GRC Transactions, Vol.

37, 2013

Preliminary Exploration Results

of the Kalinga Geothermal Prospect, Luzon, Philippines
Jonelle Nikolai Crisostomo1, Angelica Marie Calayag2, Eugene Sunio2, and Ronald Vicedo2
1
Philippine Geothermal Production Company, Inc., Makati City, Philippines
2
Chevron Geothermal Services Company, Makati City, Philippines

Keywords most of the thermal springs. Parallel to this is a ridge defined by

Kalinga, Luzon Central Cordillera, magnetotellurics, concep- Mt. Mossimus, Mt. Binulauan and Mt. Binuwuan (Figure 1). A
tual model, Basement Complex perpendicular NW-SE structure cutting across the Pasil River
contains the fumaroles, which extend on a similar trend beyond
the ridge. A young volcanic feature, the Caigutan Dome forms a
Abstract NW trend with Mt. Binulauan. The dome has a collapsed crater
which contains the fumarolic area and acid-altered grounds.
The Kalinga Geothermal Prospect, located in the eastern Initial reconnaissance study of the Batong Buhay hot springs
flank of the Luzon Central Cordillera has been explored since the and volcanoes was done by the Philippines Commission on
late 1970’s for its impressive thermal manifestations, faults, and Volcanology in 1976. This was followed by a joint preliminary
evident Quaternary volcanism. Exploration work conducted in assessment by the Philippines Bureau of Energy Development and
2010-2012 included limited geologic mapping, literature review, ELC- Electroconsult (Italy) in 1978 which included geological
remote sensing acquisition and interpretation, geochemical sam- and geochemical sampling and aerial photo interpretations. The
pling and geophysical surveys. study concluded that the area has a good geothermal potential.
Geochemical interpretation suggests the existence of a benign An electrical resistivity survey was conducted and five shallow
geothermal system with an adjacent younger, acidic system. Geo- temperature gradient holes were drilled by GeothemEx Inc for
logic interpretation suggests that the neutral reservoir could be Caltex Philippines in 1982. The resistivity data identified a low
hosted by the fractured metavolcanic Basement Complex, with resistivity layer and the gradient holes found high heat flow and
enhanced permeability along structures and intrusive contacts. permeability. In 1996, Philippine Geothermal, Inc. conducted
Magnetotelluric data imaged a shallow low resistivity (20-30 additional geochemical sampling. Chevron Kalinga Limited
ohm-m) layer, which was interpreted as the clay cap overlying
the neutral reservoir, while the gravity data allowed for a range of
estimates for depth to the top of the intrusive contact.
Conceptually, two upflow zones are interpreted, one of which
feeds a benign exploitable geothermal reservoir, and the other
representing an adjacent immature acidic system associated with
the young Caigutan Dome. The heat source for the benign upflow
is still uncertain, but there are a number of young volcanic domes
mapped in the area, beneath which could be sources of conduc-
tive heat input.

Introduction
Kalinga Geothermal Prospect (also known as Batong Buhay)
is situated in the Luzon Central Cordillera in the Municipality of
Pasil, province of Kalinga, approximately 350km north of Ma-
nila, Philippines. The prospect is centered at the Batong-Buhay
epithermal gold-mining district and has impressive thermal mani- Figure 1. Location Map of Kalinga Geothermal Prospect showing
festations. The Pasil River is an ENE-trending feature that contains volcanic centers and alignment of surface thermal manifestations.

255
Crisostomo, et al.

(CKL), in partnership with Aragorn Power and Energy Corpora- Later stage intrusions emplaced during the Late Miocene to
tion (APEC) and Guidance Management Corporation (GMC), is Pliocene host the porphyry Cu-Au mineralization and the epither-
currently exploring the area, under a Philippines Department of mal mineralization (Subang, et al., 2006). Quaternary volcanism
Energy service contract held by APEC since 2008, covering an is reflected at the younger volcanic centers and likely represents
area of 260 km2. This paper summarizes the results to date of the the heat source of the geothermal system.
exploration done in 2010-2012.
Kalinga has also been explored and developed for gold and
copper deposits by two local mining companies and a multi-
national company since the 1970’s. Currently one small-scale
mine is being operated inside the prospect and additional minerals
exploration is ongoing.

