CRIMINOLOGICAL THEORIES

2 THEORIES OF CRIME CAUSATION

II. OBJECTIVE: a. Geographical b. Ecological c. Economical d. Socio-cultural
I. SUBJECTIVE: a. Anthropological b. Medical c. Biological d. Physiological e. Psychological f. Psychiatric g.
Psycho-analytical
FOUR ELEMENTS OF SCIENTIFIC METHOD
• Replicability: Others should be able to independently replicate or repeat a scientific study and obtain similar,
if not identical, results.
• Precision: Theoretical concepts, which are often hard to measure, must be defined with such precision that
others can use those definitions to measure those concepts and test that theory.
• Falsifiability: A theory must be stated in a way that it can be disproven. Theories that cannot be tested or
falsified are not scientific theories and any such knowledge is not scientific knowledge. A theory that is
specified in imprecise terms or whose concepts are not accurately measurable cannot be tested, and is therefore
not scientific. Sigmund Freud’s ideas on psychoanalysis fall into this category and is therefore not considered a
“theory”, even though psychoanalysis may have practical utility in treating certain types of ailments.
• Parsimony: When there are multiple explanations of a phenomenon, scientists must always accept the
simplest or logically most economical explanation. This concept is called parsimony or “Occam’s razor.”
Parsimony prevents scientists from pursuing overly complex or outlandish theories with endless number of
concepts and relationships that may explain a little bit of everything but nothing in particular.
CLASSICAL CRIMINOLOGY
- This was advocated by Cesare Beccaria and Jeremy Bentham.
- • Free will- view youths are in charge of their own destinies and are free to make personal behavior
choices unaffected by environmental factors.
- • Utilitarianism- a concept which argues that people weigh the benefits and consequences of their
future actions before deciding on a course of behavior.
- • Classical criminology- holds that decisions to violate the law are weighed against possible
punishments and to deter crime the pain of punishment must outweigh the benefit of illegal gain; led to
graduated penalties on crime based on seriousness of the crime.
PURPOSE OF PUNISHMENT (CLASSICAL)
• GENERAL DETERRENCE – punishment of delinquents and criminal offenders will strike fear in the
hearts of other people, thus making them less likely to commit acts of delinquency or crimes.
• SPECIFIC DETERRENCE – punishment will strike fear in the hearts of wrongdoers thus making them
less likely to offend others again.
• INCAPACITATION – the simples form of justification; wrongdoers should be locked up in jail since
while they are imprisoned in an institution, they cannot commit offense against the other people in the
outside world.
• RETRIBUTION - this reason contradicts or objects the idea that anything good or useful will follow or
result from punishing offenders. Criminals should be punished because they deserve it; a punishment is
morally right and just in light of the harm and damage caused by the offense.
 ELEMENTS OF DETERRENCE
• Celerity. One of the three elements of deterrence. Celerity refers to how quickly an individual is punished
after committing a crime.
• Certainty. One of the three elements of deterrence. Certainty refers to how likely it is that an individual
will be caught and punished for a crime that he or she has committed. Certainty is the most important of the
three elements.
• Severity. One of the three elements of deterrence. Severity refers to how harsh the punishment for a crime
will be. In classical criminology, it is important to remember that a punishment must fit the crime. If a
punishment is not severe enough, it will not deter crime. If it is too severe, it is unjust and can lead to more
crime.

RATIONAL CHOICE THEORY

- This is the 1980s formulation of classical criminology. While the beliefs of rational choice theory can be
traced back to eighteenth-century philosopher Cesare Beccaria, this version adds a new dimension that
emphasizes the expanding role of the economist in criminological thought. The emphasis is placed on
the expected reward for committing a crime, and other associated costs and benefits surrounding
criminal activity.

EXPECTED UTILITY PRINCIPLE

- Economic theory which states that people will act in a manner that increases their benefits and reduces
their losses. This ties in closely with classical criminology and, by definition, rational choice theory,
where people seek to increase their pleasure and reduce their pain.
ROUTINE ACTIVITIES THEORY
- Routine Activities Theory. This theory states that for crime to be committed, three elements must be
present: an available target, a motivated offender, and a lack of guardians. • Cohen, Lawrence E. &
Felson, Marcus
- • Cohen, Lawrence E.: Collaborated with Marcus Felson in developing the routine activities theory.
- • Felson, Marcus: Collaborated with Lawrence Cohen in developing the routine activities theory
BROKEN WINDOWS THEORY
- Wilson and Kelling
- Poor physical appearance of a neighborhood = attraction of criminals of all types.
NEO- CLASSICAL SCHOOL
- A group of intellectuals headed by Sir William Blackstone recognized the existence of free will but
argues that certain individuals cannot exercise free will intelligently by reason of age, mental condition,
or circumstances such as minority, insanity, or duress.

CRIME PATTERN THEORY

- Paul & Patricia Brantingham
 - • Potential targets and victims have activity spaces that intersect the activity spaces of potential
offenders.

POSITIVIST THEORIES BIOLOGICAL SCHOOL

CARTOGRAPHIC SCHOOL
- Adolphe Quetelet (1796 – 1874), Belgium
Andre Michael Guerry (1802 – 1866), France
The first to independently repudiate the Classicists free will doctrine.
- Factors such as: 1. poverty, 2. age, 3. sex, 4. race, 5. climate, and “not the decisions of individuals”,
determine criminal behavior.

