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Chapter Seven: Drafting

What is drafting? Drafting is quickly writing up what you have on your topic,
completely to the end.

Once you have defined your audience and purpose, explored, written a thesis,
and organized your information, it’s time to draft.

Drafting means writing a complete product. Whether it is an email to a client, a

lab report in chemistry, or a research paper, a draft has the basics of what is going to be
in the final version of the paper, the one you deliver to your boss or instructor.

A draft does not mean a rough draft. Nothing about drafting should be rough,
since you have already been through over half of the writing process and are prepared
to soon have a complete piece of writing. Complete, however, doesn’t mean finished.
You still have three more steps of the writing process to go (revising, editing, and
proofreading).

Tips for drafting

So what are some good things to try to remember when you start drafting a
paper?

• Try to be sure that the substance, or main claim or main idea (argument/thesis)
with the main reasons and support is there. The rest you can refine later, but the
plot, or main focus and evidence, that should all be there.

• Don’t forget that if this is an academic paper, you need to be including the cite
information as you go. It’s easier to do it as you go, than to go back and find what
you looked at and used as sources.

• Ask yourself about your draft: If I give this to a peer or a teacher, or my boss, to
review, can I be sure they’ll have a pretty good idea of the basics of what I’m
going about here?

• Don’t sweat extras in drafts. That is, when in doubt, write it, and just be sure that
when you revise, you cut, cut, cut. Just remember as you draft though, that you
can’t cut later if there is nothing on the paper. So, while drafting, get a lot of good
stuff down, then you can cut the least best (worst!) in the revising process.
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Drafting means putting all of your work together clearly and in an organized way, and
seeing how it looks. Different modes (genres) have different basics that you want to
make sure are in your draft.

The next few sections detail the basic structure of a few common modes (or
genres) in writing. Some brief examples are also provided.

Modes

A mode, or type, or form, is the kind of writing you are choosing to do. A mode, in
writing studies, is also sometimes called a genre.

What are some modes? To take an example, you can choose to do the kind of
writing that informs. This is often called expository writing, but in this book, we refer to it
as informative writing. Informative writings include reports, manuals, annotated
bibliographies, narratives, news reports, and descriptions.

You may also choose to do persuasive writing, which means the text you
produce seeks to argue a point to convince an audience. Under persuasive writing we
can include rhetorical analyses and literary analyses, which are persuasive
assignments often assigned in college. You might also be asked to write a thesis-driven
essay that makes a strong point and is then defended in the rest of the essay.
Persuasive writing can use experience or research to support the thesis.

There are also a variety of important professional types of writing which include
emails, résumés, postings on social media, cover letters, and proposals.

Other modes include proclamations, law codes, policies, deeds, manifestos,

declarations, treaties, speeches, and anthologies.

Informative writing

Informative writing is not generally said to be written in order to influence an

audience’s opinion. A person writes informative texts simply to provide data, or
statistics, or information. Organization is very important in informative writing because
often the person reading an informative text is does not need to read the entire text.
They only want to find and read the information they are looking for. Examples of this
would be a manual for a new iPhone, a dictionary, or an employee’s report to their boss
about a new product release.

Another example of informative writing is a news report. For the most part, it lets
the reader know what happened, and when, and where, and how. For example, “The
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college budget projections were announced Tuesday by the President in the commons
room of the university.” Sometimes the reason, or cause, of what happened is
mentioned, but this is not the only focus, nor is it a point of debate, in a news report. A
news report, like all informative writing, is fact-centered.

In general, for informative writing, one has a very clear topic, such as “fluid
mechanics” or “how a supernova operates” or “how to play tag” or “what happened at
the Constitutional Convention in 1787.” Informative writing has clear definitions and is
often accompanied by straightforward organization. Informative writing also sometimes
includes an outline or big and bold topical headings that go before each section and
subsection. This is so that the reader can very easily find the piece of information they
are looking for. Detailed informative writing must be well-researched.

Informative writing: Reports

A report is a piece of writing that gives information or tells what happened. A

report must be well-researched, or utilize first-hand experience. When writing a report,
you can use your experience or the experience of others. A report must have a clear
topic and outline. The definitions must be obvious or well-explained. Any quotations
contained in a report must be accurate.

A report begins with a clear explanation of what will be contained in it. Then it
moves to supporting detail. Then it concludes, often summing up the main things to be
learned in the report.

Often a longer report has a “brief” or “summary” before the main report,
containing all the major points that are in the main report. You can find short summary
documents like this often in law, where one must have the full, detailed report available,
but one must also have a summary document to give to anyone who just wants the
“talking points” from the main report. This is often also called a “fact sheet”, printable as
a one-page pdf or brochure that tells the main ideas of the larger document or text.

Examples of reports include data from a survey or poll, a report from a zoologist
on the conditions in a certain facility, and a news report. See, the example below and
notice that this example shows a writing that could also be called an essay.

