Overview of Agriculture

What is Agriculture?
Agriculture – is an art, science and industry that deals with the study of plants and animals that are useful to
man.
- Derived from two Latin words “agri” (field) and “cultura” (cultivation).
Brief History of Agriculture
Primitive man was not an agriculturist. He was a hunter and gatherer of food. When food was exhausted
in one area, he moved to another area. Agriculture arose when man began to take control of growing of the
plants by rearranging them for his benefits. He discovered perhaps by accident that certain plants, chiefly
herbaceous annuals such as wheat, rice, barley, rye and peas could be grown far from their natural habitat. He
discovered that some plants possess seeds and these could produce new plants. This was the beginning of crop
domestication and the birth of agriculture. Thus, when man began stirring the soil with sticks and growing,
harvesting, and storing the seeds, it was possible for him to give up his wandering life and settle in one place. In
this way, villages and small settlements arose- a primitive urban existence. Agriculture, therefore, made urban
life possible. People lived together and the so called civilization evolved. With the supply of food, shelter, and
clothing, man had the leisure to develop the arts and industries identified with civilization.

When was agriculture started?

Precisely where the first plants were cultivated is unknown. The first production of food by crop
cultivation and actual domestication dates back 7,000 to 10,000 years ago to the Neolithic age.
Where was agriculture started?
According to archeological evidence, agriculture had its origin somewhere in the well watered highlands
of Indus, Tigris, Euphrates and Nile rivers.

Some Geographical Features of the Philippines

The Philippine Archipelago lies in Southeast Asia in a position that has led to its becoming a cultural
crossroads – a place where Malays, Indus, Arabs, Chinese, Spaniards, Americans, and others had interacted to
forge a unique cultural and racial blend. It is consisted of about 7,107 islands with a total land area of
approximately 300,000 km2. It is divided into three major Island such Luzon, Visayas and Mindanao.
Continent : Asia
Region : Southeast Asia
Area
Total : 300,000 km2 (120,000 sq. mi.)
Land : 298, 170 km2 (99.38%)
Water : 1,830 km2 (0.62%)
No. of Islands : 7,107
Highest Point : Mount Apo – 2,954m (9,691ft)
Longest River : Cagayan River
Largest Lake : Laguna de Bay
Origin : Volcanic
Total Population :
Total No. of Regions : 18
Total No. of Provinces : 81
Type of Climate : Tropical

Philippine as an Agricultural Country

- Composed of small farm
- Humid tropical climate and variable weather divided into several types based on rainfall:
Type1. Two pronounced seasons: dry from November to April and wet, the rest of the year.
Type2. No dry season, with a very pronounced maximum rain period from November to January.
Type3. Season is not very pronounced, relatively dry from November to April and relatively wet for the rest of
the year.
Type4. Rainfall is more or less evenly distributed or rather, not very pronounced maximum rain period and no
dry season.
- Varying topographies and soil types
- Adverse flora and fauna; and
- A mélange (mixture) of cultures in numerous communities
Crop Agriculture and Land use in the Philippines
Total Land Area = 30, 000, 000 ha
Public and Unclassified Forest Land = 15, 883 Mha
Alienable and Disposable lands = 14, 117 Mha
 14.60 M ha (49%) = sustainable for agriculture
1
  102 M population by 2016 – land-man ratio of 0.14 ha
 Cropped area = 13 M ha (2002)
 Physical area = 10.299 M ha
 More than 80% of agricultural area is planted to three major: rice, corn and coconut
Characteristics of Philippine Agriculture
 Generally small-scale
 Dependent on manual labor
 Farmers are heterogeneous ( commercial, semi-commercial subsistence, landless farm workers)
Poverty incidence: rural (66%) > urban areas (34%)
 Corn farmers – 41%
 Rice and corn farmers – 36%
 Sugarcane farm workers, coconut farm workers, forestry workers – 33%
 Fisheries in the Coastal waters – 31%
Why Filipinos are poor?
-Severe inequality of income and assets – worsened by the inequality of access to:
 Education
 Health Care
 Other social service such as: safe drinking water, electricity and farm to market roads.
-The wealthiest fifth of our people are 10x richer than the poorest fifth
-Rural people are the poorest because the urban poor have better access to social services.