BIOLOGICAL THEORIES
• Atavism. Part of the theory developed by Lombroso in which a person is a “born criminal.” Atavistic or
primitive man is a throwback to an earlier stage of human evolution, and will commit crimes against society
unless specifically restrained from doing so.
• Biological School. A view of crime, also referred to as biological positivism, which claims that criminal
behavior is the result of biological or inborn defects or abnormalities. This view directly conflicts with
classical criminology, which claims that criminal activity is the result of free will. Under a biological
perspective, deterrence is of little value.
• Born Criminal. This type of criminal is the most dangerous, and can be identified through their stigmata
or identifying characteristics.
• Insane Criminal. The insane criminal type includes idiots, imbeciles, epileptics, psychotics, and the
mentally unstable. These criminals are unable to control their actions; however, they do not possess the
stigmata or identifying characteristics of the born criminal.
• Criminaloid. The criminaloid is motivated by passion, and will commit criminal acts under the proper
circumstances.
• Determinism. In considering biological theories, determinism refers to the view that an individual’s
criminal lifestyle or actions is the direct result of genetic inheritance or biological predisposition.
• Soft determinism, as explained by Matza, examines the role of determinism, but also acknowledges that
other factors, from environmental to choice, may be part of the equation. This assumes that behavior is not
completely and strictly determined by the individual’s genetic or biological makeup.
• Evolutionary Theory. A broad-based view that certain types of criminal behavior are genetic and passed
down from one generation to the next through evolutionary processes of natural selection and survival
• Gene-Based Evolutionary Theory. A general approach that suggests that the process of natural selection
has resulted in criminal genetic tendencies that are passed down from generation to generation.
• Klinefelter Syndrome. A man with an extra female X chromosome (XXY).
• Stigmata.Characteristics claimed by Lombroso that could be used to identify the “born criminal.” They
include things such as extra fingers or toes, large lips, receding chins, excessive skin wrinkles, and large
monkey-like ears.
 • XYY: The Super-Male Criminal. This theory of crime claims that men born with an extra Y
chromosome (XYY), “super-males,” are more likely to commit criminal acts. It is believed that the presence
of this extra chromosome provides the individuals with extra testosterone, making them more aggressive
and violent. There is little, if any, empirical support for this theory.

Monozygotic twins
GENETIC - XYY Normal Male GENETIC - XYY XYY Male

BIOLOGICAL THEORIES
• Giambattista Della Porta (1535 – 1615), Italy
- A polymath who pioneered the study of human PHYSIOGNOMY – facial features and their relations
to human behavior. His writings on the subject later influenced Johann Kaspar Lavater. Physiognomy
is the earliest positivist approach in the study of crime.
• Franz Joseph Gall (1758 – 1828) and Johann Kaspar Spurzheim (17 76 – 1828), Germany
- Founded the science of PHRENOLOGY – bumps in the head are indications of “psychological
propensities”.
• Auguste Compte (18th Century), France
- French Sociologist who applied the modern methods of the physical sciences to the social sciences in his
book Cours de Philosophie Positive. He argued that there could be no real knowledge of social
phenomena unless it was based on positive (scientific) approach.
• Cesare Lombroso (1836-1909), Italy
- Italian criminologist who wrote L’uomo Delinquente (The Criminal Man) and advanced the theory that
“crime can be attributed to a hereditary predisposition in certain individuals”. He argued that offenders
are BORN CRIMINALS. The opposite of Charles Darwin’s theory of Evolution through natural
selection, Lombroso posited that certain individuals digresses back to their animalistic origin in a
phenomenon called Atavism.

