’
2) New memories > hippocampus (short term) > Pre-frontal cortex (long-term)

3) Process happens during Stage 2 sleep

The
4) brain
Univ. andteam
Calif. the memory process
researched process:

• 2 groups: a) stayed awake b) had siesta

• group
(1) Siesta can b) performed
help improve better
memory at memory tasks in evening
> learning

1.6 Paraphrasing
2 Practice A – The causes of the industrial revolution
a Quite good, but lack of precision (at that time) and unsuitable register (bosses).

b The best paraphrase, with all main points included and a significantly different structure.

c A poor paraphrase, with only a few words changed and extra and inaccurate information added

(Britain was the only country …).

4 Practice B
(A number of possibilities are acceptable here. These are suggestions)

(a)

(ii) It started in France and Germany, but accelerated in the United

States.

(iii) There Henry Ford modified the moving assembly line from the
Chicago meat industry to car manufacturing, thereby inventing mass
production.

(b)

(ii) After the second world war the focus of car makers was on the
style of their products, to encourage more frequent model changes.

(iii) From the 1970s the industry was criticised for its inefficient
vehicles which wasted petrol.

(c)

(ii) Some of the most famous brands in the world are today owned by
the industry.

(iii) Currently, saturated markets and increased competition threaten

many car makers.

(d) (Example paraphrase)

The expansion of contemporary capitalism matches the rise of the automobile
industry. After starting in Germany and France, it accelerated in the United
States. There the moving assembly line was modified by Henry Ford from the
Chicago meat industry to manufacturing cars; thereby inventing mass
production. General Motors dominated the world’s car companies in the 1920s,
with help from the managerial theories of Alfred Sloan. After the second world
war the focus of car makers was on the style of their products, to encourage
more frequent model changes. From the 1970s the industry was criticised for its
inefficient vehicles which wasted petrol. At this time increasingly militant
trades unions defended their members’ jobs. Some of the most famous brands
in the world are today owned by the industry, although currently saturated
markets and increased competition threaten many car makers.

5 Practice C – The past below the waves

(Example answer)

Archaeologists can learn about multiple aspects of historic societies by studying

shipwrecks, but most of the millions lying on the ocean floor are too deep for
divers to examine. They can only work above 50 metres; restricting them to
coastal wrecks which are more likely to have been disturbed. Research in mid-
ocean has required expensive submarines with their support vessels, limiting
the number of wrecks that can be explored. But this may change due to the
latest craft, called an automatic underwater vehicle or AUV. Not requiring a
support ship and operating independently, this will be used by an American
team to examine part of the seabed off the Egyptian Mediterranean coast close
to the site of a Bronze Age harbour.

1.7 Summarising

1 What makes a good summary?

A good summary requires:

selection of most important aspects/ clear description/ accuracy

2 Stages of summarising
(c)

(d)

(b)

(a)

(e)

3. Practice A – Mechanical pickers

1 = a (contains all key points)

2 = c (includes unnecessary examples)

3 = b (includes information not in original, e.g. increase profits and fails to

describe the machines)

4 Practice B – Wealth and fertility

(Example answers)

(a) Falling levels of fertility have generally been found as countries become
richer.

(b) In some, number of children born fell below replacement rate.

(c) Two results: smaller populations and larger numbers of elderly needing
assistance.

(d) Recent research claims that a new situation may be developing.

(e) Comparison of HDI (human development index: life expectancy, income
and education) with fertility found that in most highly rated (+0.9) countries,
fertility is rising.

Example summary 1

The growing family?

Falling levels of fertility have generally been found as countries become richer.
In some, the number of children born has fallen below the replacement rate.
There are two likely results: smaller populations and larger numbers of elderly
needing assistance. But recent research claims that this pattern may be
changing. A comparison of HDI (human development index: life expectancy,
income and education) with fertility found that in most highly rated (HDI +0.9)
countries, fertility is rising.

(Example summary 2)

Research suggests that the long-term decline in human fertility may be

reversing in some of the most advanced societies.

5 Practice C – The last word in lavatories?

(Example summary)

The Washlet is an expensive lavatory which is popular in Japan, with a range of

special features. Its maker, the Toto company, is hoping to expand sales in the
West, but different regulations about toilet design and electrical fittings make
this a challenging goal.

1.8 References and quotations

1Why use references?

(a) N
(b) Y

(c) Y

(d) N

(e) Y

(f) N

2 Citations and references

Smith (2009) argues that the popularity of the Sports Utility Vehicle (SUV) is
irrational, as despite their high cost most are never driven off-road. In his view
`they are bad for road safety, the environment and road congestion’ (Smith,
2009: 37).

The first is a summary, the second a quotation.

A summary allows the writer to condense ideas, while a quotation uses the
words of the original author, which have authenticity and may be difficult to
improve.

6 Practice
(Example answers)

(a) According to Hoffman (2009) mobile phones have had a powerful impact in
the developing world as they offer previously unavailable services, and have
led to the growth of new, focused local operators.

(b) Hoffman points out that the special conditions in the developing world have
produced new phone operators: `that are larger and more flexible than Western

companies, and which have grown by catering for poorer customers …’

(Hoffman 2009: 87).

(c) Hoffman (2009) argues that the impact of mobile telephony on developing
countries is significant as they offer services previously unavailable, and has led
to the growth of new local operators which: `are larger and more flexible than
Western companies, and which have grown by catering for poorer

customers…’ (Hoffman 2009: 87).

8 Organising the list of references

(a)

(i) Dörnyei

(ii) Bialystock/ Larson-Hall

(iii) Flege

(iv) Myles

(v) The International Commission on Second Language Acquisition

(vi) Gass and Selinker

(b)

(i) Author/ Date/ Title/ Place of publication/ Publisher

(ii) Author(s)/ Date/ Article title/ Journal title/ Volume number/

Page numbers

(iii) Author/ Date/ Chapter title/ Editor(s)/ Book title/ Place of

publication/ Publisher

(iv) Author/ Title/ Name of website/ URL/ Date of access

(v) Name of website/ Article title/ URL/ Access date

(vi) Authors/ Date/ Title/ Place of publication/ Publisher

(c) For book and journal titles

(d) For titles of books and journals (not articles)

(e) Under the name of the organisation or title of the publication

(f)

(i) Bialystock, 1997

(ii) Dörnyei, 2009

(iii) Flege, 1999

(iv) Gass and Selinker, 2001

(v) Larson-Hall, 2008

(vi) Myles, nd

(vii) The International Commission on Second Language Acquisition,

nd

1.9 Combining sources

1 Mentioning sources
(a) 6

(b) The level of technology anxiety

(c) Venkatesh

(d) Mick and Fournier

(e) 2

2 Taking a critical approach

(a) (Example answers)
Summary Original

… steps should be taken … such as carbon … it can be expected that … burning of fossil
dioxide. fuels.
she mentions evidence of … levels of CO2 Some critics claim … unrelated to CO2 levels.

(b) puts forward/ maintains/ presents/mentions/ discusses/ considers

(c) However

(d) But/ on the other hand

3 Combining three sources

(Example answer)

Additionally, Lahav (2010) raises the issue of the computer models which are
used to predict future climate, and argues that these may be unreliable
instruments for making critical decisions. He points out that climate-change
critics suggest that, given the uncertainty involved, it might be better to allocate
resources to social improvements rather than green technology.