Philippine population Trends and Agricultural Situation

 The annual population growth rate is 1.54% (2016)
 The country’s population as of June 30, 2016 is 102.24 M.
 In the 2015, the country’s population was 100.98M.
 In the 2010, the country’s population was 91.87M.
 By 2020, the population shall be 108.44M.
Agricultural Production (Crops)
 Palay 15.77 MMT
 Corn 6.37 MMT
 Coconut 15,51 MMT
 Banana 5.06 MMT
 Sugarcane 28.54 MMT
 Mango 0.88 MMT
 Pineapple 1.62 MMT
 Cassava 1.65 MMT
 Coffee 0.13 MMT
 Camote 0.55 MMT
Nature of Agriculture as a Field of Study
Comparison Traditional and Modern Agriculture
Traditional Modern Agriculture
 Low-input  High-input
 Low yield/productivity  High productivity
 Highly sustainable  Low sustainability
 Diversified  Less diversified (monoculture)
 Use of synthetic/agrochemicals
 Highly artificial environment

The Importance of Agriculture

Generally, Agriculture plays a pivotal role in the progress and development of man and the nation as a
whole. It is the backbone of the economic system of a given country. In addition to providing food and raw
materials, it also provides employment opportunities to many people around the world.
1. Source of Livelihood
2. Contributes to National Revenue
3. Supply of Food and Feeds
4. Contributes to International Trade
5. Source of Raw Materials
6. Provides Employment Opportunities
7. Contributes to Food Security
Uses and Contributions of Agricultural Crops
1. Food 4. Beverages 7. Fiber 10. Dyes and Pigments

2
2. Feed 5. Oil 8. Wood Products 11. Rubber
3. Medicines / Drugs 6. Sugar 9. Tanning materials 12. Smoking and chewing
materials

Classification of Agricultural Crop Plants

Plant – refers to any organism belonging to the kingdom Plantae.
Crop – is a domesticated plant grown for profit.

Plants are classified in three ways:

1. Botanical Classification
2. Descriptive Classification
3. Agricultural Classification
I. Botanical Classification
The botanical classification of plants is based on the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature
and the International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants.

Plant Taxonomy – Science that deals with classification, identification, naming of plants.
Importance of Plant Taxonomy
1. To get acquainted (familiar) with crops.
2. To understand the soil and water requirement of different crops.
3. To know the adaptability of crops.
4. To know the growing habit.
5. To know the climatic requirement of different crops
6. To know the economic produce of the crop plant and its use.
7. To know the growing season of the crop

Theoprastus (Father of Botany) – the first scientist who worked on botanical system of classification. He
classified plants by gross morphology (form, size, and texture).

Carolus Linneaus – a Swedish physician credited for his work by giving two-part scientific names (binomial
system – Genus and species name) to organisms. Usually a third name is placed after the species to give
authority who named the plant. Example: Oryza sativa L.
A. Naming Crop Plants Examples
1. Common Name Rice Cassava Cowpea
2. Local Name Bigas KamotengKahoy Sitao
3. Scientific Name Oryza sativa Manihot esculenta/utilissima Vigna sinensis
B. Grouping Crop Plant (Corn Plant)
Classification Unit (Hierarchy of Crop Plants)
Kingdom - Plantae Order - Graminales
Division - Spermatophyte Family - Graminae/Poaceae
Subdivision - Ptecopsida Genus - Zea
Class - Angiosperm Species - mays
Subclass - Monocotyledon Scientific Name - Zea mays L.

II. Descriptive Classification

Plants are classified (described) based on the following criteria:
A. Growth habits/Life cycle
1. Annual crops – single growing season (Four months)
Examples: Rice, Corn, Sweet Potato, Mungbean, Cabbage
2. Biennial crops – two growing season (Five to Eight months)
Examples: Gabi, Cassava, Ginger, Turmeric
3. Perennial Crops – continue growing indefinitely
Examples: Mango, Coconut, Durian
B. Structure and Form (Morphology)
1. Herbaceous – soft and succulent stem. Examples: Tomato, Sweet Pepper, Soybean
2. Woody/Trees – develop secondary tissues called as “wood”. Examples: Mango, Jackfruit, Narra
3. Shrub – small trees. Examples: Lemon, Coffee, Cacao
4. Vines – trailing or climbing plants. Examples: Ampalaya, Chayote, Stringbeans.
C. Leaf retention
1. Deciduous – loose leaves annually for extended period.
3
 Examples: Mahogany and Rubber
2. Evergreen – maintain leaves throughout the year.
Examples: Marang and Mango
D. Climatic adaptation
1. Tropical – warm climate
2. Temperate – marked winter season (freezing)
3. Sub-tropical – eg. Baguio city
E. Usefulness: root crops, medicinal, forage, fruits and vegetable, grains and cereals, ornamental, fiber
crop, sugar crop, oil crop and beverage crop.