• Enrico Ferri
- One of Lombroso’s students, he accepted the existence of a criminal type but also focused on factors
other than inherited physical characteristics as predictors of crime. He considered social factors such as:
population trends, religion, and the nature of the family. Crime is social accountability
• Rafael Garofalo
- Italian lawyer, major contribution to modern criminology is the concept of natural crime, which he
argued was the principal concern of criminologists. The true criminal is one who lacks the basic
altruistic sentiments of pity and honesty. Garofalo believed that the true criminal is a distinct biological
or psychic type and that the altruistic deficiencies were organic or inherited. ● moral anomaly rather
than physical stigmata
• Charles Buckman Goring (1870 – 1919), England
- Medical officer of Parkhurst Prison in England who collected data on 96 traits of more than 3,000
convicts and a large control group of Oxford students, hospital patients and soldiers assisted by KARL
PEARSON, a famous statistician. He refuted Lombrosian theory of anthropological criminal type. His
evaluation stands as the most cogent critical analysis of the theory of Born Criminals. He rejected the
claim that a specific stigmata identify the potential criminal but is convinced that poor physical
condition plus defective state of mind were
- Determining factors in criminal personality.
• ERNST KRETCHMER (1888 – 1964), Germany
- Distinguished three principal types of physiques (European SOMATOTYPE SCHOOL OF
CRIMINOLOGY):
Aesthetic (lean, slightly built, narrow shoulders)
Athletic (medium to tall, strong, muscular, coarse bones)
Pyknic (medium height, rounded figure, massive neck, broad face)
• William Sheldon (1898 – 197 7), US
- Identified another three body types (AMERICAN SOMATOTYPE SCHOOL OF CRIMINOLOGY):
Mesomorphic (Somatotonic) – physically powerful, aggressive, athletic physique
Endomorphic (Viscerotonic) – predominance of soft roundness throughout the body
Ectomorphic (Cerebrotonic) – fragile, thin and delicate People with predominantly mesomorphic
traits has higher criminal tendencies than other body types.
 PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES
• Freud, Sigmund: (1856-1939) Psychologist
- Pioneer of psychoanalysis and psychological theory; theorized the Oedipus complex, and the Electra
complex; and coined the terms id, superego, ego, sex drive, and libido.
- Freudian. This view of behavior focuses on early childhood development. It claims that criminal
activity is the result of a conflict between the id, ego, and superego, which can be traced back to a
conflict in early childhood.
• Ego. One of the three components of Freudian personality development. The ego is referred to as the
executive or rational part of the personality, and it acts to keep the id in check.
• Id. One of the three components of Freudian personality development. The id contains basic instincts
and drives, such as the need for food, water, sex, and pleasure.
• Superego. One of the three components of Freudian personality development. This part of the
personality contains the conscience of the individual.
• Oedipus Complex. This occurs at the beginning of the phallic stage (around ages 3 to 6) in which a
boy develops a desire to possess his mother and a hatred and fear of his father.
• Electra Complex. This occurs at the beginning of the phallic stage (around ages 3 to 6) in which a girl
develops a desire to possess her father and a hatred and fear of her mother.
• Personality Theory. This theory believes that criminal activity is the result of a defective, deviant, or
inadequate personality. Examples of deviant personality traits include hostility, impulsiveness,
aggression, and sensation-seeking.
PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES
• Psychoanalytic Theory. A general perspective stating that the causes of criminal behavior can be found in
the mind of the individual.
• Psychological Counseling. The process by which an underlying mental issue can be addressed. The
assumptions are that only by treating an individual who has committed a criminal act as someone who is sick
and in need of treatment can the problem truly be addressed; punishing the criminal act without addressing the
root mental cause is of little or no value; and counseling is the only way in which the root mental cause can be
dealt with adequately.
• Psychopathic. A general term referring to a variety of antisocial personality disorders.

BEHAVIORISM
• Behavior Theory. Burgess and Akers expanded differential association and included elements of behavior
theory and behavior modification. This expansion allowed them to identify the learning process, and included
elements such as operant behavior, respondent conditioning, discriminative stimuli, and • schedules of
reinforcement.
 • Social Learning Theory. In general, social learning theory proposes that both criminal and conforming
behavior are acquired, maintained, or changed by the same process of interaction with others. The difference
lies in the conforming or deviant direction or balance of the social influences such as reinforcement, values and
attitudes, and imitation.
- Looks at the thought process of the individual and external sanctions
- By observing others, they can imitate aggression
- Bobo Doll Experiment
- Reinforcement and sanction are important
• Differential Association. This is a social learning theory presented in nine steps. Criminality is basically the
result of engaging in inappropriate behaviors exhibited by those with whom we interact. Criminal behavior can
be learned thru interaction to intimate others. Children who become delinquents have learned an excess
definitions favorable to the violation of law over definitions unfavorable to the violation of law.
• Differential Reinforcement. The concept refers to the potential rewards and punishments for committing or
not committing a criminal or deviant act. This process includes a consideration of punishments and rewards that
have been received in the past, as well as present and future rewards and punishments (C. Ray Jeffrey)
• Differential Identification. A modification of differential association theory. In this view, people commit
criminal or delinquent acts if they believe that it will lead to acceptance by and approval of these important
people in their lives. (D. Glaser)
• Negative Reinforcement. This refers to an individual escaping something painful such as a punishment or
reprimand by committing a certain act.
• Positive Reinforcement. This refers to an individual receiving something of value for committing a certain
act. This may include things such as money, food, or approval.
• Operant Conditioning. The view that voluntary actions and decisions made by an individual are influenced
and shaped by punishments and rewards found in the external world.
BEHAVIORISM
• Akers, Ronald
- Sociologist and criminologist, who, along with Robert Burgess, developed the differential reinforcement
theory, wrote Deviant Behavior: A Social Learning Approach (1973, 1977).
• Bandura, Albert
- Psychologist and child development expert, examined stages of development and concluded conduct
develops at particular stages when certain interaction stimuli are present.
• Burgess, Robert L.
- Behavior sociologist, collaborated with Ronald Akers to develop a “differential association
reinforcement” theory of criminal behavior.
• Elliot, Delbert
- Developed an integrated theory, wrote Explaining Delinquency and Drug Use (1985).
• Sutherland, Edwin (1883-1950)
 - Developed the differential association theory, wrote The Professional Thief (1937) and Principles of
Criminology (1947).
* William Healy –that crime is a product of a mental content of an individual (low IQ)
* Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) – The ID, EGO & SUPEREGO
* Alfred Adler (1870-1937) – Inferiority Complex
* Bromberg–mental immaturity is the cause of crime
* Eric Erickson (1902-1984) – Identity Crisis
* Carl Gustav Jung (1875-1960) – Introvert & Extrovert
* August Aichorn – wayward youth (JD) * David Abrahamsen – C = CT + S over R
* Sir Cyril Burt (1883-1971) - Submissive Individual
* Isaac Ray (1807-1881) – insanity is not liability
* Henry Maudsley (1835-1918) - criteria for legal responsibility