Regional Geologic Setting

The prospect is found on the eastern flank of the Luzon Central
Cordillera, which is a N-S trending mountain range traversing the
western part of Northern Luzon.
The Cordillera formed when the Paleogene Quartz Diorite
Batholith, formerly Agno Batholith in Fernandez and Pulanco
(1964), intruded into a sequence of precursor basement rocks,
the Cretaceous-Paleogene Metavolcanics, during Late Oligocene
to Early Miocene. Durkee and Pederson (1961) described the
basement lithologies as mafic flows, agglomerates and some thin
indurated graywackes and conglomerates. This unit is also re- Figure 3. Composite geologic map showing major lithologies and struc-
ported as the Pugo Formation of the Baguio District (MGB, 2010). tures.

Two prominent regional structures, both splays

of the Philippine Fault Zone, run through the pros-
pect (Figure 2). The NNE-trending Chiko River
Fault borders the prospect to the southeast, and
the ENE-trending Pasil River Fault runs through
the center of the prospect. An E-W compressional
regime has dominated much of the tectonic history,
which would be consistent with right-lateral motion
along both these faults. The E-W compression is also
manifested in the folded sedimentary beds east of the
prospect towards the Cagayan Valley. N-S trending
anticlines and vertical beds are mapped along nu-
merous road and river cuts in the vicinity of Tabuk.

Local Geology and Structures

The local geology is mapped under local forma-
tion names which largely correlate with the regional
rock units of Figures 2 (Figure 3). The oldest exposed
unit is the Basement Complex (known regionally as
Figure 2. Regional structural and geologic map of Northern Luzon (MGB, 2010 with minor the Cretaceous-Paleogene Metavolcanics), which
annotations). outcrops in the north- and south-central portion of
the prospect area. The Intrusive Complex (Paleogene
The batholithic intrusions of intermediate composition -- Quartz Diorite Batholith), which in Kalinga prospect ranges in
diorite, quartz diorite, granodiorite -- is also referred to as the composition from gabbroic to granodioritic to tonalitic, outcrops
Central Cordillera Diorite Complex (MGB, 2010) and according in the western margin of the prospect. The Mabaca River Group
to Fernandez and Pulanco (1964) hosts the mineralization in (Miocene Marine Sedimentary Rocks) outcrops in the east. The
some places in the district. The intrusion and subsequent uplift Younger Volcanics and Intrusives outcrop mostly in the center of
exposed the batholith and the basement rocks to the surface while the prospect area and include the lithologies of the ore-forming
continued erosion and deposition during Mid- to Late Miocene intrusive and the Quaternary Volcanics.
formed the sedimentary rocks at the flanks of the uplift, which Epithermal mineralization is localized at the contacts between
were subsequently folded at the on-set of compression. these younger intrusions and the older batholith and Basement Com-

256
 Crisostomo, et al.

plex. Advanced argillic alteration was observed where the younger boiling temperatures. Some show cooler temperature west from
dikes intrude the batholiths. These contacts may also be good per- the Batong Buhay mine site. The chloride concentration of the
meability targets. One of the youngest features in the prospect area spring waters varies greatly, from 110 to 6380 ppm, suggesting
is the Caigutan Dome, where most of the fumaroles are located. mixing of the parent fluid with peripheral waters. The best ex-
The Basement Complex is the primary target for a geothermal ample of the parent fluid (sample #1’s, blue circle in Figure 4) is
reservoir. As opposed to most producing Philippines geothermal in equilibrium with most mineral parameters but shows higher
reservoirs which are hosted primarily in young volcanic rocks, the magnesium than expected. This is consistent with its isotope data
reservoir here is believed to be in the metamorphosed basement being a mixture of ~25% “andesitic water” and local meteoric
(metavolcanic) rocks. Durkee and Pederson (1961) reported that water (Figure 4).
the thickest section (~3660 meters) is found in Batong Buhay. The The Cl-SO4-HCO3 ternary plot (Figure 5) shows that most of
five temperature gradient holes of Caltex drilled into the Base- the neutral Cl samples plot in the chloride apex which is typical
ment Complex and showed non-linear temperature gradients, with for fluids coming from the deep geothermal reservoir in most
one hole registering a downhole temperature of 178°C at 200m. high-temperature systems. The mixed hot springs plot towards the
Three out of the five holes experienced steam flow. These indicate sulfate apex indicating mixture of the chloride fluids with sulfate
evidence of good permeability and high heat flow. waters. One distal warm spring plots towards the bicarbonate
Lineament analysis using 1-m LiDAR-derived DEM and aerial apex clearly indicating a bicarbonate type of fluid.
photo interpretation showed that the Pasil River Fault was offset
into at least five segments by NW and NE trending lineaments, 0
Liquid-Vapor Fractionation
220 SMOW

