37.

The Structure and Origin of the Minoan Body-Shield

JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted
digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about
JSTOR, please contact [email protected].

Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at
http://about.jstor.org/terms

Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland is collaborating with JSTOR to
digitize, preserve and extend access to Man

This content downloaded from 193.227.1.29 on Mon, 24 Jul 2017 17:44:20 UTC
All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms
 Nos. 36-37] MAN [March, 1939.

extensive remains of an early settled civilization 3Vavilov, N. I. Studies on the origin of cultivated
plants. (Leningrad, 1926), 154.
on the mountain sides around Teheran.
4 Watkins, A. E. The wheat species: a critique.
The evidence available, both botanical and Journ. Gen. XXIII, 187. (Cambridge, 1930.)
archaeological, can best be interpreted by suppos- 5 Percival, J. op. cit., 178; Stapf, 0. The History of
ing that the first cultivation of wheat was the wheat. Suppl. to Journ. Bd. Agric., 274. (London, 1910.)
growing of wild emnmer either in South Syria or 6 Peake, H. op. cit. (1931), 102.
7Watkins, A. E. I.c., 190.
in Palestine. In favour of the latter area we may
8 Zhukovsky, P. Persian wheat--Triticum persicum
note that flint sickles have been found there, Vav. in Transcaucasia. Bull. Appl. Bot. and Plant
associated with the mesolithic culture known as Breed, XIII, 45-55. (Leningrad, 1923.)
Natufian'6; these were probably used to cut 9 Percival, J. l.c., 178; Breasted, J. H. The origin
of civilization in Scientific Monthly (1919-20), 315.
grass or to reap wild grain-bearing plants. Thence
10 Percival, J. l.c., 260.
the culture of emmer spread southwards to Africa, -1 Gates, R. Ruggles. Polyploidy. Brit. Journ. Empir.
while the cultivation of grain was adopted in Biol., I, 171-5.
North Syria, where wild einkorn is plentiful. 12 Oehler, E. Untersuchungen an einem neuer Konstant-
intermedidren additiven AEgilops- Weizen bastard. Der
Here, from the Mediterranean to the banks of the
Zuchter, VIII (1936), 29-33.
Tigris, a primitive agricultural civilization has been
13 Aase, Hannah C. Cytology of cereals. Bot. Rev. I,
found, known as the Tall-Halaf culture."7 Emmer 470-4. (Washington, 1935.)
may well have been cultivated in this region as it 14 Vavilov, N. I. Studies on the origin of cultivated
certainly was somewhat later in Mesopotamia, plants. Inst. Appl. Bot. and Plant Breed. (Leningrad,
1926), 155-167; World centres of the varietal riches
for a pot found at Jemdet Nasr contained grain,
(genes) of cultivated plants. Bull. Gov. Inst. Dep. Agron.
identified by Percival as T. turgidum L.18 (Leningrad, 1927), V, 4-5; Geographical regularities in
If we accept the discovery of wild emmer on the the distribution of the genes of cultivated plants. Bull.
Zagros mountains, claimed by Strauss, we must Appl. Bot. and Gen. and Plant Breed, XVII. (Leningrad,
suppose that it was somewhere between there and 1917), 420-2); The role of Central Asia in the origin of
cultivated plants. Ibid., XXVI. (Leningrad, 1931), 31.
Teheran that there arose the hybrid with 21
15 Watkins, A. E. l.c., 198.
chromosomes, some form of 'bread wheat,' 16 Garrod, D. A. E. A new mesolithic industry; the
probably T. compactum Host. In this area Natufian of Palestine. J.R.A.I., LXII (1932), 257-270;
Herzfeld has found a neolithic civilization, and Neuville, R. Les debuts d'agriculture et la faucille pre-
historique in Palestine. Rec. Soc. Hebr. d'explor. et
this, since it contained settled villages, must have
d'arch. Pal. (Jerusalem, 1934), 1-21.
been due to grain-growers. This is closely allied 17 Oppenheim, Baron M.v. Tell Halaf, a new culture
to the agricultural cultures of Susa I and in oldest Mesopotamia. (London, 1933); Mallowan,
Al 'Ubaid, which may well have been cultivating M. E. L., and Rose, J.C. Prehistoric Assyria; the ex-
this form of ' bread wheat.' cavations at Tall Arpachiya, 1933. Iraq, II, i. (London,
1935); Mallowan, M. E. L. The excavations at Tall
Since the above was written I have seen a
Chagar Bazar, &c., 1934-8; Iraq. III, i, 1-86. (London,
recent paper by Bhatia,19 in which the author, 1936); Garstang, J., Phythian-Adams, W. J., and Seton-
from different evidence, arrives at a conclusion Williams, V. Third report on the excavations at Sakje-
almost identical with that advocated in this paper. Geuzi, 1908-11. Liv. Ann. Arch. Anthrop., XXIV,
119-140. (Liverpool, 1937).
References. 18 Peake, H. op. cit. (1931) 119; Field, H. Ancietit
1 Peake, H. The beginning of civilization, J.R.A.I., wheat and barley from Kish, Mesopotamia. Amer.
LVII, 19-38. The origins of agriculture. (London, Anthrop., XXXIV, 303-9. (1932.)
1928); The beginnings of agriculture, in Early Man, 19 Bhatia, G. A new variety of 'Khapli emmer' wheat from
Elliot Smith, Keith, and others. (London, 1931). India, and its bearing upon the place of origin of emmeP
2 Percival, J. The wheat plant. (London, 1921), 389. wheats. Journ. Genet., XXXV, 328. (Cambridge, 1938.)