SOCIAL STRUCTURE THEORIES

• Social Disorganization Theory (Clifford Shaw & Henry McKay) - Posits that delinquency is a product of
the social forces existing in inner city, low income areas.
• Transitional neighborhood- Areas undergoing a shift population and structure, usually from middle class
residential to lower class mixed use.
• Cultural Transmission- Cultural norms and values that are passed down from generation to the next.
• Social Control - Ability of social institutions to influence human behavior; the justice system is the primary
agency of formal social control.
SOCIAL DISORGANIZATION THEORY
• Gentrified- the process of transforming a lower class area into a middle class enclave through property
rehabilitation.
• Poverty Concentration effect- (William Julius Wilson) - the consolidation of poor minority group members
in urban areas.
• Collective efficacy- the ability of communities to regulate the behavior of their residents through the influence
of community institutions, such as the family and schools. Residents in these communities share mutual trust
and willingness to intervene in the supervision of children and the maintenance of public order.
SOCIAL DISORGANIZATION THEORY
I. Poverty
- Development of isolated poor neighborhoods
- Lack of conventional social opportunities
- Racial and ethnic discrimination
II. Social Disorganization
- Breakdown of social institutions and organizations use as school and family
 - Lack of informal social control
III. Breakdown of Social Control
- Development of gangs and groups
- Peer group replaces family and social institutions
IV. Criminal Areas
- Neighborhood becomes crime prone
- Stable pockets of delinquency develop
- Lack of collective efficacy
V. Cultural Transmission
- Order youths pass their norms (focal concerns) to younger generation.
VI. Criminal Careers
- Most youths “age out” of delinquency, marry, and raise families. A few remain in the culture of crime.
URBAN ECOLOGY
- A theory that views a city as analogous to the natural ecological community of plants and animals. This
relationship is understood through the use of concentric zones that spread from the center to the outer
regions of a city. This work done by Park and Burgess influenced the social disorganization theory
developed by Shaw and McKay.
CONCENTRIC ZONE THEORY

Factory zone Residential zone

Zone in transition

Working men’s homes zone Commuter zone

ANOMIE/ STRAIN THEORY

- Anomie. A state of normlessness or norm confusion within a society. The term was coined by Emile
Durkheim to explain suicide in French society, and later applied by Merton and others to other forms of
deviance and crime in American society.
- This explains the effect of Industrial Revolution with the increased complexity of society, which leads to
weakened social bonds and disruption of the normative structure. Abrupt social change leads to anomie
which eventually leads to deviance. (I.e. War, depression, etc.)
MERTON’S ANOMIE THEORY (STRAIN THEORY)
- This version of anomie theory looks at American society, and what happens when an individual realizes
that not everyone can achieve the American dream of equal opportunity for economic success.
- When this happens, one of five adaptations will occur.
The conformist accepts the goals of society, and the means for achieving them: the college student.
The innovator accepts the goals of society, but rejects the means of achieving them: the drug dealer.
The mode of rebellion refers to one who rejects both the goals and means of society, and wants to replace them
with new goals and means: the militia member.
The retreatist gives up on both the goals and means, and withdraws from society: the alcoholic.
Finally, the ritualist rejects the goals, and accepts the means: this person has given up on the promotion, nice
car, etc., and simply punches the time clock to keep what they have.
MODES OF ADAPTATION

Adaptations to Frustration American Legal Means

Dream
Conformity + +
Innovation + -
Ritualism - +
Retreatism - -
CULTURAL +
DEVIANCE THEORY (ANOMIE STRAIN)
Rebellion + 0

- This version of anomie theory examines juveniles. Though Cohen is in agreement with Merton that
blocked goals produce strain, his theory looks at status as opposed to material gain. Under this
perspective, juveniles are measured against the standard of the middle class. Lower-class kids who
cannot meet the middle-class standards of dress, talk, and manners are, in a sense, deprived. This ‘status
deprivation’ leads to ‘status frustration,’ which in turn causes deviant and criminal acts. Instead of five
groups like Merton proposes, Cohen sees only one group—a conflict group which values toughness,
fighting, and respect.

I. Working class Socialization + Middle Class Success Values

II. Failure in School
III. Low Self Esteem
IV. Drops Out of school
V. Increased Resentment towards Middle Class Values
VI. Turn Middle Class values upside down
VII. Self-Image Enhanced by Breaking Middle Class Rules
VIII. Delinquency

DIFFERENTIAL OPPORTUNITY THEORY (MILLER)

- A theory which draws from anomie and the work of Merton and Cohen; the social disorganization
theory of Shaw and McKay; and the differential association theory of Sutherland. This view says that
although one may be denied legitimate opportunity that does not mean that one has access to illegitimate
opportunity. Although deprivation and strain can and do play a role, one learns a good or bad response
to that strain depending on the available opportunities and role models, legitimate or illegitimate.