suggesting that the fault could be inactive. Another prominent SMOW

Andesitic.Water
200
180

structure is the 1-km wide NW-trending mineralized fault zone

-10 160
Deep.PMWater
Magmatic.Vapor 140
Andesitic Water
referred to as the Malinao-Caigutan-Biyog (MCB) Fault Zone -20 Meteoric.Water
Mixed Sulfate -Rich
120

(Figure 3). The fault zone contains the Caigutan Dome at the SE -30 Neutral Chloride
Neutral Chloride Stm
100
4 3

end and another dome feature to the NW, and roughly borders the -40
Caigutan Fumaroles
Rain Water 1
1 5

Intrusive Complex to the east. NW-striking left-lateral faults, NE

6a

Linear (Meteoric.Water) 12 3

-50 1
D

conjugates and E-W-striking tensional fractures were also mapped P1

2
P1
within the zone (Subang, et al., 2006).
4
-60 5 Deep Primary
4
P1 Magmatic Water
3

NW and NE trending lineaments are mapped in the Basement

1
-70 11

Complex. The observed fracturing of the Basement Complex -80

substantiates the probability of hosting the permeable reservoir. -90

The lineaments are not prominent in the Younger Volcanics and -100
Intrusives, but could possibly be buried under the pile of volcanic -15 -10 -5 0
18O
5 10 15

rocks. Another NE-trending lineament towards the east is the Ag-

Agama lineament which acts as a boundary between the Basement Figure 4. Stable isotope plot of the thermal manifestations.
Complex and the Mabaca River Group.
Generally, thermal manifestations are located along inferred In the Na-K-Mg Giggenbach ternary plot (Figure 5), neutral
or mapped fault traces. The Pasil River Fault contains most of the Cl samples 1a and 1b plot very near the equilibrium curve and at
hot springs and alteration in the river bed increases upstream. The a projected temperature of about 300°C. This suggests that the
collapse feature northwest of the Caigutan Dome, most probably sample was in near equilibrium conditions in a high temperature
structurally-controlled, contains the fumarolic area. Several other reservoir (280° - 300°C). The slight shift off the equilibrium curve
suspected thermal areas are either cut or bordered by lineaments. is likely due to minor groundwater contamination. This implies
that this hot spring is very near the main hot reservoir and is a
Geochemistry
Cl
The prospect has numerous boil- 1b 1a
Na/1000

ing springs at low elevation along the 2

3

Pasil River, including neutral chloride 4

Equilibrium Curve

springs, and a number of vigorous fu- Mixed Sulfate -Rich

Neutral Chloride

marole fields in the highlands. There are Mixed Sulfate -Rich Bicarbonate

also a few unsampled thermal features 5? Neutral Chloride

Bicarbonate 180
160 140
120
1
on the southern flank of Mt. Binulauan 220
200 100

(Figure 1). The distribution of these

240
260

thermal features relative to geologic

280
2c 1b
300
4 320 1a
2a
structures and volcanic centers is shown 2b 340
2
3 4
in Figure 3. 2c
4
3 5
2a
1 1
2b 1

Hot Spring Chemistry SO4 HCO3 K/100 Mg^.5

Most of the sampled hot springs Figure 5. Ternary plots (Cl-SO4-HCO3 – left , Giggenbach- right) showing the classification and geother-
have neutral-pH chemistry and are at mometry of the hot springs.