1.10 Organising paragraphs

1 Paragraph structure
The answers are found below the table in (2).

3 Practice A
(a)
Topic sentence

Example

Reason

Supporting point 1

Supporting point 2
Supporting point 3

(b) for example/ It is widely believed/ In addition/ But above all

(c) Despite this

4 Development of ideas
(a)
Topic sentence iii

Definition i

Result 1 vi

Result 2 v

Result 3 iv

Conclusion ii

(b) All these claims

(c) These/ but/ When this/ Others/ in other words/ Even

6 Practice B
(Example answer)

(a)
1 Topic It has been argued that rises in the rate of home ownership can increase the rate of
unemployment.

2 Reason This is because home ownership appears to make people more reluctant to move
in order to find work.

3 Example Spain is an example of a country where high rates of home ownership coincide
with high unemployment, while Switzerland demonstrates the opposite.

4 Argument This theory, however, remains controversial.

5 Conclusion It is clear that other factors, such as the liquidity of the housing market, must play
a role in the relationship.
(b)
1 This theory was lent support by the performance of the housing market in US states such as California

and Florida during the recession of 2007 9.–

2 These states had all experienced a major housing boom during the 1990s.

3 But after the start of the recession the rate of house moving declined steeply.

4It appears that one factor in this slowdown was the number of households in negative equity.

5 Having negative equity means that a house would be sold at a loss.

6 Therefore a recession may be deepened if labour becomes more static, as a result of high home
ownership rates.

1.11 Introductions and Conclusions

1 Introduction contents
(a)
Y/N

(i) A definition of any unfamiliar terms in the title Y

(ii) Your opinions on the subject of the essay N

(iii) Mention of some sources you have read on the topic Y

(iv) A provocative idea or question to interest the reader N

(v) Your aim or purpose in writing Y

(vi) The method you adopt to answer the question (or an outline) Y

(vii) Some brief background to the topic Y

(viii) Any limitations you set yourself Y

(b)

(i) Background
(ii) Outline

(iii) Purpose

(iv) Mention of sources

(v) Definition

(vi) Limitation

2 Introduction structure
Essential: Your purpose/ Your method/ Background/ Outline

Optional: Definitions/ A mention of some sources/ Limitations

3 Opening sentences
(Example answers)

(a) In recent years there has been a steady criticism of the lack of women in
senior management.

(b) In the past decade global warming or climate change has become one of the
most pressing issues on the international agenda.

(c) There has been some decline in rates of infant mortality in the developing
world over the last 20 years, but in many countries progress has been slow.

(d) Rapid internal migration from the countryside to the cities is a feature of
many developing societies.

4 Practice A
(Example introduction)

Steadily increasing demand for higher education (i.e. education to degree level)
worldwide has resulted in growing pressure on state budgets for financial
support. In response many countries have attempted to transfer the costs to
students, usually in the form of higher fees. This raises the issue of who benefits
from a university education, which is generally seen as the key to a better
joband whether access to it should be restricted.

The aim of this essay is to answer these questions, taking into account the
expense of tertiary education and the fact that rising student numbers often
result in a poorer quality of education. The question of fairness will be
examined, given that HE benefits a minority, and finally the need to encourage
students from poorer families to attend university will be considered. Given the
limitations of space, China will be used as an example to illustrate the main
points involved.

5 Conclusions
(a) Y

(b) Y

(c) N

(d) Y

(e) Y

(f) Y

(g) Y

(h) N

(i) f

(ii) b

(iii) e

(iv) d

(v) g
(vi) a

6 Practice B
(Example conclusion)

It has been shown that, although in some situations a strong economy is linked
to low rates of home ownership, this is not always the case. There have been
claims that owning a house may make people reluctant to move in order to find
work, and this theory seems to be supported by the examples in some US states

during the recession of 2008–9. However, it appears that the main factor here

was negative equity, rather than just ownership. As negative equity is the
product of a house price bubble, it seems that the principal threat to a national
economy is rapid inflation of house prices to unsustainable levels.

Consequently, it can be suggested that governments should take steps to

control the expansion of credit to prevent housing bubbles by discouraging
risky lending. Clearly, this short essay has only outlined the main points of this
topic and many aspects would benefit from more study. One possible field for
further research would be to investigate the reasons why some home owners
default on their mortgage payments.

1.12 Re-writing and proof-reading

3 Practice B
(Example re-write)

Organisations inevitably face risks by permitting researchers to interview

employees, so these must be understood and minimised by the design of the
research project. If employees criticise other workers in the organisation they
may be punished, or alternatively they may feel unable to express their true
feelings and so invalidate the interviews. Consequently, researchers must
protect the reputation of the organisation and the value of their own work by
carefully explaining the purpose of the study and insisting on strict anonymity
through the use of false names. By doing this both parties should benefit from
the research.

4 Proof-reading
(b)

(i) Africa is not a country: such as Nigeria

(ii) innocence is a noun: Young and innocent

(iii) comma needed: However, some strains …

(iv present perfect needed with `since’: Since 2005 there have been …

(v) ‘successfulness’ is not a word: success

(vi) `pervious’ is incorrect: previous

(vii) `one of the …’ needs plural noun: one of the largest companies …

(viii) repetition: the essay will conclude with an analysis of …

(ix) time periods need definite article: the 19th century

(x) when consumers go out shopping …

(c)

(i) style – use children

(ii) singular/plural – their lines

(iii) vocabulary – torment is too strong, use inconvenience

(iv) word ending – different effects

(v) factual – 1973

(vi) word order – overcome

(vii) punctuation – no comma needed

(viii) spelling – Hungary

(ix) missing word – the world

(x) tense: have entered

d) (Example answer)

Many non-European businesses are aiming to enter the single European market
as they see an unexploited potential there. There are three reasons for this
interest. Firstly, the non-European organisations are keen to do business in the
European market because it is one of the leading investment destinations and
the easiest place to set up and run a business in the world. Secondly, the single
European market provides foreign investors with an internationally
competitive tax environment. Finally, there are many wealthy individuals
living in Europe.

5 Confusing pairs
(a) principles

(b) lose

(c) affect

(d) compliments

(e) its

(f) economic

(g) accepted
Answers: Part 2

2.1 Argument and discussion

1 Discussion vocabulary
(a) benefits/ advantages

(b) drawbacks/ disadvantages

(c) negative

(d) advantages/ benefits

(e) disadvantages/ drawbacks

(f) benefit/ advantage

2 Organisation
Vertical: a simpler pattern suitable for short essays

Horizontal: this allows a more complex approach in longer essays

3 Practice A
Possible ideas include:
+ -

No time spent commuting to work Employees may feel isolated

Gives employees more flexibility May not suit all employees

Saves expensive office space Home may contain distractions

Requires different management style

Example outline with structure (a):

(a) Introduction: reasons for growth of home-working: development in
communication

technology, demand for more flexible work patterns.

(b) Drawbacks: Employees may feel isolated, be distracted by activities at home.

May not suit all employees, some prefer more direct

management.

(c) Benefits: Companies need to provide less office space, less time spent on

commuting = more work time, employees have more flexibility.

(d) Discussion: Of benefit to certain employees in some roles, but

necessary to have

regular contact with colleagues and managers.

5 Counter-arguments
The writer’s position is essentially critical of the way prisons work

(Example answers)
Counter-argument Your position

It has been claimed that employees may waste time but in practice there seems little evidence for this.
at home,

Although home-working may save companies employees need to have a well-equipped

money by reducing the need for office space, workspace in their home.

6 Providing evidence

1 Claims for `digital natives’

2. Arguments against

3. Writer’s viewpoint
7 Practice B
(Example answer)

There has been considerable debate about the value of space exploration, in
view of the high costs involved. Supporters such as Donnet-Kammel (2005)
claim that this is a vital method of collecting data about the structure of the
universe, and additionally point out that there have been many practical
benefits arising from the space programme, such as satellite communication.
The example of the space station is also given as an instance of the value of the
research programme in encouraging international co-operation.