III. Agricultural Classification

1. Agronomic Classification of Crops
2. Horticultural Classification
A. Agronomic Classification
Agronomy – science which deals with field crop production and management.
- Derived from Greek words “agros” (field) and”nomos” (to manage).
Agronomic Crops or Field Crops– are herbaceous plants that are grown on the farm under a system of
“extensive” or large scale culture. They are grouped or classified based on the manner by which they are
utilized.
A. Cereal or Grain Crops – belonging to grass family, which are utilized as staple. The word “cereal” is
derived from the name of the most important grain deity; the Roman Goddess “Ceres”
Examples: 1. Rice Oryza sativa 5. Barley Hordeum vulgare
2. Corn Zea mays 6. Wheat Triticum vulgare
3. Adlai Coix Lacryma-jobi 7. Oat Avena sativa
4. Sorghum Sorghum vulgare 8. Rye Secale cereale
B. Legume Seed Crops – Legume seed or pulses of the family Leguminosae, which are consumed in the
dry seed form. The legumes are rich sources of protein. The plants possess the ability to fix nitrogen
from the air in symbiotic association with Rhizobium bacteria.
Examples: 1. Mungbean Vigna radiata 4. Peanut Arachis hypogea
2. Cowpea Vigna sinensis 5. Soybeans Glycine max
3. Whitebean Phaseolus vulgaris 6. Peas Pisum sativum
C. Root and Tuber Crops – are rich sources of carbohydrate.
Examples: 1. Cassava Manihot esculenta 4. Gabi Colocasia esculenta
2. Sweet potato Ipomea batatas 5. Ubi/Yam Dioscorea alata
3. Potato Solanum tuberosum
D. Sugar Crops – grown for their sweet syrup.
Examples: 1. Sugarcane Saccharum officinalis 2. Sugar beet Beta vulgaris
E. Oil and Beverages Crops – Oil crop grown for its oil content.
Examples: 1. Coconut Cocos nucifera 3. Castor bean Ricinus communis
2. Palm oil Elaeis guineensis
Beverage Crop – grown as drink.
Examples: 1. Coffee Coffea arabica 3. Tea Thea sinensis
2. Cacao Theobroma cacao
F. Fiber Crops – grown for their fiber content
Examples: 1. Abaca Musa textiles 4. Pineapple Ananas comosus
2. Cotton Gossypium spp. 5. Ramie Boehmeria nivea
3. Kapok Caiba pontandra
G. Rubber Crop – grown for its latex content. Example: Rubber tree Hevea braziliensis
H. Forage Crops – grown as feeds for livestock.
Examples: 1. Guinea Panicum maximum 3. Carabao grass Paspalum conjugatum
2. Napier Pennisetum purpureum 4. Ipil-ipil Leucaena leucocephala
I. Medicinal Crops – grown for their medicinal value.
Examples: 1. Ginger Zingiber officinale 3. Lagundi Vitex negundo
2. Turmeric Curcuma longa
B. Horticultural Classification
Horticulture – is the science which deals with study of Fruits (Pomology), Vegetables (Olericulture),
Ornamental (Floriculture), Nursery management and Landscape Gardening.
- Derived from two latin words “hortos” (garden) and “cultura” (cultivation).
A. Fruit Crops
1. Avocado - Persia americana
2. Banana - Musa sapientum

4
 3. Breadfruit - Artocarpus communis/camansi
4. Durian - Durio zibethinus
5. Grapes - Vitis vinifera
6. Guava - Psidium guajava
7. Guyabano - Anona muricata
8. Jackfruit - Artocarpus integra
9. Lanzones - Lansium domesticum
10. Lemon - Citrus lemonia
11. Mango - Mangifera indica
12. Mangosteen - Garcinia mangostana
13. Marang - Artocarpus odoratissima
14. Orange - Citrus sinensis
15. Papaya - Carica papaya
16. Pineapple - Ananas comosus
17. Pomelo - Citrus maxima
18. Rambutan - Nephelium lappaceum
19. Santol - Sandoricum koetjape
20. Siniguelas - Spongian purporea
21. Strawbery - Fragaria vesca
B. Vegetable Crops
1. Tomato - Lycopersicum esculentum 12. Chayote - Sechium edule
2. Cabbage - Brassica oleracea 13. Onion - Allium cepa
3. Carrot - Daucus carota 14. Garlic - Allium sativum
4. Eggplant - Solanum melongena 15. White Scallion - Allium ampeloprasum
5. Ampalaya - Momordica charantia 16. Green Onion - Allium fistulosum
6. Potato - Solanum tuberosum 17. Sweet Pepper - Capsicum annuum
7. Pechay - Brassica chinensis 18. Hot Pepper - Capsicum frutescens
8. Cucumber - Cucumis sativus 19. Kangkong - Ipomea aquatica
9. Radish - Raphanus sativus 20. Lettuce - Lactuca sativa
10. Squash - Cucurbita maxima 21. Ginger - Zingiber officinale
11. Okra - Abelmoschus esculentus
C. Ornamental Crops
1. Chrysanthemum - Chrysanthemum marifolium
2. Gladiolus - Gladiolus grandiflorus
3. Rose - Rosa spp.
4. Anthurium - Anthurium hortulanum
5. Poisenttia - Euphorbia pulcherrima
Other Classifications
A. Classification according to habitat:
1. Terrestrial – those plants that grow on land.
2. Aquatic plants – those plants that grow on bodies of water (floating, emergent and submerge).
B. Classification cording to elevation of the land:
1. Lowland crops – crops that grow well in low and plain portion of the land.
2. Upland crops – crops grown in higher portion of the land or in rolling or hilly areas.
C. Classification according to method of propagation:
1. Sexually propagated crops – crops that are propagated seeds.
2. Asexually propagated crops – crops that are propagated using the vegetative parts of the plants (stem, leaves,
roots)
D. Classification according to purpose
1. Cover crops – crops grown to maintain a plant cover on the land top prevent erosion and leaching, when
turned under it becomes a manure crop hence, improved soil condition.
2. Companion crop – a crop planted simultaneously with the main crop.
3. Green manure – a crop grown and plowed during their peak of flowering to improve the soil fertility.
4. Soilage crop – forage that is cut green and fed to livestock.
5. Silage crop – forage that has been cut and preserved in a succulent condition by partial fermentation.
6. Catch crops or Substitute crops – planted late after the regular crop failed.
7. Trap crops – planted to attract insects and parasites