257
Crisostomo, et al.

very good indication of the presence of a mature, high temperature hot springs. The gas chemistry from this vent suggested a liquid
geothermal system in the area. reservoir with a neutral composition.

Gas Chemistry
Geophysics
Majority of the fumaroles are located at high elevation on
the flanks of the inactive Mt. Binulauan volcano south of the Magnetotelluric (MT) and gravity data show a strong correla-
chloride hot springs, and are most likely related to the young tion with the mapped lithologic units. The data sets complement
Caigutan dome. The fumaroles are generally superheated and each other to show the contrast between high resistivity, low
deposit abundant sulfur. The superheated fumaroles contain sig- density outcroppings of Intrusive Complex and the low resistivity,
nificant excess chloride (0.1 to 1370 ppm) and SO2 (up to 4%). low density outcroppings of marine sediments of the Mabaca River
Gas geothermometry temperatures vary significantly or are not Group. Superimposed on this there is a distinct zone of shallow
calculatable using standard gas grids (CH4-CO2-H2S, FT-HSH, low resistivity interpreted to represent clay alteration overlying the
FT-CO2, HAr-CAr, HYCO-HYCH) (Figure 6). Helium isotope geothermal system. More intense localized low resistivity regions
ratios are generally in the mid-range (6.0 – 7.8) near values as- show a strong correlation with active surface alteration within
sociated with geothermal systems. The stable isotopes of the the Caigutan acid fumarolic area. The gravity data complements
steam show a mixture of 50 – 60% “andesitic water” with local resistivity correlations with lithology and allowed for estimates of
meteoric water (Figure 4). This suggests that the source fluid is the relative thickness of these units. Variations in relative densi-
more enriched in magmatic “andesitic water”. A steam vent was ties between the clay and the Basement Complex give a range of
also sampled along the Pasil River near one of the neutral chloride possible depths to the top of the Intrusive Complex inferred to
underlie the Basement Complex.

200 CH4 Magnetotellurics

160
200 A new MT survey was carried out primarily to map the location
220
characteristics of the low resistivity clay capping the geothermal
240
Temp Curve prospect area. A 3D inversion was carried out using the MT data.
Temp Branches A total of 46 MT stations with a spacing of 300 m to 2.1 km were
Pasil fumarole
measured. Stations were occupied on all the major lithologic units
260
Caigutan fumaroles

within the prospect area, allowing for correlation of resistivity

280 with mapped rock type distribution.
The conductance anomaly of the prospect area is exposed to
300
the surface at the SW and dips to the NE. The conductance map
in Figure 6 takes only the layer between 500 and 750 m eleva-
320
tion, which illustrates in plan view the distribution of shallow low
resistivity interpreted as clay cap. It shows a good correlation of
340 high conductance in the 500-750 m elevation layer with eastern
360 group of hot springs, which are the neutral chloride-bearing ones.
2
380
400
The western margin with lower conductance correlates with the
6b 6a 4
5 2 3
1 outcropping margin of the Intrusive Complex. Towards the east
CO2 10 H2S of temperature gradient hole 5, the conductance increases, cor-
responding to the Mabaca River Group. The northern margin is
4 characterized by an increase of resistivity associated with the
disappearance of <30 ohm-m layer. The conductance anomaly is
3.5

6a
open to most of the southern portion of the prospect area. A resis-
350
3
325

300

Rh= -2.83 6b
HAR: log(H2) - log(Ar)

2.5 275

250

225

2 200 2
3
175

150 Pasil fumarole

1.5 125 Caigutan fumaroles

100

4
1

2
0.5 5
1

0
2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5 7
CAR (G): log(CO2) - log(Ar)

Figure 6. Selected gas geothermometry plots of the fumaroles showing the

inconsistencies in their temperatures with some even plotting outside of Figure 7. Layered conductance map from 500 m to 750 m elevation (1 tick
the grid. mark is 1km).