Example of a report – informative writing

What I Did on My Summer Vacation

“Boom! Crack-a-lacka!” A thundercloud burst outside my window and

woke up me and my teddy bear. It was the first day of summer vacation. My
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father’s list on the fridge was the only thing between me and freedom. I went
downstairs and entered the eggy-smelling kitchen. But there was no list on the
fridge!
This is how my summer vacation began, and it got better from there. My
cousins and I rode horses on their farm all through the first weeks of the summer,
and then we all jumped into the pickup and went to the rodeo. Have you ever
seen a five-year-old boy ride a mad hog? We did. And my uncle bought us pink
ice cream and pink cotton candy. We looked like hogs ourselves when we were
done. But, in case you’re wondering, we didn’t throw up on the rides.
You know that feeling when August comes closer, how you can’t figure out
how to pack the most amount of fun into one day? Well that feeling would not go
away for me last summer, because I got a free load of books from one of my
aunts, left on the porch one morning in mid-July. Well, this killed my outdoor play
for three weeks, unless you count reading “Catcher in the Rye” and “The
Outsiders” and “Old Yeller” in the treehouse for hours on end in the shady
breezes by the brook as “playing outside.”
In August, though, my dog got sick, so we spent most of our time at the
vet, or making cards to tack on the fence near his doghouse so he could see
them and maybe get well faster. My sister planted a “hope garden” next to the
doghouse with one sad plot of grass and two bean plants. She said that some
Native American tradition she read about promised that the “hope garden” would
make the dog get better faster. I didn’t believe her, but the grass looked fresh
and pretty next to the fading doghouse.
Summer vacation ends, as you know, on Labor Day. I had swam, jumped,
kicked, raced, and read all summer. I had two skinned knees and one skinned
elbow to prove it, and six fish bone skeletons hanging on the walls in my room to
prove I had fished. I won a fourth place ribbon at the local fair for my chili, and
there was a green ribbon above the kitchen table to prove that. But I had no
ribbon to prove our team had beat the team of the neighboring town in our
baseball tournament this summer. You’ll have to just believe me on that.

In the writing process, when you are revising informative writing, you will probably focus
especially on revising for accuracy of data, clarity of presentation, and organization.

Informative writing: Example of a book report

Jamal Student
English 101
Book report on Beyond Good and Evil, by Friedrich Nietzsche

Wicked Moods and Tones

In Beyond Good and Evil, Nietzsche adds to the philosophical

conversations of the late 1800s. He discusses nature, what is natural, and the
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importance of psychology. But his main focus is on what he says is “morality.” In

his discussion of this topic, he seeks to unchain people from old ideas of right
and wrong ways to behave, and to have them be more free.
He goes through history, and mentions many movements of philosophy
from Plato to the present. He seems to be arguing against quite a few of the
people he mentions, holding them to be somewhat antiquated and stifling. His
way of writing is so playful, however, that one can’t be entirely sure of what
Nietzsche really thinks. For example, he writes, “All this goes to prove that from
our fundamental nature and from remote ages we have been—accustomed to
lying” (61). When he says this, does he mean “lying” in a moral sense? It is hard
to know.
I enjoyed this book. I thought it was difficult to comprehend, what with all
the Latin phrases, but I got enough out of it to form the judgment that it is worth
reading, has some interesting ways of using language and some fascinating
thoughts, and that it makes me understand modernity and the history of thought
a little better.

Work cited
Nietzsche, Friedrich. Beyond Good and Evil [1886]. Dover 1997

Informative writing: Compare and contrast

A compare and contrast writing is often done as a short paper on its own, or as
smaller part of a research or persuasive essay. It describes two things carefully and
clearly, and then compares them, often ending by concluding which of the two is better.

A compare and contrast essay is well-organized, factual, and detailed. The style
is often direct and vivid. The point is to document similarities and differences, to make
people see things in a fresh way, or to gain insight. It focuses the audience’s attention in
a way that makes them think.

Examples include comparing two products and concluding which is better or

outlining two solutions to a contemporary or personal problem and concluding which is
better. Often, when preparing to write a compare and contrast piece, the writer makes
lists of similarities and differences between the two things that are being compared. The
subject-by-subject, or block method of organization can be used—one describes one
thing completely, and then the other, and then concludes. Or, one can go point-by-point.

Example of compare and contrast – informative writing

Mow, Wow, the Best Way to Mow

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I have to buy a lawnmower. I live in the suburbs, and one must have a
lawnmower when one has a lawn. But which lawnmower, that is the question. A
riding lawnmower or a push mower? My lawn is only one acre, but the grass
grows quickly in the summer, and I want to make the right choice.
A riding lawnmower is easier on the back. You don’t have to sweat as
much when you ride. A riding lawnmower is big, too, and gets the job done
quicker, because the wide blade is cutting so much grass per second. A riding
lawnmower can also be used by all members of the household—my elderly
father can even cut the grass with a riding lawnmower if he wishes to. But on the
other hand, a riding lawnmower is expensive. It is also bigger, so you have to
have more space in the garage to store it. It is also an attraction to children, and
they could get hurt on it.
A push mower helps you get much more exercise when you use it,
because you are using your arm and leg muscles a great deal as you push that
mower, especially through the taller grass. A push mower can also get into littler
areas, so you don’t have to go over the lawn with a weed-whipper when you’re
done mowing to get all the spaces under the deck and around trees. A push
mower is also small and easily stored. A push mower also has less pollution,
because the engine is so small. But a push mower is also slower, so will the
grass get mowed as often if I get a push mower? And with a push mower, it takes
longer to do the entire lawn, because the area the blade is cutting is not very
large.
I think I’m going to go with a push mower. I like the idea of getting more
exercise whenever I cut the lawn. I like the cheap price. I want to help the
environment. And, let’s face it, I don’t want the neighbors in my uppity suburb to
think I’m lazy.

Informative writing: Annotated bibliography

An annotated bibliography is a specific kind of informative writing that is often

assigned in beginning college courses. There are three elements of an annotated
bibliography: the citation of an article, the summary of the article, and the connection to
the topic at hand. Sometimes this last element, the connection to the topic being
researched, is not included. In an annotated bibliography there is always a citation of an
article. For example, you may write an annotated bibliography about three books and
articles that you found about why people become psychopaths. Often, an annotated
bibliography is done in preparation for writing a longer paper in which you seek to
persuade.