5
 Republic of the Philippines
MINDANAO STATE UNIVERSITYBUUG CAMPUS
DatuPanas, Buug, Zamboanga Sibugay
COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE

Module
Subject: AGR001
Description: Introduction to Agriculture
Area: Crop Science
Topic: Overview of Agriculture, Classification of Agricultural Crops, Field of Study in Agriculture and
Food System.
Instructor: Junry R. Maato

Requirements:
Gardening and Narrative Report
1. Plant one agronomic or vegetable crops suited in your location.
2. Plot size will be 6 meters by 1.5 meters excluding canals.
3. Make video documentation and narrative report of your laboratory activity and submit after
harvesting.
4. The narrative report must be encoded and no format will be given, it is up to you how you will
present your narrative report. However, Observation, Reaction, Experiences, Problem encountered and solution,
Conclusion and Recommendation must be included in the narrative report.

Grading system:
Major exams - 50%
Quizzes, assignments & seatwork - 10%
Laboratory exercise/field work - 30%
Project - 5%
Attendance & participation - 5%
100%
Passing Mark: 60% (3.0)
Incomplete/Conditional Grade: 50%-59% (INC) [due for completion/removal exam]
Failing Grade: ˂ 50% (5.0)

Part I
Overview of Agriculture

Part II
Classification of Agricultural Crops

Part III
Field of Study in Agriculture

Part IV
Food System

Activity #: 1
Draw Agriculturalcrops in the boxes that well-known to you and label the crops.

6
Activity #: 2
Questions:
1. What is Agriculture?
2. Define Agriculture as an art.
3. Define Agriculture as a science.
4. Define Agriculture as an industry.
5. What are the importance of agriculture?
6. How agriculture affects the economy of the country?

Note: Answer all this questions based on your understanding and knowledge. Please do not copy from the
topic.This is important for assessment after we will finish the FIRST PART of this course subject.

7
1.________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________.
2.________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________.
3.________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________.
4.________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________.
5.________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________.
6.________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________.

Overview

Agriculture is derived from "Latin" words Ager and Cultura. Ager means land or field Cultura means cultivation.
 the science and art of producing crops and livestock for economic purposes.
 It is also referred as the science of producing crops and livestock from the natural resources of the earth.
 is synonymous with farming–the production of food, fodder and other industrial materials. Agriculture may include
cultivating the soil, growing and harvesting crops, and raising livestock.

- Concern with the observation and classification of knowledge concerning crops and livestock especially the
establishment of verifiable principles.

As an Art – itembraces knowledge of the way to perform the operations of the farm in a skillful manner.
The skill is categorized as;
 Physical skill: It involves the ability and capacity to carry out the operation in an efficient way handling of
farm implements, animals etc., sowing of seeds,fertilizer and pesticides application etc.
 Mental skill: The farmer is able to take a decision based on experience, such as:
(i) time and method of ploughing,
(ii) selection of crop and cropping system to suit soil and climate,
(iii) adopting improved farm practices etc.
As a Science – it utilizes all modern technologies developed on scientific principles such as:
1. crop improvement/breeding
2. crop production
3. crop protection
4. economics & others to maximize the yield and profit.
For example:
new crops and varieties developed by hybridization,
8
 transgenic crop varieties resistant to pests and diseases,
hybrids in each crop,
high fertilizer responsive varieties,
water management,
herbicides to control weeds,
use of bio-control agents to combat pest and diseases etc.