In contrast, critics (e.g. Soroka, 2000) point to the huge costs involved in
launching space probes, claiming that these resources would be better devoted
to solving the serious earthly problems of hunger and disease. Furthermore,
they argue that much of the space programme is effectively a testing ground for
new weapons, such as missiles, and brings little benefit to ordinary people. In
the context of the current economic crisis, a more critical approach is clearly
needed in deciding which of those projects have real value.

2.2 Cause and effect

2 Practice A
(Example answers)

(b) Higher rates of literacy often lead to greater demand for secondary
education.

(c) As a result of constructing a new airport more tourists arrived.

(d) Due to last year’s national election a new government was formed.

(e) Installing speed cameras on main roads produces a fall in the number of
fatal accidents.

(f) Opening a new hospital in 2006 reduced infant mortality.

3 Practice B
(Example answers)

(a) Increasing use of the internet for shopping has increased the number of
delivery services.

(b) The violent storms last week damaged power lines in the region.

(c) The new vaccine for TB will result in lower child mortality.

(d) Building a high-speed railway line caused journey times to fall by 25 per
cent.

(e) The serious motorway accident was due to thick fog.

(f) The war of 1856–8 resulted from economic rivalry between the countries.

(g) Earthquakes are often caused by movements in tectonic plates.

(h) The rising prison population was due to a harsher sentencing policy.

4 Practice C – Why women live longer

(Other answers possible)

(a) because of/ due to/ owing to

(b) because/ since/ as

(c) consequently/ therefore/ which is why/ hence

(d) due to/ owing to/ because of

(e) because of/ due to/ owing to

(f) so/ therefore/ thus/ consequently

5 Practice D
(a)

(Example paragraph)

An increase of 25 per cent in the price of oil would have numerous results.
Firstly, it would lead to sharp rises in the cost of transport and freight, thus
affecting the price of most goods. Clearly, businesses for which fuel was a
significant proportion of their costs, such as airlines, would find it difficult to
maintain profitability. Another consequence would be a reduction in oil
consumption as marginal users switched to alternative fuels, such as gas, or
made economies. There would also be increased investment in exploration for
oil, as the oil companies attempted to increase supply, and this in turn would
stimulate demand for equipment such as oil rigs. Finally, there would be a
number of more localised effects, for instance a change in demand from larger
to smaller and more economical vehicles.

2.3 Cohesion

2 Practice A
Reference Reference word/ phrase

La Ferrera She

new businesses they

average life of only 4.7 years this

one economic the former

one social the latter

these
the former ….. , the latter……

4 Practice B – Famous for?

(a) he

(b) his
(c) his

(d) it / this

(e) his

(f) he

(g) they

(h) This

5 Practice C – Velcro
Velcro is a fabric fastener used with clothes and shoes. It was invented by a
Swiss engineer called George de Mestral. His idea was derived from studying
the tiny hooks found on some plant seeds. They cling to animals and help
disperse the seeds. Mestral spent eight years perfecting his invention, which he
called `Velcro’ from the French words `velour’ and `crochet’. It was patented in
1955 and today over 60 million metres of Velcro are sold annually.

6 Practice D
(Example answer)

Wallace Carothers, the director of research at the American DuPont

Corporation, invented nylon in 1935. He had previously studied chemistry, and
specialised in polymers. They are molecules composed of long chains of atoms.
Nylon was a strong but fine synthetic fibre which was first mass produced in
1939. It was/ is used to make a wide range of products which included/
include stockings, toothbrushes, parachutes, fishing lines, and surgical thread.

2.4 Comparisons

2 Practice A
(a) Residential property in London is twice as expensive as in Rome.

(b) Property in Moscow is slightly cheaper than in New York.

(c) Tokyo property is nearly as expensive as property in Paris.

(d) Singapore has significantly cheaper property than New York.

(e) London is the most expensive of the eight cities, while Sydney is the
cheapest.

(Possible answers)

(f) Parisian property is slightly cheaper than Moscow property.

(g) Property in Sydney is 50 per cent cheaper than in New York.

5 Practice B
(a) Real Madrid was the richest club in world football.

(b) Real Madrid’s income was twice as much as AS Roma’s.

(c) FC Barcelona earned slightly less than Manchester United.

(d) Internazionale had less revenue than AC Milan.

(e) Liverpool’s income was slightly higher than AC Milan’s.

6 Practice C
(a) shows/ compares/ contrasts

(b) rate

(c) varies/ fluctuates

(d) same

(e) slightly

(f) than
(g) over/ approximately

(h) high

7 Practice D
(Example sentences)

(b) America had the highest number of prize winners in both Medicine and
Physics.

(c) Sweden and Switzerland had the same number of prize winners for Physics.

(d) Russia had twice as many prize winners for Physics as for Literature.

(e) The UK and Germany had similar numbers of prize winners for Physics.

(f) Sweden had half as many prize winners for medicine as Germany.

(g) The USA had as many Medicine prize winners as France, Britain and
Germany combined.

2.5 Definitions

1 Simple definitions
(a) instrument

(b) organs

(c) organisation

(d) material

(e) behaviour

(f) process

(g) period

(h) grains
(Example answers)

(i) A lecture is an academic talk used for teaching purposes.

(j) Tuberculosis is a disease mainly affecting the lungs.

(k) The Red Cross is a humanitarian organisation which helps people affected
by disasters.

(l) An idiom is a phrase used in colloquial language.

2 Complex definitions
(a) a failed project

(b) development

(c) attachment

(d) self-brightening

(e) globalisation

(i) c

(ii) a, e

(iii) b, d

(iv) b (process) c ( system) d (effect)

3 Practice
(Example definitions)

(a) Capital punishment involves the execution by the state of convicted

criminals.

(b) An entrepreneurial business is set up by somebody who demonstrates the

effective application of a number of enterprising attributes, such as creativity,
initiative, risk taking, problem solving ability and autonomy, and will often risk
his or her own capital.

(c) E-books are electronic books designed to be read on a computer or special

device.

(d) Urban areas are predominantly built-up areas in which roads, housing or
commercial buildings are found.

(e) Obesity is a medical term meaning unhealthily overweight.

2.6 Examples

2 Phrases to introduce examples

(Example answers)

(a) Some twentieth-century inventions, such as TV and the internet, affected the
lives of most people.

(b) Lately many countries, for instance China, have introduced fees for
university courses.

(c) Various companies have built their reputation on the strength of one
product, a case in point is Microsoft Windows.

(d) In recent years more women, e.g. Angela Merkel, have become political
leaders.

(e) Certain countries such as Japan are frequently affected by earthquakes.

(f) Many musical instruments, for example the guitar, use strings to make
music.

(g) A group of root crops, such as potatoes and carrots, constitute an important
part of our diets.

(h) Politicians have discussed a range of possible alternative punishments to

prison, for instance community work.
3 Practice A
(Example answer)

Widespread use of the internet has led to a major change in shopping habits. It
is no longer necessary to visit shops to make routine purchases, for example
many supermarkets offer delivery services for online customers. With more
specialised items such as books and music internet retailers can offer a wider
range of products than bricks-and-mortar shops. They can also provide extra
incentives to customers, for instance free delivery or discounted prices, in
addition to the convenience of not having to visit a real shop. As a result certain
types of store e.g. bookshops are disappearing from the high street. Other
products however, for instance clothing and footwear, appear to require
personal inspection and approval, and in addition many people enjoy the
activity of shopping, so it seems unlikely that the internet will completely
replace the shopping centre.