SUBCULTURE
- Focal Concerns of the Lower-Class Culture. The list of focal concerns or values believed to be prevalent
among lower-class males was developed by Walter Miller to describe the behavior of street corner
groups or gangs. According to Miller, the behavior of these juveniles was an adaptation to lower-class
culture. This culture valued things such as: trouble, toughness, smartness, excitement, fatalism, and
autonomy.
GENERAL STRAIN THEORY (ROBERT AGNEW)
- Criminality is the direct results of negative affective states- anger, frustration, and adverse emotions that
emerge in the wake of negative and destructive social relationships.
- The three major types of deviance-producing strain are:
Failure to achieve positively valued goals
Removal of positively valued stimuli
Confrontation with negative stimuli
- Deviance is most likely to occur when the response of the individual to any of these stressors is anger.
Factors such as peer associations, beliefs, and attributions of causes, self-control, and self-efficacy will
affect each individual’s reaction to stress.

I. Sources of Strain
- Failure to achieve goals ,Removal of positive stimuli ,Presentation of negative stimuli, Disjunction of
expectations and achievements
II. Negative Affective States
- Anger ,Frustration, Disappointment, Depression ,Fear
III. Anti-Social Behavior
- Drug Abuse, Delinquency, Violence, Dropping out

INSTITUTIONAL ANOMIE (MESSNER AND ROSENFELD)

- This theory was created by Messner and Rosenfeld. The premise of the theory is that American
society is set up in such a way so as to give prestige and priority to economic institutions.
- This means that the accumulation of wealth and individual success are people’s highest priorities.
- Prioritizing economic institutions weakens the ability of other social institutions (family, education,
government) to control crime that occurs in response to the lack of access to or failure in the
economic sphere. Therefore, a high level of criminal activity is a natural result of the setup of
American society.

SOCIAL CONTROL AND BONDING THEORIES

• Social Control. Under a control theory perspective, social control refers to those elements that keep an
individual from committing a criminal or deviant act. Examples include the family, church, and school.
• Self-Control Theory. A specific type of control theory developed by Gottfredson and Hirschi in which self-
control is the key factor in understanding criminal and deviant acts.
• Control Theories. A classification of theories that claim to ask not why do people commit criminal acts, but
why do they not commit criminal acts? These theories assume everyone has the desire to commit criminal and
deviant acts, and seeks to answer why some people refrain from doing so.
TYPES OF CONTROL
• External Control. A concept in control theory in which agents outside the control of the individual are
responsible for keeping that individual from committing criminal or deviant acts. These agents include parents,
teachers, or law enforcement.
• Internal Control. A concept in control theory which explains why a person will not commit a criminal act by
reference to the person internally monitoring and controlling his or her own behavior. This includes such things
as feelings of guilt and not wanting to disappoint others.

SOCIAL BONDING
- A control theory that states that individuals will commit criminal or delinquent acts when their ties
(bonds) to society are weakened or have broken. There are four types of bonds: attachment,
commitment, involvement, and belief. When the bonds are strong, an individual will refrain from
criminal activity.

CONTAINMENT THEORY
- This theory states that people can ‘drift’ or float back and forth between obeying and breaking the law.
People can use techniques of neutralization as excuses to break the law when other forms of social
control are weak. When social control is stronger, the offender will drift or float back to law-abiding
behavior.
- These techniques are rationalization, ways to justify their behavior. These techniques are justifications
and excuses for committing delinquent acts, which are essentially inappropriate extensions of commonly
accepted rationalizations found in the general culture.
TECHNIQUES OF NEUTRALIZATION

PERSONALITIES UNDER SOCIAL CONTROL

• Gottfredson, Michael: Co-authored A General Theory of Crime (1990) with Travis Hirschi.
- Hirschi, Travis: Criminologist, developed the social bond theory, wrote The Causes of Delinquency
(1969) and co-authored A General Theory of Crime (1990) with Travis Hirschi
•Matza, David: Collaborated with Gresham Sykes in 1957 and proposed “techniques of neutralization,”
developed drift theory of delinquency in 1964, wrote Delinquency and Drift (1964).
•Nye, F. Ivan: Wrote Family Relationships and Delinquent Behavior (1958), expanding on Reiss’ definitions of
social controls.
•Reckless, Walter: Proposed the containment theory of delinquency and crime.
•Reiss, Albert J.: In 1951, identified delinquency as resulting from the failure of “personal” and “social”
controls.
•Sykes, Gresham: Collaborated with David Matza in 1957 and proposed “techniques of neutralization.”
SOCIAL REACTION THEORIES
This group of theories explains crime in way society reacts to individuals and the way the individuals react to
society determines behavior.
• Stigmatized - people who have been negatively labeled because of their participation or alleged participation
in deviant or outlawed activities.
• Labeling Theory. The theory that the formal and informal application of stigmatizing and deviant “labels” or
tags applied to an individual by society will not deter, but rather instigate future deviant or criminal acts.