Each entry of an annotated bibliography begins with the citation of the book or
article. Then there is a brief summary of the contents of the book or article. Sometimes,
the last few sentences of an annotated bibliography include a reason why the book is
going to be used in a research project, or why it is important, or an assessment (value-
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judgment) about the book or article. Annotated bibliographies can be very brief
summaries, such as in the example of an annotated bibliography below. Or they can be
longer, and each entry may include a key quote or two from the book or article.

Example of annotated bibliography: Informative writing

Jade Patel
English 101
Fall 2020

Psychopathic Personality Research

My topic is crime, specifically psychopathy. So far I have three articles that I have
found, which I annotate below.

1.
McCuish, E. C. and R. Corrado, P. Lussier, and S. D. Hart. “Psychopathic
traits and offending trajectories from early adolescence to adulthood”
Journal of Criminal Justice 42.1 (2014): 66-76

In this article, the authors go through trajectory studies of adolescence

who have committed crime. They categorize different types of traits and research
which traits are associated with offending behavior. They make conclusions that
it is the chronic individuals who appear to be the most psychopathic.

2.
Kiehl, Kent, and Morris Hoffman. “The criminal psychopath: History,
neuroscience, treatment, and economics” Jurimetrics 51 (2011): 355-397

In this article, the authors go through the history of the psychopathic

personality. They describe the problem that psychopaths present to society. They
try to increase awareness of the condition, and give information about
psychopaths that is informed by history and research.

3.
Millon, Theodore, and Erik Simonsen, Roger Davis, and Morten Birket-Smith
(eds). Psychopathy: Antisocial, Criminal, and Violent Behavior. The Guilford
Press 2002.

In this book, the editors present articles on psychopathy. They try to bring
the reader up to date on what the current research situation is like in
psychopathy studies. They discuss definitions and the reasons people are
psychopaths, as well as how to correct and fight against the bad effects that
psychopaths have on society.
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Informative writing: Descriptions / Explaining a process

In writing a description, you state the place, thing, time, process, action, or
person you are describing. Then you proceed to give details about it. For example,
when you write a short story, you often describe the main character towards the
beginning of the story; she is an engineer, tall, white-haired, and likes fishing.

A description is often a small part of a larger piece of writing. For example, in a

compare and contrast paper, you describe the two things you are comparing, first one,
then the other, and then you compare and contrast them. Or in an experience-based
persuasion writing, you describe a situation you were in. Careful word choice and
position is key to a good description.

In writing a description, keep the five senses in mind. What did it look like? Start
at the top and work your way down. What did it smell like? Compare the smell to
something else if you can. What did it feel like, the different parts of it? What did it
sound like and taste like? And in writing descriptions, as with all writing, look at other
good descriptions and model your writing on them.

Graphic: Informative versus persuasive writing

Now we have reviewed informative modes of writing. Here is a graphic to
illustrate as we move to a different kind of writing, a different mode: persuasive writing.
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Persuasive writing

Persuasive writing includes narration, rhetorical and literary analyses, definition,

and experience- or research-based argumentation.

All forms of writing contain some kind of persuasion, even informative writing. For
an example, a grocery list is informative writing, but the audience, the person for whom
it is written, also takes it as a bit persuasive; it has the implied argument: “You should
go pick these things up from the store.” Even a report you deliver to your boss informs
him of what the engineering department is up to, but it also has that implied persuasion:
We’re doing our job here well; our department is worth the money, and so on.

But let’s look at persuasive writing now as writing that has as its very essence
and core the desire to persuade, to change minds, to move people in one direction and
not another.

Persuasive writing does contain factual information that is not arguable. But, in
general, persuasive writing is not about just giving information. It is
meant to shift hearts, to move souls, to change opinions, to deepen
thought.

Often persuasive writing is called “argumentative writing.”

However, it is unfortunate that when people hear the word “argument,"
they think of two people screaming at each other in the kitchen, and one of them is
ready to knock the other one over the head. But an argument paper is not about bad
feelings and destroying the other person, or at least, it shouldn’t be. There is a technical
way we use the word “argument” in writing texts, it simply means offering a written text
into an ongoing debate with the hope of securing agreement among people of good will
who currently disagree with you or hold a different view. This is the nature of
deliberative democracy, and it is the only ethical way to do argument.

In all argument writing, or persuasive writing, you give background information,

and you make a claim (thesis) and you give evidence to support the thesis. You often
appeal to the interests and emotions of your audience. You keep an ethical and
respectful tone. You usually entertain counterarguments. You conclude, summing up
your main points.

Remember, you don't argue about things that are self-evident (such as that the
sun is in the sky), but about things that can reasonably be debated, such as who will win
the Super Bowl this year, or what we should do about health care in our state. You
should also choose topics that people care about deeply. It depends on the audience.
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Often we make a distinction between persuading by working with your reader

and persuading by leading your reader. Which method you choose will depend on your
audience. If you think your audience will not mind feeling as if you are controlling them,
you may choose to persuade them by leading them. If you think your audience would
prefer to feel as if they are participating in their movement towards a new position, you
may wish to persuade them by working with them—by acknowledging them often, by
reminding them what they already know, etc.

As discussed in earlier chapters, we often say that there are three methods of
persuasion: ethos (persuading by means of presenting good character, credentials, or
reputable sources), pathos (persuading by means of moving the emotions), and logos
(persuading by means of facts and reason).