4 Practice B
(Possible examples)

Customs: holidays and festivals, ways of greeting people

Everyday patterns of life: types of shop, shop opening times

Inevitable differences: language, currency

Rapid changes of mood: depression, elation

Relatively short period: two/ three months

Some aspects of their new surroundings: freedom, independence

5 Restatement
(a) The company’s overheads, in other words the fixed costs, doubled last year.

(b) The Roman empire (27 BC – 476 AD) was a period of autocratic rule.
(c) The Indian capital, namely New Delhi, has a thriving commercial centre.

(d) Survival rates from the most common type of cancer, i.e. breast cancer, are
improving.

(e) Participation rates in most democracies are in decline, that is to say fewer
people are voting.

2.7 Generalisations

1 Using generalisations
(a) This may be true in some cases, but is too general to be valid.

(b) A widely accepted fact, supported by evidence.

(c) Similar to (b), this is a well-researched link.

(d) Similar to (a).

(e) Clearly true in some cases, but not valid for every situation, e.g. Paris-
London.

2 Structure
What we look for in choosing a mate seems to vary from place to place. A
recent study (Jones and DeBruine, 2010) explores the idea that female
preferences in a mate might vary according to the society in which she lives. In
their research nearly 5,000 women in 30 countries were shown the same
pictures of male faces and asked to state which they found more attractive. In
countries where disease is common women chose men with more masculine
features, while in countries such as America with more advanced health care
and lower levels of disease, more effeminate-looking men were preferred. The
researchers conclude that in healthier societies women are more interested in
men who may form long-term relationships and help with child-rearing, while
in places where child mortality rates are high they choose strongly-featured
men who seem more likely to produce healthy children.

3 Practice A
(Example answers)

(b) Regular rainfall is necessary for good crop yields.

(c) Honest judges are needed to ensure respect for the law.

(d) Adequate sleep is vital for academic success.

(e) Industrial growth tends to cause pollution.

(f) Cold weather is likely to increase demand for gas.

(g) Job satisfaction depends on having interesting work.

4 Practice B
(Example generalisations)

(a) Graduates are more likely than undergraduates to study in the library.

(b) Female undergraduates generally prefer to work in silence.

(c) Few students choose to study outdoors.

(d) Male graduates prefer to study in the library, while females prefer their own
room.

(e) More undergraduates than graduates work in bed.

2.8 Numbers

2 Percentages
(a) 50 per cent

(b) 100 per cent

(c) 400 per cent

3 Simplification
(b) Scores of students applied for the scholarship.

(c) He re-wrote the essay several/ a few times.

(d) Last year dozens of books were published on biogenetics.

(e) Various names were suggested but rejected for the new chocolate bar.

(f) The students thought of a few/ several good topics for their project.

4 Further numerical phrases

(Example answers)

(a) The price of petrol has increased tenfold since 1975.

(b) Two thirds of the students in the group were women.

(c) The new high-speed train halved the journey time to Madrid.

(d) The number of students applying for the Psychology course has risen by 50
per cent.

(e) The number of visitors to the theme park doubled every year from 2007 to
2009.

(f) More than twice as many British students as Italian students complete their
first degree course.

(g) Tap water is seven hundred times cheaper than bottled water.

(h) The highest rate of unemployment is in Spain and the lowest in Norway.

(i) 7 per cent of the computers produced had some kind of fault.
(j) A majority of members supported the suggestion, but a large proportion of
these expressed some doubts.

5 Practice
(Example answers)

(a) A small minority spoke European languages.

(b) Maths was the most popular future course.

(c) One fifth of the group planned to study Economics.

(d) Only one student was over 23.

(e) Swimming was the favourite sport of one third of the group.

(f) The least popular sports were cycling and tennis.

2.9 Problems and solutions

3 Practice A – Managing tourism growth

Problem Many developing countries have found that the development of a tourism

industry can bring social and environmental drawbacks … such as water.

Solution A One possible solution is to target upmarket holidaymakers, in order to get
the maximum profit from minimum numbers.

Argument against solution A However, there is a limited number of such visitors, and this market requires
considerable investment in infrastructure and training.

Solution B Another remedy is to rigorously control the environmental standards of any

development, in order to minimise the impact of the construction.

Conclusion in favour of B This requires effective government agencies, but is likely to ensure the best
outcome for both tourists and locals.
5 Practice B – University expansion
(Example argument)

Currently there is increasing demand for university places, which frequently

leads to overcrowding of student facilities. It has been argued that fees should
be increased to reduce demand for places, but this would discriminate against
students from poorer families. Another proposal is for the government to pay
for the expansion of universities, but against this is the view that this would
unfairly benefit the minority, who in any case go on to earn higher salaries. A
fairer solution might be for the government to subsidise the fees of the poorest
students.

2.10 Style

3 Practice
(Example sentences)

(a) Another factor to consider is the possibility of crime increasing.

(b) Currently the rate of unemployment is high.

(c) In the near future a vaccine for malaria may be discovered.

(d) After 1989 the price of Japanese property fell sharply.

(e) The numbers in that report are unreliable.

(f) The severe inflation led to poverty and social unrest.

(g) He was delighted to win the prize.

(h) Students should be paid to study.

(i) Women were enfranchised in 1987.

(j) The main causes of the Russian revolution were war and misgovernment.
4 Avoiding repetition and redundancy – Fast food
(Example answer)

Currently, fast food is growing in popularity. This is food that people can buy
ready to eat or cook quickly. This essay examines its advantages and
drawbacks. First, it is very convenient. Most people who work in offices are
very busy, so they do not have time to go home for lunch. But they can eat in
restaurants such as McDonalds. The second benefit is cheapness. As it is
produced in large quantities, this means that the companies can keep costs
down. As a result it is usually less expensive than a meal in a conventional
restaurant.

5 Varying sentence length

(Example answer)

Worldwide, enrolments in higher education are increasing. In developed

countries over half of all young people enter college, while similar trends are
seen in China and South America. This growth has put financial strain on state
university systems, so that many countries are asking students and parents to
contribute. This leads to a debate about whether students or society benefit
from tertiary education.

China is one developing country (but not the only one) which has imposed fees
on students since 1997. The results have been surprising: enrolments, especially
in the most expensive universities, have continued to rise steeply, growing 200
per cent overall between 1997 and 2001. It seems in this case that higher fees
attract rather than discourage students, who see them as a sign of a good
education. They compete more fiercely for

places, leading to the result that a place at a good college can cost $5000 per
year for fees and maintenance.
2.11 Visual information

1 The language of change

(a) rose/ increased

(b) levelled off

(c) steadily

(d) peaked

(e) fell/ decreased/ dropped/ declined

2 Types of visuals

TYPES USES EXAMPLE

1 diagram d E

2 table f B

3 map a F

4 pie chart c D

5bar chart b C

6 line graph e A

3 Describing visuals
(a)

(i) is better. It comments on the main features of the chart but does not repeat
the statistics.

(b) (Example answers)

(a) density

(b) demonstrates/ illustrates/ shows

(c) between

(d) less-crowded/ less densely populated

(e) role/ part

(f) since/ as/ because

(g) tend

5 Practice A
(a) shows/ illustrates

(b) various/ certain

(c) between

(d) majority

(e) substantially/ significantly

(f) Spain

(g) than

6 Practice B
(Example paragraph)

The table illustrates student evaluation of library facilities, contrasting

undergraduate with graduate opinion. Most facilities are rated highly by both
groups, especially the café and staff helpfulness. Both student groups are least
satisfied with the availability of short loan stock. In most areas graduates seem
slightly more critical of facilities than undergraduates.

