1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 MODES OF HEAT TRANSFER

As simply described, fundamental engineering heat transfer knowledge consist know-
how of evaluating rates three modes of heat transfer with specific conditions, properties
and geometries, and further applying that to design and performance analysis of heat
exchangers.

Table 1-1 Three modes of heat transfer and their basic rate equations
Conduction Convection Radiation
Heat transfer across medium. Heat transfer between moving Heat transfer in form of
fluid and surface. electromagnetic waves emitted
by surfaces at a finite
temperature.

q � � kA
dT q � hA�TS � T� � �
q � �A� TS4 � T�4 �
dx

Figure 1-1 Heat transfer modes: Conduction, Convection and Radiation

1.1.1 Conduction
Conduction is transfer of energy from more energetic particles to less energetic ones
due to interaction between atomic and molecular particles.

In Solids conduction is due to combination of

� (1) Vibrations of the molecules in a lattice and (2) Energy transport by free
electrons
In gases and liquids conduction is
� (1) Collision and (2) Diffusion of molecules during their random motion.

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Fourier’s Law of Heat Conduction

dT
q � � kA (1-1)
dx
k Thermal conductivity [kJ/mK]
A Area perpendicular to direction of heat transfer [m2]
dT dx Temperature gradient [K/m]

Figure 1-2 One-dimensional heat transfer by conduction

Thermal conductivity is rate of heat transfer through a unit thickness of material per
unit area per unit temperature difference. Thermal conductivity is property of material
and dependent on temperature (read chapter 2). Just to give the idea on range of
conductivities: changing from insulation to metal thermal conductivity varies with
0.001-100 W/mK.

Figure 1-3 Range of Conductivities

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1.1.2 Convection
Convection is classified according the nature of the flow:

� Free (Natural) Convection – Flow is induced by buoyancy forces, which are

caused by temperature variations formed due to heat transfer in the fluid.
� Forced Convection – Flow is caused by external means: fan, pump, wind, etc.

Commonly, convection is sensible energy transfer of the fluid. Two special convection
heat transfer cases associated with phase change between liquid and vapour states of
fluid are (1) boiling and (2) condensation.

Figure 1-4 Convection heat transfer classification: forced, free, (boiling, condensation)

Convection heat transfer is combination of two mechanisms:

� Random molecular motion – diffusion (Conduction)
� And bulk/macroscopic fluid motion.
Two types of boundary layers are associated with fluid flow near surface and
convective heat transfer. Hydrodynamic Boundary Layer is region of the fluid, where
velocity varies from zero at surface to velocity u� of bulk fluid flow. Thermal
Boundary Layer is region of the fluid, where temperature varies from surface
temperature to bulk fluid temperature. At the interface (surface) temperatures of solid
and fluid are same and velocity of fluid is zero and heat is transferred only by random
molecular motion (conduction).

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Figure 1-5 Three Boundary layers: temperature, concentration and velocity boundary layers

Newton’s Law of Cooling

Convection heat transfer rate is expressed commonly as Newton’s law of cooling:

q � hA�TS � T� � (1-2)

h Convection heat transfer coefficient [W/Km2]

A Area perpendicular to heat transfer [m2]
TS Surface temperature [K]
T� Fluid temperature [K]

Convection heat transfer coefficient is experimentally determined parameter and it is

function of surface geometry, nature of fluid motion, properties of fluid and bulk fluid
velocity.

1.1.3 Radiation
Radiation is energy emitted by matter that is at nonzero temperature in form of
electromagnetic waves. Electromagnetic waves are caused by electronic configuration
changes of atoms and molecules. Contrarily to conduction and convection, energy
transfer due radiation is most efficient in vacuum. Even radiation is volumetric
phenomenon, it is typically considered as transfer phenomenon between solid surfaces.