As the Business – as long as agriculture is the way of life of the rural population, production is ultimately bound to
consumption.
 Agriculture as a business aims at maximum net return through the management of land, labour, water and capital,
employing the knowledge of various sciences for production of food, feed, fibre and fuel.
 Agriculture is commercialized to run as a business through mechanization.

Scope of Agriculture

 National Economy: It is the backbone of national economy because it contributes a major portion of national
income.
 Industrial Inputs: raw materials
 Food Supply: plays an important role in feeding the growing population.
 State Revenue: taxes
 Trade: exportation

The primary aim of agriculture:

 to cause the land to produce more abundantly;
 to protect it from deterioration and misuse.

History of Agriculture

In pre-scientific agriculture, six persons could produce enough food for ten persons in years of bad harvest; they could
produce only enough for themselves.

With the development of agricultural science and application of advanced technology, now five persons are able to
produce enough food for more than 100 people.

Early knowledge of agriculture was a collection of experiences transmitted from farmer to farmer verbally since there was
no available agricultural technology.

A number of experiments were conducted by researchers/scientists at different places of the world, and the researchers‟
findings have been summarized as under:

Van Helmont (1577-1644AD) initiated experiments pertaining to plant nutrition in a systematic way and concluded that
water is the main principle of vegetation.

JethroTull (1674-1741 AD) - conducted several experiments which were mostly on cultural practices.
- He developed seed drill and horse drawn cultivator.
- He published a book entitled „Horse hoeing husbandry’

Aurthur Young (1760-1820 AD)- conducted pot culture experiment to increase yield of crops by applying several
materials like poultry dung, nitre, gun powder and others.
- He published his work in 46 volumes as “Annals of Agriculture”.
- In 1809, soil science began with the formation of humus theory.

Scientific Research in agronomy started with the establishment of the first experiment station by J.B. Boussingault in
Alsace in 1834 and was given further impetus by Gilbert and Lawes by establishing the famous research facility at
Rothamsted (Rothamsted Experiment Station), England.

Agronomy has been a distinct and recognized branch of agricultural sciences only since about 1900.

The American Society of Agronomy was organized in 1908.

It had its origins largely in the sciences of botany, chemistry, and physics.

9
Research in plant nutrition and physiology was started in 18th century.

Sir Humphry Davy (1813) published his book “Elements of Agricultural Chemistry”.

Sir Johan Bennet Lawes began to experiment on the effects of manures on crops.

Justus Von Liebig (1840) - He started a truly scientific approach to farming.

His classical work on agricultural chemistry and physiology launched systematic development of agriculture.

Lawes (1842) patented a process of treating phosphate rock to produce super phosphate and thus, initiated the synthetic
fertilizer industry.

Systematic selection of cereal varieties according to predicted yield was commenced in the 18th century.

.Gregor Mendel (1866)n- discovered the laws of heredity and the ways to cause mutations.
- It led to Modern Plant Breeding.
- Application of genetics to develop new strains of plants and animals brought major changes in agriculture.

Charles Darwin (1876) published the results of experiments on cross and self-fertilization in plants.

Mechanization took hold in Western Europe and the newly settled countries only after 1850.

An efficient seed drill was devised in 1830s. In1892, the first successful tractor was built in US.

Farm implements and machinery were manufactured industrially on a large scale by 1930s.

The electricity was applied to agricultural operations due to increase economic pressure and decrease in labour availability
in 1920s.

The first successful large scale conquest of a pest by chemical means was the control of grape vine powdery mildew in
Europe in 1840s.

Dr. Paul Mullerfirst synthesized DDT in 1874.

Major advances in the study of plant diseases were recorded in 19th century.

Application of agricultural economics and scientific management of farm commenced in German speaking countries early
in the 19th century.

The US Congress set up Department of Agriculture and provided college of Agriculture in each state.
The key data in the history of agricultural research and education was published by the US in 1862.

Development of Human Culture

Stone age - The Pre-history Stone age is broken down into three periods, according to the material used for making tools:

- The Paleolithic Period or Old/Ancient stone age (2.5 million-12,000 B.C.) - The age in human culture was
characterized by the use of rough or chipped stone tools
- Old Stone Age or Paleolithic Period is the “Age of food gatherers”.
- New Stone Age or the Neolithic Age (12000 to 4000 B.C.)) is referred to as the “Age of food producers”.
Paleolithic and Neolithic periods
- Men concentrated on hunting and gathering of food.
- Human lived as hunter-gatherers during early period of existence, and it was a tough, day-to-day existence.
Who wants to have a hand-to-hand confrontation with wild game?
- Women by their intrinsic insight first observed that plants come up from seeds.
- Women were the pioneers for cultivating useful plants from the wild flora.
- Bronze Age onwards as the‘Age of civilization’, started towards the end of the Neolithic Age.
Three major lifestyle groupings:
(i) Hunter gatherer
(ii) Agriculture
(iii) Technological civilization

Ice Age (Upper Paleolithic - 35,000 to 8,000 B.C.)