2.12 Working in groups

1 Why work in groups?

(a) F (a kind of culture shock)

(b) F (normally)

(c) F (students are normally told who they will work with)

(d) F (3 reasons)

(e) T

(f) F (paragraph 2)

2 Making group work successful

(This order emphasises personal relations in the team; a more task-orientated
approach is also possible.)

1 Get to know the other members

2 Make everyone feel included

3 Analyse the task

4 Plan the job and the responsibilities

5 Divide up the work fairly, according to the abilities of the members

6 Select a co-ordinator/ editor

7 Finish the assignment on time

3 Dealing with problems

a (i) The lazy students will learn nothing from this approach, and the
same problem will occur next time they are involved in group work.
a (ii) Although it may seem difficult, this is the only positive solution.

a (iii) Your teachers are unlikely to help – group work is designed to

make these problems your responsibility.

b (i) Your teachers are unlikely to help – group work is designed to

make these problems your responsibility.

b (ii) This will not help you in the long run – you must learn to take
part in discussion.

b (iii) The right approach. The other members probably don’t realise
that you are having difficulties with their language.

c (i) If everyone in the group takes part the offender will be forced to
accept that their behaviour is unhelpful.

c (ii) Your teachers are unlikely to help – group work is designed to

make these problems your responsibility.

c (iii) You will run the risk that they will get a poor mark and so
everyone will suffer.
Answers: Part 3

3.1 Abbreviations

6 Practice
(a) information and communications technology / higher education/
and others

(b) genetically modified/ for example

(c) that is / the World Trade Organisation

(d) note/ curricula vitae/ Human Resources

(e) The Organisation for Economic and Cultural Development/ The

United Arab Emirates

(f) The European Union/ Value Added Tax

(g) Doctor of Philosophy (thesis)/ Tuberculosis/ south east

(h) Figure 4/ world wide web

(i) Vice-Chancellor/ Postgraduate Certificate of Education

(j) Public relations/ approximately/ $75,000

(k) With reference to/ Annual General Meeting/ as soon as possible

(l) Professor/ Master of Science/ Master of Arts

3.2 Academic vocabulary

2 Practice A
(a) predicted

(b) significant
(c) varied

(d) created

(e) hypothetical

(f) invested

(g) emphasis/ reliability

(h) evaluated

(i) synthetic

(j) contribution

3 Practice B
(a) interpretation/ response

(b) derived

(c) achievement

(d) definitive

(e) analysed/ evaluated

(f) indicators/ predictors/ variables

5 Practice C
(a) irrelevant

(b) subjective/ irrational

(c) Concrete/ Relevant

(d) approximate/ rough

(e) relative

(f) logical/ rational

(g) theoretical/ abstract

6 Formality in verbs
(Possible synonyms)

adapt = modify

arise = occur

conduct = carry out

characterise = have features of

clarify = explain

concentrate on = look at closely

be concerned with = deal with

demonstrate = show

determine = find

discriminate = distinguish

establish = found

exhibit = show

focus on = look at closely

generate = create

hold = be true

identify = pick out

imply= suggest

interact = work together

interpret = explain

manifest = show
overcome = defeat

propose = suggest

prove = turn out

recognise = accept

relate to = link to

supplement = add to

undergo = experience

yield = produce

3.3 Articles

3 Practice A
(a) Engineering is the main industry in the northern region.

(b) Insurance firms have made record profits in the last decade.

(c) Global warming is partly caused by fossil fuels.

(d) The mayor has been arrested on suspicion of corruption.

(e) The moons of Jupiter were discovered in the eighteenth century.

(f) Tourism is the world’s biggest industry.

(g) The forests of Scandinavia produce most of Britain’s paper.

(h) The Thai currency is the baht.

(i) Computer crime has grown by 200 per cent in the last decade.

(j) The main causes of the industrial revolution are still debated.

(k) Already 3 per cent of the working population are employed in call
centres.

(l) The latest forecast predicts warmer winters in the next five years.
(m) Research on energy saving is being conducted in the Physics
faculty.

(n) The best definition is often the simplest.

4 Practice B – The origins of @

(a) a

(b) -

(c) the

(d) the

(e) a/ the

(f) the

(g) -

(h) the

(i) a

(j) the

(k) the

(l) the

(m) a

(n) a

(o) the

(p) the

(q) -

(r) -

3.4 Caution
2 The language of caution
(Others are possible)

Modals: might/ may/ could/ should

Adverbs: often/ usually/ frequently/ generally/ commonly/

mainly/ apparently

Verb/phrase: seems to/ appears to/ in general/ by and large/ it

appears/ it seems

3 Using modifiers
(a) The company’s efforts to save energy were quite/fairly successful.

(b) The survey was (a fairly/quite a) comprehensive study of student

opinion.

(c) His second book had a rather hostile reception.

(d) The first year students were quite fascinated by her lectures.

(e) The latest type of arthritis drug is rather expensive.

4 Practice A
(Example answers)

(a) Private companies are often more efficient than state-owned

businesses.

(b) Exploring space seems to be a waste of valuable resources.

(c) Older students may perform better at university than younger

ones.

(d) Word-of-mouth is commonly the best kind of advertising.

(e) English pronunciation can be confusing.

(f) Some cancers may be caused by psychological factors.

(g) It appears that global warming will cause the sea level to rise.

(h) Most shopping may done on the internet in ten years’ time.

6 Practice B
(Example answer)

A team of American scientists may have found a way to reverse the ageing
process. They fed diet supplements, usually found in health food shops, to
elderly rats, which were then tested for memory and stamina. The animals
tended to display more active behaviour after taking the supplements, and
their memory generally improved. In addition, their appearance became rather
more youthful and their appetite tended to increase. The researchers believe
that this experiment is quite a clear indication of how the problems of old age
may be overcome. They claim that in a few years’ time many people may be
able to look forward to a fairly long and active retirement.

3.5 Conjunctions

1 Types of conjunctions
(a) A few inventions, for instance television, have had a major impact on
everyday life.

(b) Furthermore, many patients were treated in clinics and surgeries.

(c) The definition of `special needs’ is important since it is the cause of some
disagreement.

(d) The technology allows consumers a choice, thus increasing their sense of
satisfaction.
(e) Four hundred people were interviewed for the survey, then the results were
analysed.

(f) However, another body of opinion associates globalisation with

unfavourable outcomes.

(ii) Result d

(iii) Reason c

(iv) Opposition f

(v) Example a

(vi) Time e

2 Practice A – Biofuels
Conjunction Type Conjunction Type

(a) such as example (f) in other words example

(b) but opposition (g) instead of opposition

(c) Although opposition (h) Consequently result

(d) for instance example (i) and addition

(e) however opposition opposition

(j) neither … nor

3 Common conjunctions
(Others are possible)

Addition: moreover/ as well as/ in addition/ and/ also/ furthermore/ plus

Result: therefore/ consequently/ so/ that is why (see Unit 2.2)

Reason: because/ owing to/ as a result of/ as/ since/ due to (see Unit 2.2)

Time: after/ while/ then/ next/ subsequently (see Unit 3.12)

Example: such as/ e.g./ in particular/ for instance (see Unit 2.6)
Opposition: but/ yet/ while/ however/ nevertheless/ whereas/ albeit/
although/ despite

4 Practice B
(Others are possible)

(a) After

(b) Although/ While

(c) moreover/ furthermore/ additionally

(d) therefore/ so

(e) for instance/ for example

(f) Due to/ Because of

(g) While

(h) As/ Because/ Since

5 Practice C – Geoengineering
(Others are possible)

(a) such as

(b) Although

(c) either

(d) or

(e) for instance/ for example

(f) While/ Although

(g) due to/ because of

(h) or
(i) Therefore/ That is why

6 Conjunctions of opposition
(Example answers)

(a)

(i) Although the government claimed that inflation was falling, the
opposition said it was rising.