The basic outline of an argument, or persuasive form of writing, is this

• Claim (thesis) (as part of the introduction)

• Supporting reasons
• Consideration of counter-arguments (optional)
• Conclusion and resaying of claim (thesis)

Because persuasion is so dependent on a central claim (thesis), often in the writing

process you'll find that if you change your thesis, even a little, you have to go through
and rework a good deal of the rest of the writing.

Persuasive writing: Definition writing

Definition writing is often parts, or sections, of other writings. Definitions are

important, because accuracy of definition, or naming, is one of the greatest problems in
persuasion—often people mean different things by the same word. So, especially in
using big, abstract words like “justice” and “democracy” and “fair,” you need to be clear
on what you mean. For example, if you write a whole paper arguing that scholarships
need to be awarded fairly but never define “fair,” then your argument is founded on
shaky ground. Even if you provide great evidence and reasoning, your audience can
say, “But that’s not what I think fair means.”

When defining, keep in mind that there are different kinds of definitions:
denotations and connotations. A denotation is the official, accepted definition. It includes
both the official dictionary information (including parts of speech, forms, and alternate
meanings) and commonly held definitions. For example, take the word “apple.” An
apple’s denotation would include its pronunciation, the fact it is a noun, and the idea that
it refers to a fruit growing on a tree in a northern climate that can be red, green, or
yellow.
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The connotations of a word are meanings that go beyond the denotation, that
often have feelings and symbolic meanings. Take the word “apple” again. We associate
so many things with apples: health (an apple a day keeps the doctor away), education
(an apple for a teacher), patriotism (American as apple pie). sin (Garden of Eden), New
York City (The Big Apple). You could probably think of even more.

When you define a word, be aware of its denotation and connotations. And
remember, you can use connotations to lead and persuade and move your reader. For
example, knowing apples are a symbol of health, you can use that in your writing to
symbolize healthy living. Apples are serious, too (unlike the funny banana).

Writing a dictionary definition is not enough. For example, the definition of a

“rosebud” in the dictionary is “a bud of a rose.” This is not really helpful for really
explaining the object to someone not familiar with it. There are many other ways to
define:

• Define by category. Put the word or term in a larger organizational context. For
example: patriotism can be put in term of military service or in another category
like volunteering and giving back to one’s community.

• Define by example. For example, a good student is like Hermione Granger in

the Harry Potter books; she is prepared, does not procrastinate, is not afraid to
ask questions, but also is willing to help others without cheating.

• Define with a synonym. Use words that are similar. For example, a hipster is a
bit like the beatniks of the 1950s, smart and stylish but also a source of ridicule
by others.

• Define by operation. Break it down into parts/how it works. For example, a

responsible parent has to be a mentor, role model, guidance counselor,
therapist, and even a jailer on occasion.

• Define through historical process. Look at how word has evolved over time. For
example, the word holocaust originally meant to be consumed by fire, but after
World War II, the meaning changed. It now refers to the mass genocide of
Jewish and other peoples by the Nazis.

• Define by negation. Define something by what it is not. You cannot do this

extensively because eventually, you have to define it. For example, a
Physician’s Assistant (PA) is not an MD (Medical Doctor). PAs can perform
many of the same procedures as an MD and even prescribe medications but
they can only assist in surgery and not perform it on their own. Also, PAs work
under the supervision of an MD.
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Persuasive writing: Narrative

Narrative is a special kind of persuasive writing. Examples of narrative include

the personal narrative, the reflection paper, and the memoir. Often these are also called
“essays.” Stories, long and short, are narratives. The idea in a narrative is for the
audience to be moved a certain way, to have a sort of revelation, or to see something in
a new light. This is why narrative writing is categorized under persuasive writing. You
are trying to persuade an audience to behold a matter in a certain way—you are trying
to stir their soul. One example of a narrative is a fairy tale that tells a moral.

Example of narrative: Fairy tale with moral – persuasive writing

The poor little sparrow was called Pride. Pride’s mother said,
“Pride, leave the nest and make your way in the world.” So Pride tweeted
farewell to her siblings and soared off towards the tallest tree.
At the top of the tallest pine tree in the forest, Pride made a nest.
She could see for miles. She could see the weather vane on the roof of
the barn in the valley over the hill. And every night she heard the wind in
the pines just below her.
One day, as Pride was going about gathering worms on the ground
far below, she heard a chipmunk squeaking at another chipmunk. “What
are you quarreling over?” tweeted Pride. One chipmunk, whose name was
Sam, said, “Joe here is not gathering quickly enough. And we have a party
tonight. We have to be ready.” Pride nodded and said, “I believe I am
invited to the party.” Sam looked and Joe, and Joe looked at Sam. “Why
not?” they shrugged. “Seven o’clock.”
Pride fluttered back down to the plot of dirt happily. Just then she
saw two worms wiggling in the dirt. She carefully picked them both up in
her beak and began climbing through the air to her nest near the stars.
But half-way up, she got so tired. And the worms were so heavy! So,
regretfully, she dropped one of them. When she finally got to her nest, she
was so tired, she put the worm on the table, sat in the armchair, and fell
asleep.
When she woke, it was half past seven. She flew to the mirror,
arranged her feathery hair, put on her best yellow bonnet, and began the
trip to the chipmunks. She passed the tallest branches, then the middle
branches, and then finally, she found the chipmunks by following the
sound of the fiddle that filtered through the lowest branches.
“What are you doing here?” Sam asked her when he saw Pride
entering the party room amid the broken balloons and empty cake pans.
“Why, coming to the party,” she said. “It’s over,” he said. And he stretched
out on a branch, fluffed his pillow, and snored off.
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“Oh, no!” thought Pride. “Why, oh, why did I build my nest so high,
and so far away from everybody else’s?”