Initial criminal act Detection by the

justice system Decision to label

Deviance Creation of a new

Acceptance of labels identity
amplification

THE LABELING PROCESS

LABELING THEORY
- This theory views that youths may violate the law for a variety of reasons, including poor family
relations, peer pressure, psychological abnormality, and pro-delinquent learning experiences. Regardless
of the cause of individuals’ delinquent behaviors are detected, the offenders will be given a negative
label that can follow them throughout life. These label include “troublemaker”, “juvenile delinquent”,
“mentally ill”, “junkie” and more. • It views label as the dependent variable when it attempts to explain
why certain behavior is socially defined as wrong and certain persons are selected for stigmatization and
criminalization.
LABELING THEORY (F. TANNEMBAUM)
- Dualistic Fallacy: Refers to the error in the presumption that the processes that produces criminal or
antisocial behavior is DIFFERENT from the processes that produces law abiding or conventional
behavior. Delinquent activity begins as random play, or adventure, children certainly do not think of
their plays as delinquent behavior. But despite of its innocent beginnings, a playgroup may later turn
into a delinquent gang, typically because conflicts break out between the group and the community. The
adults in the community who are annoyed with the group try to subdue or crush it. They refuse to be
pushed around and turn to fellow gang members for support. Calling a child a delinquent makes it much
more likely that he or she will accept the description and live up to it.
LABELING THEORY (E. LEMERT)
- Primary Deviation – is deviance that people engage in occasionally. It is rationalized or otherwise
dealt with as part of a socially acceptable role. They youth will have to choose new roles, which may be
more deviant or less deviant than the old ones.
 - Secondary Deviation – an outgrowth of a long process, a dynamic relationship between the person’s
deviation and the society reaction to it. If the individual is eventually stigmatized, efforts at control will
shift from informal to formal, legal and the individual will be redefined as delinquent.
- Lemert claimed that not all persons labeled criminal or delinquent accept these roles. How receptive
they are to such levels depends on their social class. Lemerts was also critical of rehabilitation efforts.
He saw them only as promoting recidivism.

Future
Original Label A Delinquent Delinquency
Delinquent Act Applied Self-image

LABELING THEORY (E. SCHUR)

- He focused on three elements in the labeling process: stereotyping, retrospective interpretation and
negotiation.
- 1. Stereotyping – is a quick mental classification of individuals or groups and exaggerates the
differences among people. It also involves jumping to conclusions – that is, taking a single cue and
making a sweeping judgment on it.
- 2. Retrospective Interpretation – involves labeling individuals in a certain way and then viewing them
in an entirely new light.
- 3. Negotiation – occurs often in criminal courts, where defense and prosecution bargain with each other
over the charge, plea and sentence.
- He supported what he called “radical non-intervention” meaning that children should be left alone
whenever possible.
LABELING THEORY (H. BECKER)
– Becker focused on how people acquire their labels. He argued that whether an activity is deviant
depends on how other people react to it, not on the nature of the activity itself. Becker considered the
process of becoming deviant.

1. The first step is to commit a deviant act (even if it is unintentional). The offenders may have no idea that
others see it as deviant.
2. The next crucial step in the process is getting caught, which put the person in a new light and gives him
or her a new status or label.
3. Once labeled, a person is presumed likely to engage in such behavior again and again.
4. The final step in the process of pursuing a deviant career is to join an organized deviant group where
each member learns to rationalize deviant activities.

LABELING THEORY (J. BRAITHWHITE)

- Reintegrative Shaming. The process by which an individual is punished, labeled, and made to feel
shame for committing a deviant act, but done in a way that the individual who is shamed is brought back
into the larger community and restored to a position of respectability.
 - Disintegrative Shaming. The process by which an individual is punished, labeled, and made to feel
shame for committing a deviant act in a manner that degrades and devalues the individual. This occurs
without an attempt after the offenders have been punished to reconcile them with or restore them to the
larger community.
REACTIONS TO LABELING THEORY (SOCIAL POLICIES)
- Deinstitutionalization. The removal of juveniles from jails, detention centers, and institutions.
Removing juveniles from these facilities, and when possible removing status and minor offenders from
the juvenile justice system as a whole, is the most basic type of diversion.
- Diversion Movement. This refers to all those efforts to divert individuals, primarily youth but also
adults who are suspected of or have been charged with minor offenses, from the full and formal process
of the juvenile or adult justice system. The intent is to reduce the stigma of formal delinquent or criminal
labels on the individuals and to reduce or avoid the costs of formal processing of the crime.
- Faith-Based Programs. These are religiously based programs which can be operated within the
institution or the larger community. They can be run by inmates or religious leaders, and use spiritual
beliefs and values to change offenders’ attitudes and behavior.
- Netwidening. A problem that occurs when offenders who would have been released from the system are
placed in a program simply because a program exists. This often occurs in diversion programs. Boot
camps may be a viable option to keep kids out of institutions, but it becomes netwidening when kids,
who otherwise would have been sent home, are sent to boot camps.
- Restorative Justice. This refers to programs which are designed to make offenders take responsibility
for their actions and restore them and their victims, as much as possible, back to things as they existed
before the offense. Often offenders will apologize to the victims and to the community, and attempt to
financially compensate the victims for their losses.