(ii) The government claimed that inflation was falling while the
opposition said it was rising.

(b)

(i) This department must reduce expenditure, yet it needs to install

new computers.

(ii) While this department must reduce expenditure it also needs to

install new computers.

(c)

(i) In spite of being heavily advertised, sales of the new car were
poor.

(ii) Sales of the new car were poor, despite it being heavily
advertised.

7 Practice D
(Example answers)

(a) In contrast to America, where gun ownership is common, few

Japanese have guns.

(b) Despite leaving school at the age of 14 he went on to develop a

successful business.
(c) The majority displayed a positive attitude to the proposal, but a
minority strongly disagreed.

(d) While the tutor insisted that the essay was easy, the students
found it difficult.

(e) Although the spring was cold and dry, the summer was warm
and wet.

3.6 Nouns and adjectives

2 Practice A
Noun Adjective Noun Adjective

approximation approximate particularity particular

superiority superior reason reasonable

strategy strategic synthesis synthetic

politics political economy economic/al

industry industrial culture cultural

exterior external average average

height high reliability reliable

heat hot strength strong

confidence confident truth true

width wide probability probable

necessity necessary length long

danger dangerous relevance relevant

3 Practice B
(a) confident

(b) particularities/ strengths

(c) probability

(d) relevant

(e) necessary
(f) average

(g) danger

(h) necessity

(i) unreliable

(j) approximate

(k) economic

(l) synthesis

4 Practice C

(a) strategic – strategy

(b) analytical – analysis

(c) synthetic – synthesis

(d) major – majority

(e) cultural – culture

(f) theoretical – theory

(g) frequent – frequency

(h) critical – criticism/ critic

(i) Social – society

(j) practical – practice

5 Abstract nouns
(a) cause (of)

(b) theory

(c) event

(d) feature

(e) machine

(f) area

(g) organisation

(h) views

(i) worry

(j) process

(k) types

(l) problem

3.7 Prefixes and suffixes

2 Prefixes
auto by itself

co together

ex (i) previous

(ii) outside

macro large

micro small

multi many
over too much

post later

re again

sub below

under (i) below

(ii) not enough

3 Practice A
(a) social class at bottom of society

(b) more tickets sold than seats available

(c) very local climate

(d) economy based on information not production

(e) not listed in the telephone book

(f) disappointed

7 Practice B

(a) noun – withdrawal of a service

(b) adjective – two related events at the same time

(c) adverb – without co-operation

(d) adjective – related to evolution

(e) noun – person who protests

(f) adjective – not able to be forecast

(g) adjective – able to be sold

(h) noun – person being interviewed

(i) noun – belief that increasing consumption benefits society

(j) adverb – in a way that suggests a symbol

8 Practice C
(a) joint production/ junior company

(b) without choosing to/ not hurt

(c) able to be refilled/ definite

(d) cannot be provided/ unusual

(e) existing in theory/ breaking into pieces

3.8 Prepositions

1 Using prepositions
purpose of/ development of/ in Catalonia/ over the period/ contributed to/
valuable for / In conclusion/ sets out/ relationship between/ decline in/
supply of/ in the factory context

verb + = contributed to

adj + = valuable for

phrasal verb = sets out

place = in Catalonia / in the factory context

time = over the period

phrase = In conclusion
2 Practice A
(b) adjective + preposition

(c) verb + preposition

(d) preposition of place

(e) noun + preposition

(f) phrase

(g) preposition of place

(h) preposition of time

3 Prepositions and nouns

(a) of

(b) in

(c) of

(d) to

(e) in

(f) on

4 Prepositions in phrases

(a) on

(b) of

(c) of

(d) in

(e) of
(f) on

(g) in

(h) of

5 Prepositions of place and time

(a) Among

(b) from, to/ between, and

(c) in, of

(d) in, in

(e) in, at

(f) On, between

6 Practice B
(a) out

(b) of

(c) in/ to

(d) to/ in

(e) among/ in

(f) from/ in

(g) between

(h) in

(i) of

(j) in/ over

(k) between
(l) in

(m) in

(n) of

(o) to/ in

3.9 Punctuation

8 Practice A
(a) The study was carried out by Christine Zhen-Wei Qiang of the
National University of Singapore.

(b) Professor Rowan’s new book `The End of Privacy’ is published in

New York.

or

Professor Rowan’s new book The End of Privacy is published in

New York.

(c) As Keynes said: `It’s better to be roughly right than precisely

wrong’.

(d) Three departments, Law, Business and Economics, have had their
funding cut.

(e) As Cammack (1994) points out: `Latin America is creating a new

phenomenon; democracy without citizens’.

(f) Thousands of new words such as `app’ enter the English language
each year.

(g) The BBC’s World Service is broadcast in 33 languages including

Somali and Vietnamese.

(h) She scored 56 per cent on the main course; the previous semester
she had achieved 67 per cent.
9 Practice B
The School of Biomedical Sciences at Borchester University is offering two
undergraduate degree courses in Neuroscience this year. Students can study
either Neuroscience with Pharmacology or Neuroscience with Biochemistry.
There is also a Master’s course which runs for four years and involves a period
of study abroad during November and December. Professor Andreas Fischer is
course leader for Neuroscience and enquiries should be sent to him via the 

website.

3.10 Singular or plural?

1 Five areas of difficulty

(a) … and disadvantages (e)

(b) are vaccinated (a)

(c) rural areas (c)

(d) … in crime (b)

(e) Each company has its own policy (d)

4 Practice A
(a) Little

(b) businesses

(c) experience/ is

(d) travel broadens

(e) Paper was

(f) much advice

(g) few interests

(h) civil war

(i) Irons were

(j) work

5 Practice B
companies have/ websites/ e-commerce/ this is/ businesses/ companies/
their/ trouble/security/ expense/ mean/ these companies

3.11 Synonyms

1 How synonyms work

Word/ phrase synonym

largest giant

oil hydrocarbon

company firm

in the world global/ internationally

people employees

2 Common synonyms in academic writing

Nouns Verbs

area field accelerate speed up

authority source achieve reach

behaviour conduct alter change

beliefs ethics analyse take apart

benefit advantage assist help

category type attach join

component part challenge question

concept idea claim suggest

controversy argument clarify explain

drawback disadvantage concentrate on focus on

expansion increase confine limit

feeling emotion develop evolve

framework structure eliminate remove

goal target evaluate examine

hypothesis theory found establish

interpretation explanation maintain insist

issue topic predict forecast

method system prohibit ban

option possibility quote cite

quotation citation raise increase

results findings reduce decrease

statistics figures respond reply

study research retain keep

trend tendency show demonstrate

output production strengthen reinforce

3 Practice A
(Others are possible)

(a) Professor Hicks challenged the results of the study.

(b) The figures demonstrate a steady increase in applications.

(c) The institute’s forecast has caused a major debate.

(d) Cost seems to be the principal disadvantage to that method.

(e) They will focus on the first possibility.

(f) After the lecture she tried to explain her theory.

(g) Three topics need to be evaluated.

(h) The structure can be kept but the aim needs to be modified.

(i)OPEC, the oil producers’ cartel, is to reduce output to increase global prices.