The use of stories with interesting details are common in good narrative writing.
For example, here is a line from Steinbeck’s Of Mice and Men

This was Slim, the jerkline skinner. His hatchet face was ageless. He might have
been thirty-five or fifty. His ear heard more than was said to him, and his slow
speech had overtones not of thought, but of understanding beyond thought (33-
34).

You can see how exact and careful and clear this description is. Narrative writing often
includes much figurative language. In other words, narrative writing focuses on the
senses—how did it feel? How did it taste, and what did it smell like? There is also often
a lot of dialogue in narrative writing. There is a clear beginning and a clear end. There is
often a takeaway lesson, or memory. Sometimes, there is a plot with complexity and
resolution. The topic is usually one of love, or envy, or death, or big choices, or
something very interesting to humans.

In narrative writing, the thesis, or central claim, is often ambiguous or arguable—

it cannot be pinpointed into one sentence, the way you can find a thesis sentence in an
academic argument paper.

For example, what is the central argument of the superhero movies? It is not:
"Monsters are pink." It is not "Everybody should go to college." It may be something like
"Be strong" or "Believe in yourself" or "Work hard" or "Fight for what is right." And we
perhaps can argue which of those is the main argument of each superhero movie. But
we are all somewhere near each other in terms of what we think the argument, or claim,
could be.

Persuasive writing: Rhetorical analysis

A rhetorical analysis seeks to convince an audience what is going on in a chosen

text, in terms of the chosen text’s effect on its audience. The form of the thesis, or claim
(or central argument) of a rhetorical analysis is the same in every rhetorical analysis. In
other words, you don’t invent your own thesis statement when you write a rhetorical
analysis; you simply fill in the blanks of the given form of the thesis of all rhetorical
analyses, which is something like this:

In this rhetorical analysis, I am arguing that [Insert name of important text] is

persuasive by means of _______.

Then, you give evidence to support your claim.

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In rhetorical analyses, you very often give background about the text you are
studying and telling your audience about. You also quote extensively from the text you
are analyzing to provide the evidence to support your way of seeing how the text is
persuasive. You also paraphrase your text and summarize it. As you can see, a
rhetorical analysis is a very good exercise for getting really into the meat of what is
going on in whatever text you choose to analyze.

For some examples:

• Maya Angelou’s poems are persuasive by means of her strong images

and rhythms that feel so passionate.
• Franklin Delano Roosevelt’s speech “We have nothing to fear but fear
itself” was persuasive because of ethos: the speaker had a great
reputation as a leader.
• Martin Luther King Jr’s “I have a dream” speech was persuasive because
of his displaying of the logic and common sense of our common humanity.
At the end of a rhetorical analysis, sometimes you, the writer, sum up why you think the
text you studied is persuasive specifically to you—you being the audience.

The most common type of rhetorical analysis is the one that uses the Aristotelian
categories of ethos, pathos, and logos to organize it. You put this formula into the first
paragraph of your rhetorical analysis in some form and then just follow through on
giving evidence to support your claim (thesis). Just as a reminder, ethos is the character
or reputation of the writer of the text. Pathos is the emotional appeals or evoking of
feelings that the text makes to occur in the audience, and logos is the logical elements
in the text, the appeals to facts and reason and common sense (or, universal truths, in a
sense).

Some tips for writing a good rhetorical analysis are:

• Choose a worthy text; do not choose a text that is irrelevant or that nobody cares
about or will ever read.
• Read the text carefully and know it well; notate it and find good quotes in it.
• Summarize it.
• Feel if you have an emotional reaction. Document the emotion.
• Feel if you are moved by the logic and facts and common sense in the writing.
Document it.
• Feel if you are respecting the author more and more as you read. Document that.
• Learn something about the writer of the text, if you can.
• Learn something about the historical situation of the text or the conversation that
the text is involved with.
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• Think about who else is interested in the text or the topic that the text discusses.
• Consider the audience of the text you are studying—how might they be moved or
persuaded? What is the purpose?
• Make sure you entertain other points of view, or counter-arguments. This almost
always strengthens your own argument because it displays that you know about
and have carefully considered other stakeholders.

Example of rhetorical analysis – persuasive writing

I recently read “A Piece of Chalk” by G. K. Chesterton. The writer is

persuasive by means of ethos, in that he creates a sense of trust in his
reader by means of his facility with English and with his love for the things
most humans love: Nature, philosophy, art. The writer is also persuasive
by means of pathos, because he evokes an emotional response, even to
things such as color, that is “red-hot” and “draws roses” and “black” which
is “definite.” The writer is also persuasive by means of logos, or logic, but
not data. For he gives all kinds of logical arguments, but to go along with
them you have to agree with certain assumptions, which are almost
always amazing and vast assumptions.
Chesterton persuades by ethos by presenting himself, the writer, as
one who cares about humanity. For example, he says that others might
draw a cow, but he draws “the soul of the cow,” so that it becomes
something poetical and greater than it is in itself. He also describes
himself in the first paragraph as a friendly person, as he interacts with the
woman in the kitchen with humor. By mentioning things like “the pocket-
knife” and calling it “the infant of the sword,” Chesterton amuses with his
fresh and touching uses of language.
Chesterton persuades by pathos because he is always mentioning
emotion-laden topics and subjects, like “devils and seraphim” and “blind
old gods” and “the live green figure of Robin Hood.” He does not call a
path through a field a path through a field; he calls it “those colossal
contours”, thus evoking a feeling of vastness and closeness and love for
all of England. Everyone carries things in their pockets. But for Chesterton
to call these items “primeval and poetical” is yet another example of his
making a smiling feeling of the enormity of humanity’s cares out of
something so small and inconsequential.
Chesterton persuades by logos not with providing an array of
scientific facts, but by laying out statements that have amazing
assumptions behind them. For example, he says that elements of the
landscape being smooth “declares in the teeth of our timid and cruel
theories that the mighty are merciful.” To assume that smoothness in
nature is the same as smoothness of humankind is simply an amazing
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and amusing leap. In the end, he assumes that his audience is going to
go along with his assumption that “white” is the color of “virtue.” This is
easy to assume along with him, because he slips it into the narrative of his
essay on virtue, which he says is “a vivid and separate thing.”
In my view, Chesterton is persuasive by means of ethos more than
anything else. By presenting himself as a philosopher and one who cares
deeply about man, the audience is easily persuaded to follow him
wherever he leads them in his writing, and to agree with such a jolly, wise,
and people-loving person, which is so refreshing in this, what Chesterton
calls, this “pessimistic period” we live in.