PERSONALITIES IN LABELING THEORIES (SOCIAL REACTION)

• Becker, Howard: Criminologist and social psychologist, primary theorist in labeling, wrote Outsiders:
Studies in the Sociology of Deviance (1963).
•Braithwaite, John: Wrote Restorative Justice and Responsive Regulation (2002). His concept of
reintrogrative shamming remains at the core of restorative justice.
•Cooley, Charles Horton: (1875-1940) Sociologist who developed the concept of “looking- glass self.”
Lemert, Edwin M.: Sociologist, collaborated with Howard Becker to extend the labeling theory to include both
primary and secondary deviance, wrote Social Pathology (1951) and Human Deviance, Social Problems, and
Social Control (1967).
•Tannenbaum, Frank: Criminologist, coined the phrase “dramatization of evil,” wrote Crime and the
Community (1938).

CONFLICT THEORIES
• Conflict Theory. The view that society is divided into two or more groups with competing ideas and values.
The group(s) with the most power makes the laws and controls society. Groups lacking the formal power to
make the rules still maintain their own group norms, and continue in their behavior which is now viewed as
criminal by the larger society. This perspective explains both law and criminal justice (why some acts are
legally defined as criminal), as well as criminal and deviant behavior (why some individuals commit acts
defined as criminal).
 - Consensus Theory. In general, this theory states that laws are a result of, and a reflection of, general
agreement in society. Views of right and wrong, which can be reflected through folkways and mores,
influence the laws and rules which govern a society.
- Functionalist Theory. Similar to consensus theory, but this theory also looks at how the law acts to
resolve everyday disputes in society; and how it acts to serve everyone, not just the powerful. The law
also serves a symbolic function and discourages deviant behavior.
- Interest Groups. These groups form and act in such a manner so as to influence the political system in
ways that will provide the greatest benefits to members of the group. They are also referred to as
pressure groups.
- Law. Rules and regulations backed with the coercive power of the state. Depending upon one’s view,
law is either formed with the agreement of the majority of society and designed to promote order, or
formed by the powerful in society to keep control of the masses.
- Pluralistic Conflict. A type of conflict perspective which emphasizes that instead of one centralized,
all-powerful group making the rules, there are several power groups, both formal and informal and often
with overlapping interests, which wrestle for control and power.
- Political Crimes. Crimes committed by radical groups to overthrow a government or overturn a
government action; or crimes committed by government officials to control groups seen as a threat.
Which side in any given conflict is labeled radical, depends upon which side one supports and which
side wins the dispute.
- Racial Profiling. Actions taken by the police based solely on the race of an individual.
- Social Control. A normative system with rules concerning the way people should and should not
behave. This is combined with a formal and informal system to encourage and promote conformity,
while at the same time discouraging and punishing deviance. Informal social control is exhibited by the
family, church, and school, while formal social control is exhibited by the police and the courts.
- Social Threat Hypothesis. This hypothesis states that criminal and deviant acts will increase as the
number of people opposed to the interests of the powerful increases.

THORSTEN SELLIN CRIME VS. CONDUCT NORMS

• Selling pointed to the distinction between crime norms (those found in the criminal law) and conducts
or group norms (those norms specific to localized groups which may or may not be consistent with the
crime norms).
• Crime norms contained in the criminal law reflect rules or norms that prohibit specific conduct and
provide punishment for violations.
• Conduct norms on the other hand, reflect the values, expectations and actual behaviors of groups in
everyday life. Conduct norms can be very specific to particular groups, they may be shared by many
diverse groups, and they may come into conflict with each other.

Conflicting Group Theory. George Vold was interested in the nature of group conflict. Vold believed that
people were drawn to groups by common interest. These groups will over time, come into conflict with one
another over competing vested interests. Such conflict become translated into criminal laws reflecting the
desires of those groups with greater power to control or regulate weaker competing groups. In general, minority
groups, the poor, and the young are unable to influence legislation, and consequently many of their behaviors,
which are viewed as threatening in some way to more powerful groups, will be defined as criminals.
Power-Control Theory. A theory proposed by Hagan in which patriarchal and egalitarian families are
examined. In patriarchal families, sons are more likely than daughters to be delinquent because sons receive less
supervision than daughters. In egalitarian families, the delinquent behavior of sons and daughters becomes more
similar.
- Paternalism. This view claims that men act in a manner designed to keep women and girls in a
subservient position in society. While women and girls may be treated less severely as indicated under
the chivalry hypothesis, they may also be treated more harshly in an attempt to keep them from
achieving equality with men.
- Patriarchal Family. Part of Hagan’s power- control theory. In a patriarchal family, the father is
typically in a command position in the workplace and runs the family. Mothers are more likely to
supervise daughters more closely than sons and encourage risk-taking in sons, more than in daughters.
- Egalitarian Family. Part of Hagan’s power- control theory. A family in which the mother and father
occupy similar roles in the workplace and share power and control in the family
Feminist Theory. This theory attempts to define criminology and criminal justice based upon the
experiences, understanding, and view of the world as perceived by women. It tries to counter most theories
of criminology that have been developed, tested, and applied by men to men, which have only incorporated
women as an afterthought.
- Liberation Hypothesis. This view states that as men and women become more equal in society in terms
of family, politics, and education, their crime rates will begin to equalize as well