(j) The tendency to smaller families has accelerated in the last decade.
4 Practice B

UK – British – this country

agency – organisation – body

advertising campaign – publicity programme – advertising blitz

to raise – to improve

to cut – reduction

before eating – prior to meals

5 Practice C

(Example answers – others possible)

aim

manufacture vehicles

car makers

principal problem

obstacle

automobile producers

challenges

forecast

3.12 Time words

3 Practice A
(a) Recently

(b) until

(c) for

(d) Last month

(e) by

(f) Since

(g) During

4 Practice B
(a) Last

(b) During/ On

(c) By

(d) for

(e) ago

(f) later

(g) until

(h) Currently/ Now

5 Practice C – Eating out

(a) In/ Over

(b) Since

(c) ago
(d) recently

(e) Currently

(f) by

(g) since

6 Practice D – Napoleon
(a) before

(b) later

(c) by

(d) for

(e) After

(f) until

(g) during

(h) ago

3.13 Passives

2 Structure
(a) The data was collected and the two groups (were) compared.

(b) 120 people in three social classes were interviewed.

(c) The results were checked and several errors (were) found.

(d) An analysis of the findings will be made.

(e) Four doctors were asked to give their opinions.

(f) The report was written and ten copies (were) distributed.
3 Using adverbs
(a) The company was profitably run by the Connors family until
1981.

(b) It has been optimistically predicted that prisons will be

unnecessary in the future (by Dr Weber).

(c) All students in the exam were helpfully provided with pencils.

(d) The percentages were accurately calculated to three decimal

places (by researchers).

(e) The essays were punctually handed in on Tuesday morning.

(f) The lifecycles of 15 types of mice were carefully researched.

5 Practice B
Passive Active Active
possible?

He was worn out Yes

The effort … had worn him out
He was born No

John was concerned by Yes

The situation of the poor concerned John …
Yes
a( …) shop which was called which he called …
John was helped financially Yes
his father-in-law helped him …
the business was taken over Yes
his wife took the business over …
she was soon assisted Yes their 10-year-old son assisted her

The effect of using the passive throughout would be to make the tone very
formal.
6 Practice C
(Example paragraph)

In 1889 he was introduced to Florence Rowe, the daughter of a bookseller, while

on holiday. After they were married her ideas affected the business: the product
range was enlarged to include stationery and books. The Boots subscription
library and in-store cafes were also introduced due to Florence’s influence.
During the first world war the Boots factories made a variety of products, from
sterilisers to gas masks. But after the war Jesse was attacked by arthritis and,
worried by the economic prospects, he sold the company to an American rival
for £2m. This, however, went bankrupt during the Depression and Boots was
then bought by a British group for £6m, and Jesse’s son, John became chairman.
The famous No.7 cosmetics range was launched in the 1930s and in the second
world war the factories produced both saccharin and penicillin. However,
recently the company has been threatened by intense competition from
supermarkets in its core pharmaceutical business.

3.14 Verbs of reference

3 Practice A

(Some other verbs may be possible)

(a) A admitted/ accepted that he might have made a mistake …

(b) B denied saying that women make better doctors than men.

(c) C stated/claimed/argued that small firms are more dynamic than

large ones.

(d) D agreed with C’s views on small firms.

(e) E assumed/ presumed that most people work for money.

(f) F concluded that allergies are becoming more common.

(g) G doubted that electric cars would replace conventional ones.

(h) H suggested that the reasons for the increase in winter storms
should be investigated.

(i) I hypothesised/ suggested a link between crime and sunspot activity.

5 Practice B
(Other verbs may be possible)

(a) L criticised/ censured her research methods.

(b) M identified/ classified four main types of children in care.

(c) N commended the company for its record for workplace safety.

(d) O interpreted the noises whales make as expressions of happiness.

(e) P identified/ presented wind power and biomass as the leading

green energy sources.

(f) Q described/portrayed Darwin as the most influential naturalist

of the nineteenth century.

(g) R defined an insect as a six-legged arthropod.

(h) S characterised/ portrayed law students as hard-working but

open-minded.

3.15 Verbs – tenses

1 Using tenses
Tense Reason for use

a present simple general rule

b present continuous current situation

c present perfect recent unfinished event

d present perfect continuous recent, with emphasis on action that continues for a long time
e simple past finished, with time phrase

f past continuous finished, with emphasis on action that continued for a long time

g past perfect refers to a previous past period

h `will’ future prediction

2 Practice A
(a) has risen/ has been rising

(b) stands for

(c) sold

(d) had taken out

(e) will have

(f) is working

(g) was giving

(h) disputed

(i) has fallen/ has been falling

3 Simple or continuous?
(a) is/are working

(b) believes

(c) is looking for

(d) is running/ runs

(e) rose

(f) owns

(g) live

(h) is attending
5 Practice B – The Bologna process
(a) met

(b) was

(c) agreed

(d) allows (generally, at any time)

(e) support

(f) face

(g) have

(h) spends

(i) will give

(j) will make

(k) will be
Answers: Part 4

4.1 Formal letters and emails

1 Letters
(a) address of sender

(b) address of recipient

(c) sender’s reference

(d date

(e) greeting

(f) subject headline

(g) reason for writing

(h) further details

(i) request for response

(j) ending

(k) signature

(l) writer’s name and job title

2 Practice A
(Example answer)
 54 Sydney Road
Rowborough RB1 6FD

Mr M. Bramble
Administrative Assistant
Central Admissions Office
Wye House
Park Campus
University of Mercia
Borchester BR3 5HT

5 May 2010

Dear Mr Bramble,
Informal Interview: Yr Ref: MB/373

Thank you for inviting me to interview on 21 May. I will be able to attend

on that date, but it would be much more convenient if I could have the
interview at 12, due to the train times from Rowborough.

Could you please let me know if this alteration is possible?

Yours sincerely,
P. Tan

P. Tan

4 Practice B
Sender = student /recipient = teacher

Reply is unlikely, unless recipient needs to comment on the attached paper.

5 Practice C
(Example answers)

(a) Hi Mark,
 We need to schedule a short meeting tomorrow. What time would
suit you?

See you soon,

(b) Hello Tricia,

I’m looking for another source for this month’s essay. Could you
recommend something suitable?

Best wishes,

(c) Hi everyone,

It’s only a week before the end of the course – what are we going
to do to celebrate? Let me have your ideas – I’ll pass them on and hopefully
get something good fixed up for Sat 12th!

(d) Dear Tim Carey,

I’ve never had this book, so I can’t return it. Can you check your
records please?

4.2 Writing CVs

2 Practice A
The CV is well-organised but lacks detail. For example more information could
be given about the BSc Psychology course. In some circumstances it might be
helpful to add a section on `Interests’ providing these had some relevance to the
position being applied for.

4.3 Reports, case studies and literature reviews

2 Essays and reports
(1) essay

(2) report

(3) report

(4) report

(5) essay

3 Case studies
A case study has the advantage of providing a concrete experience/ example.

The disadvantage is that it is limited in place and time.

Topics Case studies

Methods of teaching dyslexic children An experimental approach to reading difficulties

with under-8s in Singapore

Improving crop yields in semi-deserts Using solar power to operate irrigation pumps in
Ethiopia

Reducing infant mortality A programme to cut smoking among pregnant

women in a Greek clinic.

Building earthquake-resistant bridges

The lessons from Chile – how three structures
withstood the 2010 quake

Dealing with re-offending among prisoners

Work and learning – how a Brazilian scheme
encouraged convicts to stay out of jail

Improving re-cycling rates in large cities The Berlin experiment: increasing public
participation in collecting and sorting waste
4 Example case study
(Additional answers are possible here)

(a)

Store layouts match Chinese apartments.

Products linked to New Year celebrations.

Reduced prices by sourcing production locally.

Produces thinner but more frequent catalogues.

Uses local characters in adverts.