THE STRUCTURE AND ORIGIN OF THE MINOAN BODY-SHIELD. By Profes8or John L. Myre8,
F.B.A., New College, Oxford. Illustrated.
327 The peculiar shields represented on seal- described in the Homeric Poems. It is not the
stones and other works of art, of the Middlepurpose of this note to discuss that identifica-
Minoan and Late Minoan phases of 2Egian Bronze tion; only to determine, so far as is possible, on
Age culture, have been repeatedly discussed, and strictly archaeological evidence, the construction
variously interpreted, especially since they were of this kind of shield, and its connexion with
claimed by Wolfgang Reichel (Homerische Waffen certain other types-the shields depicted on the
18941, 19012) as the type of shield intended to be well-known 'Warrior Vase' from Mycenme, the

[ 36 ]

This content downloaded from 193.227.1.29 on Mon, 24 Jul 2017 17:44:20 UTC
All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms
 March, 1939.] MAN [No. 37
' Dipylon-shields ' common on Attic vase paint- as an upright semi-cylinder, beyond which
ings of the Early Iron Age, and the ' Bceotian- the wearer exposed only his head, feet, and
' shield,' oval with a pair of deep recesses in the arms.
margin, which is represented on monuments and Both types, commonly known as (a) the
in vase-paintings, and especially on the coins of 'tower' shield and (b) the 'figure-of-eight' shield,
Thebes and other cities of Bceotia, from the are slung by a strap or baldrick over the left
sixth century to the fourth B.C. shoulder, leaving both hands free to handle a

3 q 61. 2.3s) f

3q6.(2zs-) f.
6.
FIGS. 1-1
separate
shield in
for hand
notched
the silve
the 'War
hold wit

Best known among representations of Minoan long thrusting-spear. The shield could thus hang
shields, and especially interesting because it either in front, covering the wearer from neck to
shows two distinct varieties together, is the ankles, or behind (figs. 2, 8), for greater freedom
'Lion-Hunt' (fig. 1) inlaid on a bronze dagger in close-combat, or to protect him in flight.
blade from the Fourth Shaft-grave at Mycenme. The patchy decoration of shield 3 in the
The lion-hunters carry either (a) a rectangular 'Lion-Hunt ' is recognizable, from painted
shield, represented as if flat, with a narrow rim shields in frescoes at Knossos, as representing
or frame (figs. 3, 5), or (b) a 'figure-of-eight' ox-hide, with piebald hair left on, like that of the
shaped shield, shown full face (fig. 2) as if frescoed bull from Tiryns. (Sir Arthur Evans.
flat, but also in profile (fig. 4) buckled so as The Palace of Minos at Knossos. III. p. 345.
to envelop the wearer, by drawing together oppo- Schliemann. Tiryns. pl. xiii.) These shields
site points of the rim about his waist (compare were, therefore, more or less flexible, and
the side view in fig. 6). The rectangular shield were stiffened round the margin by a metal
also is shown elsewhere in side view (figs. 7, 9) rim, or reinforcement of leather, affixed with

[ 37 ]