258
 Crisostomo, et al.

tive plug is inferred at the southern edge of

the survey area but was not fully resolved
due to limited station coverage.
Most of the thermal areas are located
over a zone of < 20 ohm-m as shown in
Figure 8. The shape and thickness of the
conductive layer is consistent with clay
alteration over a geothermal system in the
Pasil River valley area with a top that dips
to the east. The < 20 ohm-m layer correlates
with high surface heat flow and agrees with
temperature profiles from the shallow gradi-
ent holes. Mineral assemblages from the core
holes reveal the presence of argillic alteration
within the low resistivity layer. The margins
of the geothermal system are indicated in
the west by the abrupt resistivity gradient
near the outcropping margin of the Intrusive
Complex, and in the east with a thickening of
the 20 ohm-m and 30 ohm-m layers, associ-
ated with the Mabaca River Group, which is
interpreted as a regional conductor. Figure 9. Modeled resistivity along Pasil River valley overlain by 2.5D gravity model and the resulting
The low resistivity layer mapped by the depth to the Basement Complex-Intrusive Complex contact.
MT survey is not typical of high temperature
volcanic-hosted reservoirs which typically have <10 ohm-m resistivity data generally agree with the MT, and help define part
caprocks. The smectite clays, which are normally the primary of the north boundary of the low resistivity anomaly, where MT
source for <10 ohm-m resistivity, may have partially eroded away. coverage is limited and possibly distorted at high frequencies.
Because of the different regimes of hydrothermal alteration with
the ore mineralization being the oldest, the caprock resistivity Gravity
may correspond to relict alteration that formed at older higher A gravity network covering 86 stations at ~300 m spacing was
temperature and then experienced only minor retrograde alteration conducted in 2012, including a detailed line at 250 m spacing along
to smectite clay. The metamorphosed host rocks of the Basement the access road paralleling the Pasil River. MT data and location
Complex may also not be favorable to altering to smectite. of outcropping Intrusive Complex were used to constrain the 2.5D
gravity model (Figure 9). Lacking a suite of
rock samples representative of subsurface
densities, modeled rock densities were
instead based on published values (Telford,
et. al., 1976) for the mapped lithologies.
Densities for the Intrusive, Basement
Complex and Mabaca River Group were
thereby constrained to a reasonable range,
but the density of the altered clay layer,
inferred from the MT data, was not easily
determined in this way. Another unknown
is the cause of the resistivities of <10 ohm-
m deeper than 1500 mbsl in the western
half of the profile. For the purposes of the
Figure 8. W-E Modeled Resistivity along Pasil River Valley. gravity modeling this deep conductive unit is treated as part of
the Intrusive Complex.
The southern area, dominated by acid springs and fumaroles, The regional conductor Mabaca River Group in the east,
is characterized by a more intense local low resistivity of <10 with low resistivity and low density signatures shows a steep
ohm-m. The younger volcanics in the area, being not subject to gravity gradient. There are some uncertainties in the top elevation
the erosional and lithologic considerations, may have undergone and relative thickness of this unit that is exposed at the surface to
a more typical alteration to smectite which explains the observed the east of Ag-agama Lineament. But the 20 ohm-m to 30 ohm-m
lower resistivities extending up to the surface. Localized acid layer gives insight to the thickness of the formation relative to
alteration may also explain the area of low resistivities. the low permeability clay to the West of the regional conductor.
In 1982, GeothermEx performed dipole-dipole and other The broad westward gravity decrease toward the high resistiv-
resistivity surveys covering parts of the MT survey the area. The ity outcropping Intrusive Complex provides evidence that it has