Attempts to provide better service.

(b)

Competition from rivals offering free delivery.

Some products, e.g. single beds not suited to Chinese tastes.

(c)

More financial details of IKEA’s sales and profits in the Chinese market.

5 Literature reviews
(a) 2 (content and process)

(b) 7

(c) 5
(d) It is more convenient to use secondary sources in this kind of short literature
review. If you were studying just one of these theorists, e.g. Herzberg, you
might be expected to use primary sources.

4.4 Designing and reporting surveys

1 Conducting surveys
(Other suggestions possible/ in any order)

To test a hypothesis.

Get up-to-date data.

Collect information about the behaviour of a specific group, e.g. clients of a

firm.

2 Questionnaire design
(a) (ii) is less embarrassing for most people to answer.

(b) (i) is an open question and has many possible answers.

(ii) is a closed question with a limited range of responses.

(c) For casual interviews ten is probably the maximum most

interviewees will cope with.

3 Survey language
(a) conducted

(b) random

(c) questionnaire

(d) questioned

(e) respondents/ interviewees

(f) Interviewees/ Respondents

(g) mentioned

(h) majority

(i) slightly

(j) minority

(k) questions

(l) common

(m) generally

(n) sample

4 Question forms

(Example questions. 3–6 could use present tense)

Q2 Why did you take a job?

Q3 What effect did the work have on your studies?

Q4 What kind of work did you do?

Q5 What hours did you work?

Q6 How much did you earn?

Q7 Do you have any comments on your work?

5 Using tenses
(a) past tense

(b) present tense (the survey is completed but the results are still
valid)
4.5 Writing longer essays

2 Example essay
(a) The writer appears to be in favour of nuclear energy.

(b) The writer presents the arguments against nuclear power and attempts to
show their weakness. In the conclusion the writer summarises his/ her position

(`nuclear energy can be seen … fossil fuels’.).

3 Revision
(Example answers)

(a) See Paragraph 1.

(b) `This essay attempts to assess the risks of using nuclear power, in
comparison with other sources of energy’.

(c) `The main arguments for employing nuclear energy are first considered,
followed by an examination of the safety issues around this source of power,
including the safety and security concerns connected with nuclear waste’.

(d) `… alternative energy sources to fossil fuels, i.e. oil, gas and coal …’

(e) `Wind energy and solar power are frequently presented as alternative
energy sources to fossil fuels’.

(f) `Mtoe (million tons of oil equivalent)’

(g) `… since the Chernobyl accident in 1986 there has been persistent concern

…’
(h) `As a result, the demand for total primary energy, which will accompany the

population growth, is projected to increase …’

(i) power

(j) `If this increase occurs the total global stock of oil and gas would only be

adequate for 250 years …’

(k) `It is estimated that in 2003, in the USA, nuclear energy prevented the release

of 680 million tons of CO2 …’

(l) `However, its opponents argue that it can damage the environment by
creating radioactive waste’.

(m) Bodansky (2004)

(n) `Lillington (2004) suggests that the cost of purchasing fuel for nuclear energy

is likely to remain low compared to other energy sources …’

Self-assessment exercises

1 Describing a process
(a) stage/ part/ step

(b) the/ its

(c) for

(d) Secondly/ Then

(e) and

(f) critically/ rigorously/ carefully

(g) which

(h) skills/ techniques

(i) answer

(j) be

(k) taking

(l) you

(m) checking/ ensuring

(n) After

(o) maximum

(p) to

(q) tables/ graphs/ figures

(r) should/ must

2 Summarising a report

The summary should contain the following key points:

• scientists/ Oxford University/ researching crow behaviour
• showed that crows can make simple tools – not only primates
• experiment – meat in glass tube + wire
• birds shaped wire to make hook/ extract meat
• researchers saw them do similar in native environment
(Example summary)

Recent research by scientists at Oxford University has demonstrated that crows

have the ability to produce simple tools from materials not found in their
natural surroundings. In the experiment, which was devised after observing
similar behaviour in their habitat, the birds bent a length of wire into a hook to
pull a piece of meat from inside a glass tube. Chimpanzees are known to use
`tools’ in this way, but this is the first time that birds have been shown to have
such abilities. (84 words)

3 Problems and solutions

(Example answer)
Problem Fair and accurate assessment of students’ performance has always been a difficult

task. Coursework and examinations have both been used to grade student work.

Benefits of A The benefits of assessment through coursework are the inclusion of all a student’s

work over the period, as well as the encouragement to work consistently. In

addition, it provides students, to some degree, with a choice of topics.

Drawbacks of A However, there are concerns that plagiarism of coursework is quite easy, and it
also requires good time-management skills. The greater volume of work may also
make it harder for teachers to assess everything fairly.

Benefits of B Examinations, however, make plagiarism much more difficult, and also provide

an incentive for thorough revision of the semester’s work. It is also claimed that all

students have to compete on equal terms, answering the same questions in the
same amount of time.

Drawbacks of B Critics of exams point out that some students become too nervous to perform well,
and that only a restricted range of topics can be assessed. Non-native speakers are
also likely to be disadvantaged.
Conclusion Because of the powerful arguments on both sides of this debate, most courses are
actually assessed by a combination of both methods, and this seems to be the most
satisfactory situation.
Answers Self-assessment exercises

These exercises are included to allow students to assess their progress in academic
writing. The first, Describing a process, is a test of accuracy, the second, Summarising
a report, tests summary writing, while the third, Building an argument, tests the ability
to write a problem-solution paragraph.

1 Describing a process: writing an essay

(a) stage/ part/ step

(b) the/ its

(c) for

(d) Secondly/ Then

(e) and

(f) critically/ rigorously/ carefully

(g) which

(h) skills/ techniques

(i) answer

(j) be

(k) taking

(l) you

(m) checking/ ensuring

(n) After
(o) maximum

(p) to

(q) tables/ graphs/ figures

(r) should/ must

2 Summarising a report
The summary should contain the following key points:
• scientists/ Oxford University/ researching crow behaviour
• showed that crows can make simple tools – not only primates
• experiment – meat in glass tube + wire
• birds shaped wire to make hook/ extract meat
• researchers saw them do similar in native environment

Model summary
Recent research by scientists at Oxford University has demonstrated that crows
have the ability to produce simple tools from materials not found in their
natural surroundings. In the experiment, which was devised after observing
similar behaviour in their habitat, the birds bent a length of wire into a hook to
pull a piece of meat from inside a glass tube. Chimpanzees are known to use
`tools’ in this way, but this is the first time that birds have been shown to have
such abilities.

(84 words)

3. Problems and solutions

Model answer
Problem Fair and accurate assessment of students’ performance has always been a difficult
task. Coursework and examinations have both been used to grade student work.
Benefits of A The benefits of assessment through coursework are the inclusion of all a student’s
work over the period, as well as the encouragement to work consistently. In
addition, it provides students, to some degree, with a choice of topics.

Drawbacks of A However, there are concerns that plagiarism of coursework is quite easy, and it
also requires good time-management skills. The greater volume of work may also
make it harder for teachers to assess everything fairly.

Benefits of B Examinations, however, make plagiarism much more difficult, and also provide
an incentive for thorough revision of the semester’s work. It is also claimed that all
students have to compete on equal terms, answering the same questions in the
same amount of time.

Drawbacks of B Critics of exams point out that some students become too nervous to perform well,
and that only a restricted range of topics can be assessed. Non-native speakers are
also likely to be disadvantaged.

Conclusion Because of the powerful arguments on both sides of this debate, most courses are
actually assessed by a combination of both methods, and this seems to be the most
satisfactory situation.