This content downloaded from 193.227.1.29 on Mon, 24 Jul 2017 17:44:20 UTC
All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms
 No. 37] MAN [March, 1939.
stitches or (as in fig. 8) side, by but rivets
whether by with decorative
a sling, or a hand-hold,
heads. is not clear from the pictures. As there is no
As an object essentially constructed of ox-hide indication of nails, rivets, or rim, this shield
was liable to decay (like the leather seams of the may have been of board or basketry, bound over
worn-out shield, Odyssey xxii. 184-6), it is not with hide.
to be expected that actual examples should have On a fragmentary vase of silver from Shaft
been preserved. But in one of the Shaft-graves Grave IV. (Reichel, fig. 17), fighting-men in the
were found considerable lengths of the bronze well-known 'Siege Scene' wear a loose body-
rim of some perishable object, of more than protection, slung over their right shoulder, and
hemispherical cross-section, like the outer cover hanging foldless to the knee. This may be a mere
of a rubber cycle-tyre, corrugated transversely blanket, but has been thought to represent a very
like a flexible hose pipe, and transfixed at intervalsprimitive body-shield. As the nearer man holds
by bronze nails, point inwards, which had his spear in his left hand, the suspension from
secured the rim to the margin of a sheet of the some right shoulder may be the craftsman's
perishable substance. These have been tenta- mistake. But it was certainly from some such
tively described as fragments of wheels; but elementary wrapping, slung so as to leave both
as they show no signs of wear, I suggest arms free-and not from a parrying shield like
that they are the rim of one or more shields that of Egypt-that the peculiar Minoan body-
of ox-hide, such as is represented in the 'Lion-shields were elaborated; quite early, as an
'Hunt.' Early Minoan bead-seal shows (Evans. P.M. II.
p. 52, fig. 25 a b)
Other representations of the ' figure-of-eight'
shield (such as figs. 6, 8) and of the ' tower- This elaboration was in two directions. In
' shield' (figs. 5, 7, 9, 10) confirm and sup- both, the ox-hide remained more or less stiff,
plement the evidence of the ' Lion-Hunt '; but was never quite rigid; both were habitually
slung over the left shoulder, leaving both arms
and models of the 'figure-of-eight ' shield,
in gold, ivory, and other decorative materials, and both could be transferred from front
free;
testify to its vogue both as an instrument of to rear, by pressing on the upper margin with
war, and also as the symbol of a protective the left hand, and thrusting it under the raised
deity, probably even after it had passed out of right arm. Of both elaborations, the object was
military use. additional protection in flank. (a) If the ox-hide
Nothing quite like these Minoan 'body- was stiff enough, it could be bent permanently
'shields' is known from neighbouring cultures. into a half cylinder; but in that shape it had to
The Ancilia in early Rome, sacred shields be maintained by a strong rim, to opposite sides
symbolic of the war-god, were roughly 8- of which the ends of the sling were attached;
shaped, but (as Sir Arthur Evans has sug- the result was the ' tower-shield ' (Figs. 3, 5, 7, 9)
gested) if they are connected with Minoan standing the full height of the wearer, but often
types at all, it is as a loan. (Evans: Mycenean cut away at the two upper corners, so as to
Tree and Pillar Cult, J.H.S. xxi p. (82) 180; allow him either to peer over it, or to hide his
P.M. II. 53-4.) The shield symbol of the head behind the higher centre-screen. But
goddess Neith seems to have been of flex- (b), a lighter and more flexible hide, so slung,
ible leather, of long oval outline, slightly inevitably buckled with its own suspension-
constricted, but as it is represented on a weight, and stresses of handling; and it is at this
shaft it was more probably of the East point that this accidental buckling was utilized,
African type described below; and the only and the 'figure-of-eight ' shield emerged, with
African illustration of such a shield in use, its peculiar combination of rigidity along the two
(O. Bates, The Eastern Libyans, p. 148, fig. lines of radial folding, and elasticity elsewhere,
60); Evans, P.MI. II. 51, fig. 27e shows it increasing towards the originally circular or oval
brandished in one hand. In historical Egypt, margin. This rigidity was attained without any
the customary shield was of ox-hide, rectangular internal framework, such as was imagined-
below but often rounded above; it was ap- without any archaeological evidence-by Reichel
parently flat, and of much smaller dimensions and Leaf; at most, a light stay or stiffening rod
than the Minoan; it was carried on the left was rivetted or stitched to the leather along the

[ 38 ]