259
Crisostomo, et al.

lower density than the Basement Complex rocks, as expected Conceptual Models
based on the lithologies. This provides an opportunity to model
the presumed subsurface eastward extension of the top of the The geothermal conceptual model of Kalinga brings together
intrusive unit. Variations in modeled clay alteration densities measured and inferred information from detailed studies of the
from 2.5 g/cc to 2.7 g/cc result to depth to the top of the Intrusive different disciplines- geology, geochemistry and geophysics.
Complex that ranges from 716 m to 1700 m bsl at gradient hole Lineament and structural maps interpreted from remote sens-
3. Understanding the uncertainty of these depths would have an ing data integrated with local geology allowed for a reasonable
impact on well targeting. geologic interpretation which aided in constructing the model.
The chemistry of thermal manifestations reveals the approximate
Luzon Cordillera Trend Analysis temperature and composition of the reservoir, its potential source,
and its hydrological connection. The geophysical anomalies inter-
Within the Luzon Cordillera, five geothermal service contracts preted in the context of geology and permeability controls define
have been issued by DOE, of which Kalinga is the northernmost the lateral extent and potential depths of the resource. Tempera-
(Figure 10). Calibugan et al. (2011) did a trend analysis for the ture data from shallow gradient holes helped in constraining the
five prospects. A trend analysis consists of identifying the geo- isotherms at least at the shallowest levels. Results of the trend
logic trend in which the prospect of interest is located, studying analysis added confidence in discovering a high temperature
every previously drilled well in the trend, and attempting to system hosted in a permeable reservoir rock. Two conceptual
understand how those results might apply to the subject prospect models were developed for Kalinga, a distributed permeability
- i.e. evaluating similarities or differences in particular geologic model and a fault-controlled model, with the former being the
units, structures, permeability controls and the like, in order to one considered most likely.
explain possible reasons for the success or failure of the previous
drilling programs. Distributed Permeability Model
Of the five prospects, only Prospects 3 and 4 have had deep The distributed permeability model describes a system
drilling. The wells in both prospects proved non-commercial. wherein fluid flow is not restricted to a single structure. It shows
Prospect 3 wells were drilled into the sedimentary units, while the a reservoir with a good vertical fracture network that allows
Prospect 4 well drilled into the core of intrusive body. Permeability upflow from a heat source and subhorizontal fracture network
was poor in these two lithologic units. The trend analysis led to the that allows convective flow in a 3-dimensional reservoir. En-
conclusion that Kalinga possibly has an exploitable reservoir in hanced permeability could be expected at significant geologic
the more permeable metavolcanic basement rocks, which is both structures, structural intersection and lithologic contacts. The
exposed in the surface and was drilled by the shallow gradient isotherms were constrained mostly near the surface where actual
holes. We infer from the previous drilling results that commercial measured data is available. The shallow gradient holes were used
permeability is less likely to be found in the Intrusive complex to constrain shallow temperatures in the upper few hundred me-
and Mabaca River Group at Kalinga. ters. Deeper isotherms were constructed assuming a conductive
gradient merging into a more convective
profile at a reservoir temperature sug-
gested by the cation geothermometry.
The model shows a benign exploit-
able reservoir hosted in the Basement
Complex between the 250°C to ~320°C
isotherms and sealed by the clay cap.
The upflow zone in the center outflows to
both sides of the section. The rightward
outflow is manifested as the neutral chlo-
ride springs at the surface (Figure 11). A
separate upflow associated with Caigutan
dome (where most of the acidic fumaroles
are located) is found to the left. As mag-
matic fluids ascend, some of the fluids
that reach the surface condense and flow
to the slopes as acid+sufate±chloride flu-
ids and contribute to the mixed Cl-sulfate
springs in the vicinity of the dome and
even farther left in the Intrusive Complex.
The heat source for the benign upflow
is still uncertain, but there are a number
of young volcanic domes mapped in the
Figure 10. Regional trend of the geothermal prospects in Luzon Central Cordillera and sections showing area which could reflect deep sources of
relative locations of Prospect 3 deep drilling (A-A’) and Kalinga shallow gradient holes (B-B’). heat input.