CRIMINOLOGY
There are basically 13 IDENTIFIABLE TYPES of CRIMINOLOGY THEORY, only 3 of which are
considered “MAINSTREAM” or conventional criminology they are:
 Strain Theory
 Learning Theory
 Control Theory
All these theories are primarily concerned with etiology although many tells about personalities underlying
criminology study. The “Oldest Theory” (Biochemistry) Goes back to 1876,
And the last 4 Theories such as the 4 listed below was just developed in the past 25 years:
 Left Realism
 Peacemaking
 Feminist
 Postmodern
The following slides will illustrates with more information as to what theories our criminologist had
been developed for us to study. Our scholarly concern evolved and centers on the following theories:

1. BIOCHEMISTRY
- Many titles are linked on this theory they are: Biological, Constitutional, Genetic, Anthropological this
is introduced by LOMBROSO who was known as the FATHER OF CRIMINOLOGY. His study was
regarded as POSITIVISM. Meaning a search of knowing the causes of crimes scientifically.
- CAUSES: Heredity, vitamin deficiency, allergy, tumor, toxins, brains & hormonal dysfunction.
 - POLICY: Isolation and treatment

2. PSYCHOLOGICAL
- It has been introduced since 1914 and pointed to IQ difference between criminal and non-criminal.
Studying this means taking a look at personality disorders, psychopaths, sociopaths & APD.
- CAUSES: low intelligence, psychopathy, stress and other mentally precursors problem
- POLICY: treatment and counseling

3. ECOLOGICAL
- This is the 1st SOCIOLOGICAL CRIMINOLOGY developed in the 1920’s in Chicago, whom they
called Chicago School of Sociology. It focuses on the relationship between and ORGANISM and its
ENVIRONMENT.
- CAUSES: Disorganized neighborhoods
- POLICY: Community empowerment
4. STRAIN THEORY
- Sometimes called ANOMIE. This was introduced by EMILE DURKHEIM. They emphasize CRIME as
a normal result of an AMERICAN DREAM in which people set their aspirations, and in doing so
discover strain and blockages along the way.
- CAUSES: Economic goal blockages
- POLICY: Increased opportunity

5. LEARNING THEORIES
- This theory tend to follow the lead of EDWIN SUTHERLAND theory of DAT that was developed in
1947. Simply looked as PEER GROUP THEORY as but more than that.
- CAUSES: Imitation, reinforcement schedules.
- POLICY: More effective negative reinforcement, more use of positive reinforcement

6. CONTROL THEORY
- This theory has pretty much dominated the criminological landscape in 1969. Its focus was on a
person’s relationships to their agents of socialization, such as parents, teachers, preachers, coaches,
leaders or police officers.
- CAUSES: Socialization, low self-control
- POLICY: Child rearing, social bonds

7. LABELING THEORY
- Introduced in 1960s and 70s which saw criminals as underdogs who initially did something out of
the ordinary and got swept up in a huge government-sponsored labeling or shunning reaction. If one
facing such overwhelming negative labeling reaction will eventually become more like the label.
- CAUSE: Shunning, identity immersion
- POLICY: Non-intervention, reintegration
-
8. CONFLICT THEORY
- This theory holds that society is based on conflict between competing interest groups; for example
rich vs. poor; management vs. labor; whites vs. black, etc. It exists in 1960s and 70s also and are
mainly characterized by the study between powerful & powerless.
- CAUSES: Power differentials, competition
- POLICY: Increased equality and justice
9. RADICAL THEORY
- The economic disparities reflect basic contradictions in the way work is organized into demoralizing,
brutalizing, and oppressive conditions. Crime is seen as a reflection of class struggle, a kind of
primitive rebellion with criminals behaving as rebels without a clue (Karl Marx).
- CAUSES: Class struggle, capitalism
- POLICY: Praxis and socialism
-
10. LEFT REALISM THEORY
- A British Development theory that focuses on why people of the working class prey upon one
another, that is victimizing other poor people of their own race and kind. It wants the police to have
more power in protecting poor people, but on the other hand, doesn’t want the police to be invasive
and intrusive to them.
- CAUSES: Predatory relationship
- POLICY: More effective police protection

11. PEACEMAKING
- Peacemaking Criminology came about during the 1990s as the study of how “wars” on crime only
make matters worse. It suggests that the solution to crime is to create more caring, mutually
dependent communities and strive for inner rebirth or spiritual rejuvenation.
- CAUSES: Inner suffering and turmoil
- POLICY: Spiritual Rejuvenation
-
12. FEMINIST CRIMINOLOGY
- It matured in the 1990s although feminist ideas have been around for decades. The central concept
was patriarchy or male domination as the main cause of crime. It also tend to call for more attention
to female.
- CAUSE: Gender inequity, patriarchy
- POLICY: End sex discrimination

13. POSTMODERN THEORY

- It tends to focus upon how stereotypical words, thought and conceptions limit our understanding,
and how crime develops from feelings of being disconnected and dehumanized.
- CAUSE: Hierarchical privileges & language
- POLICY: More informal social control
-dagume-