Work cited
Chesterton, G. K. “A Piece of Chalk” [1905]. www.gkc.org.uk,
http://www.gkc.org.uk/gkc/books/chalk.html. Accessed 14 Feb. 2018.

Persuasive writing: Literary analysis

To write a literary analysis, one picks an important text of literature. Then one
makes a claim about it and supports that claim with evidence from the literature text
itself, and sometimes also from sources that shed light on the literature text. The key to
a good literary analysis is to deeply and closely read the literature text, come up with
one clear claim that is reasonable, and support it by evidence, especially by quoting or
paraphrasing or summarizing items from the text.

To use the example of D. H. Lawrence's short story “The Prussian Officer,” I

could claim that the text is to be read as a commentary on the lostness of modern
human life. I could support this by directly quoting from the end of the story, where we
read:

He stared till his eyes went black, and the mountains, as they stood in their
beauty, so clean and cool, seemed to have it, that which was lost in him (18).

I could find other portions of the text which also exhibit this sense of wandering and
befuddlement. Notice that my interpretation can be argued against by others. Others
may think the text is directed towards truths that are something somewhat different. But
because my evidence is grounded in the literary text itself, my thesis, or claim, is most
certainly at least a reasonable claim.

As with a rhetorical analysis, the thesis, or central claim, of every literary analysis
essentially follows the same form. So somewhere you will see in every literary analysis
this kind of claim: “The text, [Insert name of literary text], should be read as
__________, because ____________.”
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Tips for doing a literary analysis are:

• Grammar is important. Knowing what parts of speech are in the text and where
and why, helps you make educated statements about them. For example, to
know how to talk about a text as “written in the first person” versus “written in the
third person” is necessary to writing a good literary analysis. For example, Moby
Dick begins “Call me Ishmael.” This is the first person. It does not begin “There
was a man named Ishmael,” which sends forth a very different feeling. Being
able to notice this means knowing grammar.
• Things that are multicultural are nice to analyze, especially if you are trying to
appeal to a wider audience.
• The more closely you read the literature text you are writing about, the better
your analysis will be.
• Knowing the historical context and conversation of the text you are analyzing is
also helpful.
• Showing that you know possible counter-claims to what you are claiming about
the text will usually only strengthen your own case.
• Secondary sources--academic sources about the literature text you are
examining--can sometimes be helpful.

Remember, when you write a literary analysis, you are writing to an audience of people
who probably know and care about the text you are analyzing. So, already, you know
that your audience is going to want you to care about and know about the text. For
example, your audience could be the other members of your literature or composition
course.

When reading the chosen literary text you are analyzing, look at themes,
patterns, images, language, metaphors, interpretations, the plot line. As you read, think
carefully about why the writer of the literary text chose one word and not another, why
they put an image in where they put it, why they were silent in a certain place where you
thought there would be something said—things like this.

Literary analyses are sometimes experience-based. In other words, you, the

reader, simply write about how you responded to the text, how you reacted. This is
experience-based persuasion, which is the next section. But even if you are writing an
experience-based (often called a reader-response) literary analysis, you still must
support your claims from the literary text and be prepared to defend them.

The following example is a simple version of a literary analysis because it does

not involve citing anything other than the text under analysis. More advanced analyses
often include references to the work of other scholars in the field who research the
literary text.
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Example of a literary analysis – persuasive writing

“Ode on a Grecian Urn,” and Depression

Keats’s “Ode on a Grecian Urn” should be read as a confession of

depression. The writer is clearly depressed. The maidens are “loth”—why
can’t they be something more positive? There is a “mad pursuit” and a
“struggle to escape.” To me that sounds kind of upsetting. And the entire
poem is filled with references to that which the writer wants but cannot get,
which makes the writer sound unfulfilled and sunken. For we read of
“unheard” melodies and the bold lover in the poem is told he can “never,
never” kiss the girl.
The author even admits that he, or someone, is left with “a heart
high-sorrowful and cloy’d.” And we all know that cows often low because
they are missing their mothers, or food, and here we have this poor “heifer
lowing at the skies” in the poem. And who wouldn’t get depressed being
reminded of “old age” and how this generation is being wasted by it?
Some might argue that at the end of the poem, the talk about truth
being beauty and beauty being truth, is upbeat. But it sounds a little
fraught to me, even there, for the unnamed narrator tells the audience
“…—that is all / Ye know on earth.” If that’s it, and everything on earth is
full of silent streets and we have just read about a place “desolate” and a
person “for ever panting”, then, I ask you, where does this leave us? In a
funk, that’s what I say.

Work Cited
Keats, John. “Ode on a Grecian Urn.” The Poetry Foundation.
https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poems/44477/ode-on-a-grecian-urn.
Accessed 14 Feb. 2018.

Persuasive writing: Experience-based persuasion

In college as well as in a job situation, most persuasive writing you do will have to
do with persuading with logos, or facts and data. However, there is also experience-
based writing that depends on style, passion (pathos), and experience (ethos). The
following is an argument, or claim:

A man should never marry. I am charmed when I hear a man say, ‘I am still living
alone.’ When I hear someone say, ‘He has married into so and so’s family’ or ‘He
has taken such and such a wife and they are living together,’ I feel nothing but
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contempt for the man. He will be ridiculed by others too, who will say, ‘No doubt
he thought that commonplace woman was quite a catch, and that’s why he took
her off with him.’ Or, if the woman happens to be beautiful, they are sure to feel,
‘He dotes on her so much that he worships her as his private Buddha. Yes, that’s
no doubt the case' (Kenko, Yoshida, “from Essays in Idleness” 2341)

The central thesis is the first line: “A man should not marry.” The writer then goes on to
very feelingly support his view, his claim, his thesis. But he does not cite any data, or
scientific research, to support his thesis. He is convincing by experience, by emotion, by
character.

As the example above exhibits, any novel, poem, story, or similar writing can be
also called an experience-based persuasion writing. Here, in this textbook, we focus on
the more academic kind of experience-based persuasion text you are often asked to
write in learning environments and job situations. The key in both kinds of persuasion
writing, however, is that you must have a clear thesis or claim. You must stick to that
same claim throughout your paper, and you must support it with evidence. You often do
well to include the admission that there are valid possible counter-arguments to your
claim, and you should refute them as best and reasonably as you can.

The difference between experience-based and research-based persuasion is

only that experience-based persuasion is more subjective, non-scientific. It is more
about how you, one person, feel about something.

Again, the form of an experience-based persuasion writing is:

• Claim (thesis) (as part of the introduction)

• Supporting reasons
• Consideration of counter-arguments (optional)
• Conclusion and resaying of claim (thesis).

You must have a clear, arguable thesis, and you must stick to that single claim
throughout the entire text. You must give reasons to support your thesis. You do well to
consider why your claim could be wrong—what good reasons there could be to oppose
you. And then at the end you say your thesis again, in a fresh and memorable way. Feel
free to look at models to get ideas.

Tip: To write experience-based persuasion, simply read news or postings on the

internet on topics that you’re interested in. You will quickly find something to
disagree with or argue against. Use that point of agreement or disagreement to
start your paper.
 Y o u , W r i t i n g ! | 74

Persuasive writing: Research-based persuasion

Research-based persuasion writing is similar to experience-based persuasion

writing. The difference is that you, the writer, do not put so much of yourself into the
argument. You come up with a working thesis, or claim, and then do research to find
items to support your claim with facts and authorities.

Research-based persuasion writing is especially about trying to persuade an

audience through their logic and reason.

It cannot be emphasized enough how careful you must be

about phrasing and forming your thesis, or central claim, in research-
based persuasion writing. If you say, “I argue that there are a lot of
problems with crime in our country,” you cause your reader to become
immediately lost. This is far too vague. If you claim, “Crime is bad,”
then your reader shakes their head again—this is not an arguable
argument, because who is going to plausibly argue against that claim? But if you say
something like, “I argue that ______ has been proven to help improve the crime
situation, based on data from ______, supported by researchers ________ and
______,” the reader knows that you know your data, you know your topic, you know
your research, you know your issue, and you are acquainted with at least some of the
other people involved in the issue.

Be very specific in your claim (thesis, argument)!

Secondly, you must be very careful about following through on your thesis. You
must adhere to it throughout your writing, and you must finish the paper with essentially
the same claim that you began it with.

As far as research for a research-based persuasion paper, the key here is to find
important, relevant research. To do this, you must skim many texts and find what you
need.

Also key here is to document your sources. Keep track of what you are reading,
and document where you got everything. And finally, quote from your sources
accurately and fairly. And if something is a quote, keep it in quotes.

Do not just lift someone else’s words and pass them off as your own!

Ethos, or having a tone of ethical responsibility, is important in a research-based

persuasion writing as well. You do well to follow the general ways and forms of the
people who are in the field you are writing in. You do well to present yourself as you
actually are, with honesty. You can be as passionate about your topic as you like, but
 Y o u , W r i t i n g ! | 75

be fair and reasonable. Look at counter-arguments lucidly and considerately. Keep your
tone professional, clear, and genuine, as much as possible.

Professional writing

Professional writing might also be called business writing. In professional writing,

you are writing much as you write reports, in expository (informative) writing, as we
discussed above. You are conveying information and a tone of professionalism.
Examples of professional writing include professional emails, résumés and cover letters,
and social media postings.

Professional writing: Emails

In a professional email, you want to greet the recipient or recipients politely. You
want to use proper grammar and have a calm and consistent style. Stay with the
business matter at hand. You want to break up your writing into clear and separate
topics—think organization and structure, so that any decision-makers above you or
equal to you can quickly find what information they need, using short and to-the-point
sentences.

Remember always that your email is a public document, no matter how private it
may seem to you. And don’t phrase anything in an email differently than what you would
say to the recipient face to face.

Example of professional writing: emails

4 February 2015
Dear Colleagues,
cc: Jim Boss

Our method of reserving the main conference room in Room 412 used to
be a sign-up sheet at my desk here in Room 12. We are moving to an
online sign-up sheet for the use of the main conference room, beginning
tomorrow at 8am.

To reserve the room now, one simply goes to the website,

www.conferenceroom412.com, and clicks on the block of time (in ½ hour
increments) that one wishes to reserve the room for. The system will
automatically fill in your contact information and block out the time for you.
You can fill in as much information as you would like about your use of the
room.
 Y o u , W r i t i n g ! | 76

In the event that there is a scheduling conflict, and two people wish to
reserve the room at the same time, the procedure for resolving the conflict
is the same as before: email me and I will resolve the conflict within two
hours of receipt of your email.

If you have any questions about this new method, please contact me.

Regards,
Jane Secretary
Administrative Assistant,
Business XYZ [email protected]
763-222-1763
Room 12

Professional writing: Résumés and cover letters

Résumés are important for working people. A résumé tells the reader who you
are, what you have done, and why they should hire you. It does not use sentences so
much as it uses bullet-points, white space, and brief data phrases. The goal is to
accurately and quickly display oneself to a potential employer. In writing a résumé, do
not have errors. Carefully proof-read what you have in your résumé before you send it.
Simply list your name, your education, your qualifications, and your work history, but
avoid all personal pronouns. Utilize active verbs to describe your experience.

The key to good résumé writing is accuracy, conciseness, and consistency.

Example of cover letter:

14 July 2017

Human Resources Director

Weatherford Public Schools
Weatherford, MN

Dear Human Resources Director,

As my résumé indicates, I have extensive experience managing the

grounds and facilities of schools. I would appreciate it if you would
carefully consider my application to be head janitor at the Weatherford
Public Schools. I am honest, good with people, and very responsible. I
believe this is why I was promoted from janitor to head janitor at Midland
Public Schools, which job I presently hold.
 Y o u , W r i t i n g ! | 77

When there is a problem in the school, I fix it immediately, or find out how
to get the resources together to get it fixed as soon as possible. I
document everything, and the safety of the students and staff is my
highest priority. Along with this, I also keep a productive and happy team
going every day.

I can provide references to you, of people familiar with me and my work,

who will also inform you as to my excellent worth and qualifications for the
position of head janitor.

My contact information is below and on my résumé. I very much look

forward to hearing back from you soon, to discuss the possibility of me
coming to work at Weatherford Public Schools to serve you, your
students, your staff, and your community.

Regards,

Joe Schmo
[email protected]
763-763-7676
1234 Tree Street
Midland, MN 55555

Examples of résumés:
 Y o u , W r i t i n g ! | 78

Chronological résumé from Business English for Success from Saylor Books.
 Y o u , W r i t i n g ! | 79

Functional Résumé from Business English for Success from Saylor Books.
 Y o u , W r i t i n g ! | 80

Professional writing: Social media postings

Why do we include a little note about social media postings under professional
writing? Because your social media postings are part of your public ethos, or reputation,
and they will remain with you. What conclusions will your peers draw from your postings
on Twitter? What will a future potential employer think in reviewing your Facebook
profile?

Appropriate social media posting:

Finished my last final exam today! Ready for the next steps, whatever they be!

Not appropriate:

Done with exams! Hello Jack Daniels. See you in a week!

Keep in mind that you can always create private Facebook or other social media groups
for your friends and family—or have two separate accounts, one for professional use
and another for more casual communications.

Always be aware that potential employers may still be able to see any public
accounts.

That’s it. Now you can move on to drafting a paper. You know your mode, you
have an idea of its form. Start typing!

Tips for overcoming writer’s block

Just as a review of what we saw in chapter two, getting started in finding a topic,
here are some tips to overcome writer’s block, no matter what mode you end up in:

• Look at examples of modes for ideas

• Look at the requirements of what you’re assigned (if there are requirements)

• Look at a peer’s paper, or find an example

• Read on the subject to joggle your brain

• Mindmap, freewrite, brainstorm

 Y o u , W r i t i n g ! | 81

• Start writing something else that you know you can write on, keeping the
assignment in mind, and see if this freewriting can morph into something closer
to what you need to be writing.

A final thought on modes. When you choose a mode, remember that it comes with
expectations already built in the mind of the audience—they are familiar with the
customs of that mode. You can exploit those audience expectations in persuading the
audience.
 Y o u , W r i t i n g ! | 82

Chapter Eight: Revising

Revising: Re-seeing your writing

Wow—you've gone through the whole writing process, thinking about audience
and purpose, exploring, creating a thesis, organizing, choosing a mode, drafting, even
researching. Now, you have a completed piece of writing: an essay, email, proposal,
research paper, or other form of writing. You’re done, right?

Wait a minute. Actually, in many ways, you are just beginning. You need to
revise.

Revising, for most writers,

is the most important thing to The short story writer Raymond Chandler said a
improving your writing, the most writer should, “Throw up into your typewriter in
crucial part of the writing process. the morning. Clean up every noon” (Revision
You may think that a completed Quotes).
first draft means little improvement
is needed; you just need to fix
errors. Even experienced writers,
however, need to improve their drafts, and they rely on peers during revising and
editing.

You may know that athletes miss catches, fumble balls, or overshoot goals.
Dancers forget steps, turn too slowly, or miss beats. For both athletes and dancers, the
more they practice, the stronger their performance will become. Web designers seek
better images, a more clever design, or a more appealing background for their web
pages. Writers have the same capacity to profit from improvement and revision.

Revising is the act of starting the

writing process over again. When you
have a completed draft, you need to go
back and check that the draft works. “That’s the magic of revisions –
Take a second look at your ideas. You every cut is necessary, and every
might add, cut, move, or change cut hurts, but something new always
information to make your ideas clearer, grows.”
more accurate, more interesting, or ― Kelly Barnhill (Revision Quotes).
more convincing.