260
 Crisostomo, et al.

Conclusions

Preliminary exploration results of

show good potential for an exploitable
geothermal resource in Kalinga. The geo-
chemical data suggest that there are two
separate geothermal systems. The prospect
is believed to host a mature, equilibrated
and benign system as indicated by the high
geothermometry and near-equilibrium
neutral-chloride chemistry of its primary
hot springs along the Pasil River.  The
higher-elevation fumaroles, on the other
hand, suggest the presence of a young,
magmatic vapor system around the young
Caigutan dome. The magmatic character
is indicated by high excess chloride and
SO2 in the superheated fumaroles.  The
geology of the area combined with re-
gional exploration drilling results suggest
Figure 11. Distributed Permeability Model showing two separate systems- a benign geothermal upflow
and an acidic (magmatic) upflow. that the neutral, benign reservoir is most
likely hosted within the fractured metavol-
canic rocks of the Basement Complex.
Permeability within this rock unit may
be enhanced along structures, structural
intersections, and lithologic contacts. The
geophysical data show a strong correlation
with the mapped lithologic units. Super-
imposed on this is a distinct zone of low
resistivity interpreted to reflect clay altera-
tion overlying hot fluids in a geothermal
system. The gravity data complements
the resistivity data and also correlations
with lithology, allowing for estimates
of the relative thickness of the lithology
units. The most-likely conceptual model
is that the young magmatic vapor system
in the vicinity of the Caigutan Dome is
genetically separate from an older neutral
geothermal system that extends north at
least beneath the Pasil River. This sug-
gests that there is a good possibility of
discovering a benign resource even if an
Figure 12. Fault-controlled Model showing a thin upflow centered along the Pasil River Fault and lateral acidic system is adjacent to it, as seen from
outflows. analogs such as the Tiwi Field and Mt.
Apo geothermal fields in the Philippines.
Fault-Controlled Model
An alternative conceptual model has the Pasil River Fault as
the primary source of permeability (Figure 12). This would imply References
that the system is restricted to a narrow reservoir centered along Bureau of Energy Development (BED) and ELC-Electroconsult, 1978.
the fault, beneath the ENE-trending line of thermal features, and “Preliminary Assessment of Batong-Buhay (Kalinga-Apayao).” Philip-
pine-Italian Technical Cooperation on Geothermics Stage-II Annex 2,
possibly with a shallow outflow plume to cause the MT anomaly. Submitted to Department of Energy (DOE) Philippines.
The model became less favorable as evidences pointed to the
Calibugan, A. A., R.O. Vicedo and J. N. R. Crisostomo, 2011. “Geology of the
fault being inactive. Pasil River Fault seems to be cut and offset Luzon Central Cordillera and implications for geothermal exploration.”
by younger NW and NE structures. Also the localization of the Proceedings from the 24th Annual Geological Convention.
thermal features along the river valley could be by default since
Cumming, W., 2009. “Geothermal Resource Conceptual Models Using Sur-
hot springs are normally found on topographically low points. Fur- face Exploration Data.” Proceedings from 34th Workshop on Geothermal
thermore, the geophysical anomaly extends away from the fault. Reservoir Engineering.

261
Crisostomo, et al.

Durkee, E. F. and S. L. Pederson, 1961. “Geology of Northern Luzon, Philp- Sabit, J. P. and A. Oanes, 1976. “Reconnaissance survey of Batong Buhay
pines.” Bulletin of the American Association of Petroleum Geologist, v. Hot Spring and the three unlisted Volcanoes in Pasil, Kalinga-Apayao
45, n. 2, pp. 137-168. and Cagua Volcano in Magrafil, Gonzaga, Cagayan.” Commission on
Volcanology Memorandum to the Commissioner, COMVOL.
Fernandez, J. C. and D. Pulanco, 1964. “Preliminary Report on the Recon-
naissance Geology of Northwestern Luzon, Philppines.” Bureau of Mines
Philippines, pp. 9-53. Subang, L. L., C. J. C. Manipon, O. A. Briola, C. J. B. Ascano, J. N. Lulu, M.
A. D. A. Celiz and J. R. R.Taningco, 2006. “Geology and Mineralization
GeothermEx, Inc., 1982. “Exploration of the Batong-Buhay Geothermal of the Porphyry and Epithermal Cu-Au Deposits at Maalinao-Caigutan-
Prospect, Kalinga-Apayao Province, Luzon, Philippines Interim Report”. Biyog, Batong Buhay, Pasil, Kalinga, Philippines.” Proceedings from
Submitted to Caltex (Philippines, Inc.) and Caltex Petroleum Corp. the 18th Annual Geological Convention.
Mines and Geosciences Bureau (MGB)- Department of Enviroment and
Natural Resources, 2010. “Geology of the Philppines Second Edition”, Telford, W. M., L. P. Geldart, R. E. Sheriff, D. A. Keys, 1976. “Applied
pp. 92-106. Geophysics.” Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 26.

262