This content downloaded from 193.227.1.29 on Mon, 24 Jul 2017 17:44:20 UTC
All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms
 March, 1939.] MAN [No. 37

two lines of fold1. When the body shield was right, their shield is drawn on the far side of their
manipulated in action, it was seized by both body, with its inner side exposed. It is nearly
hands at these points of suspension and rigidity; circular, with a looped or braided binding, which
and either shifted from side to side, or drawn reappears on the inner face of the shield with
together to envelop the wearer more completely. hand-hold, in the other group. But the margin
Working model and geometrical analysis. - It is slightly concave at its lowest point, and on this
is easy to construct a working model of the part of the shield there are no loops. I suggest
' figure-of-eight ' shield. Cut out of stiff paper or that what the draughtsman intended to depict
thin cardboard fig. 13 (overleaf) (according to de- was the 'figure-of-eight' shield, folded along its
sired scale and flexibility) a disc, circular or oval; crease (where there should be no rim), but still
fold it in half, and open out again; then hold slung by its strap. Actually a shield in this
it by the two ends of the fold, and bring these position would hang crease-upwards, but it would
toward each other on the outside of the fold, at be crease-downwards if it were carried under the
the same time pressing on the middle point of the left arm, like a portfolio, the strap taking the
fold in the contrary direction. The disc, weight as before.
originally flexible in any direction, forthwith It may be conceded that the 'Warrior Vase'
assumes the 'figure-of-eight' shape, which con- is some centuries later than the ' Lion-Hunt ' and
sists essentially of two obtuse cones intersecting the warrior-seals, without prejudice to this
along the two halves of the original fold. interpretation; in the same way as a still later
The shields on the 'Warrior Vase' from Mycence.- date may have to be admitted for the Iliad as
There is one Minoan painting, of rather later we have it, without disputing its many precise
date than the 'Lion-Hunt' and engraved seals, and graphic phrases, which are in accord with the
which (I suggest) may show the 'figure-of-eight ' appearance and handling of Minoan 'body-
shield folded for compact transport on the march, ' shields,' both ' tower-shaped ' and ' 8-shaped ';
in the same way as our experiment shows that some of which, moreover, are difficult to reconcile
such shields had to be folded before completion. with any variety of shield known to the Early
On the well-known 'Warrior Vase' from a later Iron Age of Greece.
house at Mycenae, outside the 'Circle ' which The 'Boeotian-shield.'- Obviously, if the 'figure-
contained the Shaft-graves, there are two lines of 'of-eight' shield not only was flexible along its
armed men. On one side they are in battle, crease-lines, but could be completely folded in
with levelled spears, and large convex shields two, there must have been some kind of interval in
held high on the left arm; one of these shields any metal rim; and this was liable to become
has a hand grip on its inner side. These are not wider with use. Hence emerged a distinct type of
'figure-of-eight' shields, but parrying shields shield, which has a long history because it was
anticipating those of Hellenic times, which are adopted by people accustomed to use parrying
shallower, and usually haye a broad flat rim. shields, held in the left hand or carried (with loop
On the other side are warriors similarly clothed, and hand-hold) on the left arm. This type, known
but with different head-gear and shields. They in its later form as the ' Bceotian-shield,' is repre-
are newly set out from home, for a woman gazes sented as early as the finger-ring of gold and blue
after them with a gesture of distress. These men enamel, from a Late Minoan burial in AEgina
are on the march; their spears are 'at the slope,' (Evans J.H.S. XIII. p. 216; P.M. II. p. 52,
with a small bag (of provisions?) slung on the fig. 251.; Marshall, B.M. Cat. Jewellery, pl. XIX).
shaft. As they are moving to the spectator's On a Late Minoan gold plate from Eleusis
1 In Homeric shields there were two ' straighteners ' (Reichel, fig. 15), these recesses are large,
(kanones, Iliad viii. 193. xiii 407), but it is disputed
circular, and tangential to the rim, which is
whether they were Minoan ' stays ' on the transverse
handle-bars of a Hellenic buckler (helbig). Reichel2,
continuous outside them; but this representation
p. 19, took them for internal stays to keep the shield in is decorative and symbolic, not pictorial. But as
shape, but these, as has been seen above, are super- the interval between the ends of the half-rims
fluous. Hesychius s.v. kan6n gives, as additional (and became wider, the leather tended to shrink away
probably traditional), explanation," also the rods of the
from them, under stress of suspension; and the
" shield to which the sling was attached " which is exactly
(and necessarily) the position of the sling in the 'figure- whole shield became thereby flexible where
' of-eight' shield, but makes nonsense with the Hellenic. rigidity was most needful. It may have been for