Stefan-Boltzmann Law
Surface that emits maximum rate of radiation is called blackbody or ideal radiator.
Upper limit of emissive heat transfer is given by Stefan-Boltzmann law as
Eb � �TS4 (1-3)
Eb = Emissive power of blackbody [W/m2]
� = Stefan-Boltzmann constant [W/m2K4]
TS = Absolute temperature of the surface [K]

Heat flux emitted by real surface is less than that of blackbody at the same temperature
and is given as

E � ��TS4 (1-4)
E = Emissive power of real surface [W/m2]
� = Emissivity, 0 � � � 1

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Emissivity depends strongly on material and finish of surface. Absorptivity � is
another surface radiation property. Absorptivity is the fraction of the radiation energy
incident on a surface that is absorbed and its value varies between 0 and 1. Blackbody
is perfect absorber ( � � 1 ). Radiation incident on a surface from its surroundings is
called irradiation, G, and rate, which irradiation is absorbed to surface is

Gabs � �G (1-5)
Gabs = Absorbed radiation [W/m ] 2

� = Absorptivity, 0 � � � 1
G = Irradiation [W/m2]

Figure 1-6 Radiation heat transfer

Kirchhoff’s Law of Radiation

Emissivity and absorptivity of a surface are equal at the same temperature and
wavelength. Usually, dependence on temperature and wavelength are ignored by
approximating emissivity and absorptivity to be equals (a gray surface).

�
q' ' � �� TS4 � T�4 � (1-6)

q” Radiation heat flux [W/m2]

� gray surface emissivity
TS Temperature at surface [K]
T� Temperature at surroundings [K]

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1.2 CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
1st Law of Thermodynamics
The Law of conservation of energy over a time interval: “The increase in the amount of
energy stored in a control volume must equal the amount of energy that enters the
control volume, minus the amount of energy that leaves the control volume.” For closed
system 1st law of thermodynamics over a time interval can be stated as

�Esttot � Q � W (1-7)

�Esttot = Change in total energy stored in system

Q = Net heat transferred to system
W = Net work done by the system

Figure 1-7 Energy balance for a) a closed system over a time interval b) open system (control volume) at
instant time given as rates.

Total energy consists of mechanical energy, which is combination of kinetic and

potential energies, and internal energy. While studying heat transfer, thermal energy is
form of internal energy to be focused on. Statement of the first law of thermodynamics
that is suitable for heat transfer analysis for control volume (also open system) can be
given as Thermal and mechanical energy equation:
dE� st
E� st � � E� in � E� out � E� g (1-8)
dt

Est = Stored thermal and mechanical energy

Ein / out = Energy entering/leaving system
Eg = Thermal energy generation

Energy storage and generation are volumetric phenomena and are usually proportional
to magnitude of volume. For control volume, thermal energy generation can be
chemical, electrical, electromagnetic or nuclear energy conversion. The inflow and
outflow terms are surface phenomena and are generally proportional to surface area.
Energy can be transferred across surface of control volume in forms of heat, work and
mass containing thermal and mechanical energies.

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For steady-state open system having no thermal energy generation, energy equation
over control volume can be written as

m� (ut � pv � 1 2 V 2 � gz )in � m� (ut � pv � 1 2 V 2 � gz )out � q � W� � 0 (1-9)

ut = Specific internal energy
pv = Specific flow work
1 V 2
= Specific kinetic energy
2
gz = Specific potential energy

Figure 1-8 Energy balance for a steady-flow, open system

For Systems having negligible kinetic and potential energy changes and negligible
work, this can be further reduced for ideal gases or incompressible liquids to simplified
steady-flow thermal energy equation:

q � m� c p (Tout � Tin ) (1-10)

1.2.1 Surface energy Balance

The most applied form of conservation of energy equation in heat transfer problems is
surface energy balance

E In � EOut (1-11)

, which in case of conduction and convection is

q conv � q cond . (1-12)

Figure 1-9 Surface Energy Balance: Conduction – Convection (Wendl)

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1.3 APPLICATIONS
Fields of heat transfer applications are for example:

� Heat Exchangers: at power plants, etc.

� Cooling of Electronic equipments
� Buildings: insulations and air-conditioning
� Refrigeration
� Human body, etc.

Engineering Heat Transfer problems can be divided to two groups:

1) Rating: Determination of heat transfer rate for system having specified

temperature difference.
2) Sizing: Determination of size of the system to transfer heat at specified rate for
a specified temperature difference.