- Vegetable foods would have formed a minor supplement.
- A typical Australian aborigine’s catch for the day may include snakes, lizards, ant eaters, frogs and grubs, and a
wallaby or two.
- They use a poisoned dart propelled from a two-meter long bamboo blow pipe to kill some animals.

10
TheBeginning of Agriculture
- Demographic pressure led to the adoption of crop cultivation and animal husbandry, leading to modern
civilization.
- As the population grew, there was an increased dependence upon plants.
- The consumer's demand within a constrained space forced the adoption of some form of intensive agriculture.
- Other evidence for this trend is found in Peru where people domesticated camelids and guinea pigs 2,000 years
before crop cultivation.
- Agriculture have been started with the end of the last Ice Age between 15,000 and 8,000 years ago, people living
the hunter-gatherer lifestyle depended upon what was available.
- The human culture characterized by cultures moving from a food-gathering society to a food-production society.
Tools in this age often had “barbs” or hooks, or interchangeable.
- The beginning of plant cultivation also appeared. Chotanagpurplateau,central India and south of the river
Krishna are some of the various Mesolithic sites.

Table 1. The Type of Economy and Culture During the Mesolithic Period-Bronze Age

TECHNOLOGICAL CIVILIZATION

- The development of a technological civilization is a matter of degree rather than a moment in time.
Early Egyptian societies were technological, enabling complex engineering such as the pyramids.
- Technology has been with humans from the first use of a stone as a tool, as it is with some chimpanzee groups
today.
- With the introduction of agriculture, villages and cities became possible as people did not have to travel in search
of food. (Civilization comes from the Latin word “civitas” meaning city.)
- This sedentary way of life formed the basis for modern civilization.
- Egypt and Mesopotamia had established irrigation systems by 5,000 years ago.
- In China, people developed the iron plough by 2,600 years ago,replacing wood and stone ploughs as a more
effective tool.

Ancient people are responsible for the basic inventions such as:
 the use of fire
 the use of metals such as gold and copper bows and arrows
 the fish hook, spinning and weaving
 agriculture, animal domestication
 sail boats and ships
 wells and irrigation

11
 Pottery
 clothing, language
 ,arithmetic
 the alphabet and
 written communication in prehistoric times.

Agriculture began about 10,000 years ago in an area called the Fertile Crescent, in modern-day Iraq, Syria, and
Jordan.

The Fertile Crescent is a crescent-shaped region containing the comparatively moist and fertile land of otherwise
arid and semi-arid Western Asia, the Nile Valley and Nile Delta of northeast Africa, it was also near Asia Minor or known
as Anatolia.

James Henry Breasted - an Archeologist from University of Chicago popularized the term, the Fertile Crescent.

The modern-day countries with significant territory within the Fertile Crescent are:
Iraq Kuwait Syria Lebanon Jordan
Israel Palestine Cyprus, and Egypt

Fertile Crescent
 the region is often called the cradle of civilization;
 development of some of the earliest human civilizations was seen;
 human civilizations was flourished because of the availability waterwhich considered as one of the agricultural
resources.

Fertile Crescent
Technological advances made in the region include the development of writing, glass, the wheel and the use of irrigation.
===========================================================================

The early domesticated crops can be traced based on the following:

1. Cereals were already grown in Syria, 9,000 years ago.
2. Prehistoric seedless figs were discovered in the Jordan Valley, suggesting that fig trees were being planted some
11,300 years ago.

In the cold of Europe, oats flourished alongside of wheat.

Wheat was the first basic crop and has two main forms that still exist today.
1. emmer- the first variety still grows wild in the region.
2. bread wheat - the second variety and not wild, but probably emerged from the crossing of emmer with another wild
grass. Considered as the most important crop on earth until today.
Other plants cultivated includes:
Peas Lentils Barley
Linseed Grapes

Development of Agriculture

The development of agriculture was started early civilization, when man developed an idea that man differs from other
forms of life.
1. Pastoral Age. The method of getting food by early man is through hunting-and -gathering. They depend on what is
available in nature.

2. Middle Stone Age (from 8,000 B.C.). This is the period where man: a.Use bow and arrow in hunting wild animals
for food. Learned to catch ,,drying and storing fish c. Learned to stored seeds, nuts and fruits

3. New Stone Age or Neolithic Age (food production revolution started between 6000 to 7000 BC)

During New Stone Age or Neolithic Age, food production revolution started (between 6000 to 7000 BC): discovery of
relation of seed to plant was started,domestication of plants and animalsvillages began to grow crops and man made the
transition from food collection to growing of crops.

The growing of crops includes both "seed" agriculture and vegeculture.

Vegeculture - refers to vegetatively propagated plants like taro or gabi, sweet potato, yam, banana, cassava and
arrowroot.

Seed agriculture - includes mostly the cereals (rice, corn) and grain legumes (peanut, mungbean, soyabeans, cowpeas).

12
ORIGIN, DOMESTICATION AND HISTORY OF THE MAJOR CROPS OF THE WORLD

Pleistocene glacial period, or Ice Age (about 11,700 years ago). The first agriculture appears to have developed at the
closing of the last of this period.

MAETHESON et. Al (1975) stated that earliest domestication was occurred in Middle East, and it was CUSHITES, the
race of people who did not only experimented with plants as a source of food but also attempted to culture.

CUSHITES may be regarded as first agriculturists.

During early period, man realized that in a vegetative diet, the three major components are necessary and these are:
1. carbohydrates for energy
2. protein for muscle development
3. vitamins to augment the different types of protein and minerals.

Two plant families that can be the source of carbohydrates and protiens:
1. Graminae
2. Leguminoceae
Graminae family
 Rice
 Corn
Leguminoceae family
 mungbean
 peanuts
All subsequent civilization has been established around originating largely from these basic plants sources.

Example:
Places Crops grown
The Americas - maize and peanut
Africa - sorghum and beans
The Middle East - wheat, barley andbeans
Asia - rice and soybeans

Major and Important Crops grown in the Philippines

1. Palay Oryza  sativa Linn Palay/Paddy

2. Mais Zea mays L. Corn/Maize

3. Niyog Cocos nucifera L. Coconut

4. Tubo Saccharum officinarum L  Sugarcane

5. Saging Musa sapientum var.  Banana

6. Pinya Ananas comosus L Pineapple

7. Kape Coffea  arabica sp. Coffee

8. Mangga Mangifera indica L Mango

9.Tabako Nicotiana tabacum Tobacco

10. Abaka Musa textiles Nee Abaca

11. Mani Arachis  hypogaea Linn Peanut

 2. Mongo  Vigna radiata L. Mungbean

13. Kamoteng kahoy Manihot esculenta Crantz. Cassava

 14. Kamote  Ipomoea batatas Lam Sweet Potato

15. Kamatis Ipomoea batatas Lam Sweet Potato

 16. Bawang Allium sativum Linn. Garlic

17. Sibuyas Allium cepa Linn. Onion bulb

18. Repolyo Brassica oleracea L. (var. Capitata) Cabbage

19. Talong Solanum melongena Linn. Eggplant

13
 20. Kalamansi Citrus madurensis Lour. Calamansi

21. Raber Hevea brasilliensis Mull.Ara Rubber

How it changed the world?

- Agriculture allowed for higher population densities.
- Agriculture provided the means to create metropolitan areas.
- Farmers specialized in growing foodcrops, which allowed the rest of the population to do other things like art,
construction, and etc.
- Agriculture also provided the stepping stone towards democracy, commerce and religion
- SOME religions worshiped the sun, because it provided the light to grow the wheat to feed the people.
- Without agriculture we wouldn’t have New York City or The Great Pyramids.

What are the Importance of Agriculture?

- Agriculture has been associated with production of essential food crops.
- Agriculture plays a critical role in the entire life of a given economy.
- The backbone of economic system of a given country.
- Provides food and raw material
- Provides employment opportunities to very large percentage of population.

Agriculture Development Scenario

Agricultural System Cultural stage  or time Average cereal yield (t/ha)

Hunting and Gathering Paleolithic(Old Stone Age) –

Shifting Agriculture Neolithic (about 7,000 B.C.) 1

Medieval Agriculture 500–1450 A.D. 1

Livestock farming 18th Century 2

Fertilizer/Pesticide in Agricu 20th Century 4
lture

Several theories as to why humans started domesticating plants and animals for sustainance.
Example:
The Oasis Theory -suggests that as the climate got drier, communities moved to oasis (a place in a desert where
there is water and thereforeplants and trees and sometimes a village or town) where they were forced to domesticate plants
and animals.

The Evolutionary/Intentionality theory:

This theory suggests that plants and humans co-evolved. This theory begins with the protection of wild plants, which
eventually led to their domestication.

The Domestication Theory: This theory says that humans first gave up their nomadic ways, then began
domesticating plants.

The Innovation and Specialization Theory:

 A relatively recent theory (2008), which treats agriculture as a form of specialization coming from two factors:
1. higher population densities
2. innovation

 Farming didn’t begin as a large scale operation, like many farms are today.

What is the world’s first farm?

 The first “farm” may have actually been a forest-garden.
 A forest garden is a designed in agronomic system based on trees, shrubs and perennial plants.
 These are mixed in such a way as to mimic the structure of a natural forest - the most stable and sustainable type
of ecosystem.
 Forest-garden was known as the "first farm and which basically low-maintenance gardens that utilize several
different vegetables, trees, shrubs and vines in a way that is sustainable.

Wheat was the first crop being grown and cultivated on a large scale.

Development of scientific agriculture in world

14
 1. Francis Bacon (1561–1624 A.D.) : Found the water as nutrient of plants
1. 2. G.R. Glanber (1604–1668 A.D.) : (KNO3) as nutrient and not water
2. Jethrotull (1674–1741 A.D.) : Fine soil particle as plant nutrient
3. Priestly (1730–1799 A.D.) : Discovered the oxygen
4. Francis Home (1775 A.D.) : Water, air, salts, fire and oil from the plant nutrients
5. Charles and Francis (1780 A.D.) : Isolated and characterized Indole -3- Acetic Acid (IAA)
6. Thomas Jefferson (1793 A.D.) : Developed the mould board plough.
7. Theodore-de-Saussure : Found that plants absorb CO2 from air andrelease O2; soil supply N2 and ash to plants

Justus van Liebig (1804–1873 A.D.): A German chemist developed the concept called “Liebig’s law of minimum”.
It states as follows.
“A deficiency or absence of the necessary constituent, all others being present, renders the soil barren for crops for
which that nutrient is needed”–It is referred as “Barrel concept”. If the barrel has stones of different heights, the lowest
one establishes the capacity of the Barrel. Nitrogen has the lowest share, establishes the maximum capacity of the barrel.

 Accordingly, the growth factor in lowest supply (whether climatic, edaphic, genetic or biotic) sets the capacity for
yield.
 Similarly a soil deficient in nitrogen (N) can’t be made to produce well by adding more calcium (Ca) or
potassium (K) where they are already abundant.

In 1875, Michigen State University was established to provide agriculture education on college level.

GregorMendel (1866) Father of Genetics. Through his work on pea plants, discovered the fundamental laws of
inheritance.

Charles Darwin (1876) published the results of experiments on cross and self-fertilization in plants.P

Thomas Malthus (1898) Proposed “Malthusian Theory” that the human race would run or later run out of food for
everyone in spite of the rapid advances being made in agriculture at that time,because of limited land and yield potential
of crops.

E.A. Mitsherlich (1909) proposed a theory of “Law of diminishing returns” states that,
 "The increase in any crop produce by a unit increment of a deficient factor is proportional to the decrement of that
factor from the maximum and the response is curvilinear instead of linear".
 Mitscherlich equation is dy/dx = C (A-Y)
 where,
 d – increment or change
 dy – amount of increase in yield
 dx – amount of increment of the growth factor x.
 A – Maximum possible yield
 Y – Yield obtained for the given quantity of factor ‘x’ and
 C – Proportionality constant that depends on the nature of the growth factor.

Wilcox (1929) proposed “Inverse Yield–Nitrogen law” states that, the growth and yielding ability of any crop plant is
inversely proportional to the mean nitrogen content in the dry matter.

 In the tissues minimum percentage range, an added increment of a nutrient increases the yield but not the nutrient
percentage.
 In the poverty adjustment range, an added increment of a nutrient increases the nutrient percentage but not the
yield.
 In the luxury consumption range, added increment of nutrient have little effect of yield. But increase the nutrient
composition percentage.
 The point between poverty adjustment and luxury consumption was the “Critical percentage”.

Macy suggested that Liebig’s law holds good in the tissue minimum percentage range because there is not enough of
a nutrient to allow much plant growth.

Liebig’s law holds good again in the luxury consumption range. Because there is a large supply of nutrient, some
other nutrient becomes limiting and stops growth.

Mitscherlich’s law of diminishing returns holds during the poverty adjustment range because the response curve is
linear representing the diminishing yield to added increments.

Zimmerman and Hitchcock (1942) reported that 2,4-D could act as growth promoter at extremely low
concentration. Now 2,4-D is used to overcome the problem of seediness in Poovan banana.

In 1945, herbicide 2,4,5-T was developed.

In 1954, Gibberlic acid structure was identified by Japanese.

15
 In 1950’s Bennet and Clark identified ABA (Abscessic acid), which inhibits plant growth and controls shedding of
plant parts.

===========================================================================

Activity #: 3
Write a summary of what you have understand about the topic. And, incorporate your view about
Agriculture before and after you have learned about it.

__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
16
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________

17