[ 39 ]

This content downloaded from 193.227.1.29 on Mon, 24 Jul 2017 17:44:20 UTC
All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms
 Nos. 37-38] MAN [March, 1939.
this reason that this ' Boceotian ' type became so concave sides and convex top and bottom. But
early and persistently accommodated to the they are represented as if flat, and built of boards
needs and taste of people in the Early Iron Age, or basketry; they are carried in the hand; and
who were using a parrying-shield, which had a they come from a region where there is no evidence
' stretcher ' from rim to rim across its greatest for the use of any kind of body-shield, or shield
diameter. It should be noted, too, that some of slung from the shoulder. (2) Throughout Eastern
the earlier and larger 'figure-of-eight ' shields Equatorial Africa the great spindle-shaped
have a spindle-shaped ridge crossing the middle shields of ox-hide, used by many Bantu peoples,
of the transverse crease (presumably to strengthen are supported by a wooden shaft to which both
the centre) (Evans, P.M. II. p. 52, fig. 25, c.d.); ends of the ox-hide are lashed, while it projects
and that a shield so strengthened (like one with beyond them. Though the long tapering edges of
a rigid rim) could not be folded up at all. the hide remain free and flexible, therefore, they
The connexion is still obscure between the cannot be pulled transversely; the shield is so
'Bo&otian-shield' and the 'Dipylon-shield', so narrow that it affords no lateral protection;
called from its frequent representation on the and it is always used as a parrying-shield, and
painted vases of the Dipylon cemetery at Athens. handled by its staff. There is thus no real simi-
In the 'Dipylon-shield' the lateral margins, larity between these and the ' Dipylon-shields.'
which are concave, are as extensive as the upper In discussing this whole matter, it is essential
and lower, which are convex. This shield is still to remember two points :-(1) The period even
slung (like the Minoan) from the shoulder or neck, from the earliest Minoan settlements on the
leaving both hands free, and is found associated Greek mainland to the dawn of classical Greek
both with a circular and with a rectangular culture is a long one; as long as the interval
shield (Reichel, fig. 25 and references p. 48) between the Augustan Age and that of Charle-
similarly slung. Its lateral recesses are often so magne, or from Charlemagne to Queen Elizabeth.
large that what is left of the shield offers very (2) A great part of this long period was tumult-
little protection at all. To retain any rigidity, uary, with clash of cultures, and especially clash of
moreover, this type must have had not only a divers weapons and armour. In such circum-
vertical shaft, but also a transverse 'stretcher' stances much depends on individual preference
lashed at right angles to each end of it, and drawn and initiative; different types and fashions
towards each other, at their free end (like the co-exist and influence each other. The memory
framework of a boy's kite), by the shrinkage of also of individual prowess lives on, and of
the leather between them. individual oddities; a great fighter, such as Ajax
Moreover, in two directions, there are similar in Homer, was remembered for his 'tower-like
types of shield, neither of which has any clear ' shield,' as Meriones for his helmet of laced
connexion, at all, with the ' Dipylon-shield.' boar-tusks. And there is evidence enough among
(1) In the Egyptian fresco-painting of the Battle the material remains, scanty as they are, for
of Kadesh (c. 1280 B.C.) parrying-shields are co-existence of various shields, as on the 'Lion-
carried by Hittites or their allies, which have ' Hunt' and on the 'Warrior Vase.'

THE SHAPE AND PHYSICAL QUALITIES OF THE MINOAN SHIELD. By Professor A. E. H.

The questions to be answered are :-What the plane midway between the faces. For a
sbape does it take ? Why does it take that curved (or cambered) sheet there is, in like manner,
shape ? Why is it stiff along the folds ? a surface midway between the curved faces. This
It is necessary to distinguish a geometrical 'rmiddle surface ' can be used, for most purposes,
surface from a thin sheet of matter. A surface to specify the shape of the sheet. The middle
has no thickness. A sheet of matter has some surface of the ancient leather shield, when the
thickness. A sheet of paper, for example, is shield is flat, is a plane. When the shield is
bounded by several surfaces; if flat, it has two bent the middle surface is a certain curved
plane faces, and other bounding surfaces, which surface.
form its edge. The shape of the flat sheet is Curved surfaces can be classified as either
specified, nearly enough for most purposes, by (a) 'synclastic,' like the outer or inner surface

[ 40 ]

This content downloaded from 193.227.1.29 on Mon, 24 Jul 2017 17:44:20 UTC
All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms