BIOLOGY REVIEWER

2nd Quarter

Levels of Biological Organization

The various levels of organization include atoms, molecules, cells, tissues, organs, organ
systems, whole organisms, populations, communities, ecosystems, and the biosphere.

Atoms are the smallest unit of matter that have the chemical properties of a particular chemical
element.

Molecules the smallest particle of a substance that retains all the properties of the substance and is
composed of one or more atoms.

The cell is the smallest unit of biological organization that biologists consider alive.
All true cells are surrounded by a plasma (cell) membrane, carry out complex chemical reactions, and
are at least potentially capable of self reproduction.

A tissue is a group of distinct and similar cells that carry out a specific set of functions.

Organs are groups of tissues organized together to carry out a particular set of functions. Organs
typically have several kinds of tissue. Organs in animals are composed of a number of different tissue
types. For example, the stomach.

Multicellular organisms, especially animals typically are organized into organ systems, groups of organs
that function together to carry out broad sets of functions. For instance an organ system in humans is
the digestive system. Some of the organs in the digestive system are the stomach, liver, small intestine,
pancreas.

The organism or individual is that level of biological organization that has its own distinct existence as a
complex, self reproducing unit. We are multi-cellular organisms in that we are made of many highly
specialized cells which cannot exist independently of other cells in the organism.

A population is group of freely interacting and breeding individuals of the same species. For example, all
the bull frogs in a pond can be considered a population of bullfrogs. Typically populations are subdivided
into smaller groups: a pack of wolves, pride of lions, colony of ants.

A community is all the populations of different spieces living and interacting together in a distinct area.
(e.g: all the species in a pond)

Ecosystems are distinguishable groups of species and the abiotic (non-living) components of the
environment with which the living creatures interact.
The biosphere is the region on, below, and above the Earth's surface where life exists. Living things can
be found well into the atmosphere, the deepest parts of the ocean, and at least in some areas,
microbes live in rock several kilometers below the surface of the earth.

CELLS AND ORGANELLES

Cell Organelles
Structures that perform specific functions within the cell

Plasma (Cell) Membrane

A. Outer layer around cell
1. Separates cell from outer environment
B. Controls what enters and leaves the cell
C. Allows cell to interact with environment
1. Receive messages and get rid of wastes

The Cell Membrane contains a Phospholipid Bilayer which is composed of two parts:
● a Polar head
● a non-polar tail
Hydrophillic “heads”
Hydrophobic fatty acid “tails”
Hydrophilic “heads”

Proteins
Nucleus
A. Nuclear envelope – double membrane surrounds nucleus
B. Stores DNA
C. Nucleolus – dense area of DNA
1. makes ribosomes

The nucleus contains an eukaryotic cell’s genetic library

●The nucleus contains most of the genes in a eukaryotic cell.

○Some genes are located in mitochondria and chloroplasts.
●The nucleus averages about 5 microns in diameter.
●The nucleus is separated from the cytoplasm by a double membrane.
○These are separated by 20-40 nm.

In the nucleus is a region of densely stained fibers and granules adjoining chromatin, the nucleolus.
In the nucleolus, ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is synthesized and assembled with proteins from the cytoplasm
to form ribosomal subunits.

The DNA Is Packaged As Chromatin And Supercoiled Into Chromosomes

CYTOSKELETON
● Microtubules
● Microfilaments – help in movement
● Cilia and Flagella – hairlike structures that create movement

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

A. Tubes and sacs called cisternae
B. Transport, “intracellular highway”
● Helps maintain homeostasis
C. Rough ER = ribosomes
● Produces phospholipids & proteins D. Smooth ER = no ribosomes
● Builds lipids such as cholesterol

●There are two types of Endoplasmic Reticulum

○ Smooth ER looks smooth because it lacks ribosomes.
○ Rough ER looks rough because ribosomes (bound ribosomes) are attached to the outside, including
the outside of the nuclear

● The smooth ER is rich in enzymes and plays a role in a variety of metabolic processes.
● Enzymes of smooth ER synthesize lipids, including oils, phospholipids, and steroids.
○ These includes the sex hormones of vertebrates and adrenal steroids.
● The smooth ER also catalyzes a key step in the mobilization of glucose from stored glycogen in the
liver.
○ An enzyme removes the phosphate group from glucose phosphate, a product of glycogen hydrolysis,
permitting glucose to exit the cell.
● Other enzymes in the smooth ER of the liver help detoxify drugs and poisons.
----These include alcohol and barbiturates.
----Frequent exposure leads to proliferation of smooth

Golgi Apparatus
A. Like a factory
B. Receives sacs from ER
C. Processes, packages and secretes proteins
D. Sends “product” out by vesicles

The Golgi apparatus finishes, sorts, and ships cell products

● Many transport vesicles from the ER travel to the Golgi apparatus for modification of their contents.
● The Golgi is a center of manufacturing, warehousing, sorting, and shipping.
● The Golgi apparatus is especially extensive in cells specialized for secretion. The Golgi apparatus
finishes, sorts, and ships cell products
● The Golgi apparatus consists of flattened membranous sacs
- cisternae
- looking like a sac of pita bread.
Mitochondria
A. Energy center
B. “Powerhouse” of the cell
C. Turns food (glucose) into usable energy (ATP)
D. Site of Cellular Respiration

Mitochondria is the main energy transformers of animal cells

● Mitochondria and chloroplasts are the organelles that convert energy to forms that cells can use for
work.
● Mitochondria are the sites of cellular respiration, generating ATP from the catabolism of sugars, fats,
and other fuels in the presence of oxygen.
● Mitochondria have small quantities of DNA that direct the synthesis of the polypeptides produced by
these internal ribosomes.
● Mitochondria grows and reproduce as semiautonomous organelles.

Lysosomes
A. Contain digestive enzymes
B. Causes organelles or cells that are not functioning properly to die (autolysis)
C. Some digest material brought into cell
● Monomers of four macromolecules

Lysosomes are digestive components

●The lysosome is a membrane-bounded sac of hydrolytic enzymes that digests macromolecules.
●Lysosomes can fuse with food vacuoles, formed when a food item is brought into the cell by
phagocytosis.

Lysosomes Digest Food And Old Macromolecules

Centrioles
● Consists of 2 short cylinders of microtubules
○ (hold organelles in place, maintains cell shape)
●Important during cell division
●Animals only

Other Vesicles
A. Peroxisomes – breakdown alcohol and kill bacteria (liver and kidney)
B. Glyoxysomes – convert stored fats to energy in plants
C. Food vacuoles – stores nutrients

Peroxisomes And Gloxysomes Oxidize Fatty Acids, Metabolize Drugs And Get Rid Of Superoxide
Radicals
Chromoplasts Give Plants Color Leucoplasts Store Fats And Starch For Plants
Vacuoles Store Water, Nutrients And Waste
ANIMAL CELL

PLANT CELL
 BACTERIA

Kingdom Eubacteria (True Bacteria)

Bacteria are located everywhere – air, water, land, and living organisms including people.
General Characteristics:

1. All are unicellular (one-celled structural level

2. All are prokaryotic - cells that lack nucleus
(no nuclear envelope) (PRO = NO nucleus)
3. All have cell walls – NO cellulose in cell walls
4. Can live in both aerobic (with O2) and anaerobic (without O2) environments
5. Bacteria are much larger in size than viruses.
6. Bacteria usually have one of three different cell shapes:
1. Coccus (Sphere Shaped)
2. Bacili (Rod Shaped)
3. Spirillum (Spiral Shaped)

Causes Disease by:

1. Destroying cells of infected organisms by breaking the cells down for food.
2. Releases toxins (poisons) which destroy cells of infected organism.
3. Must have access to new hosts to spread.

D. Importance:

• 1. Beneficial
a. breakdown dead matter to recycle nutrients into ecosystem – decomposers
b. dairy industry - bacteria in yogurt, sour cream and cheese
c. Oil spills - bacteria can digest small oil spills
d. Genetic engineering — Recombinant/synthetic DNA (Ex: Insulin)
e. symbiotic relationship - E. coli and our intestines-both organisms benefit

Harmful :
a. human diseases –
strep throat, tuberculosis, tooth decay and bad breath, anthrax, plague, tetanus, food
poisoning
b. food spoilage and poisoning – caused by Salmonella and Staphylococcus
c. Treated with antibiotics – Some bacteria are able to survive in presence of antibiotics that kill
other bacteria – antibiotic resistant bacteria

Kingdom Archaebacteria
a. First known prokaryotes
Archaebacteria (archae=ancient)
b. Live in very harsh environments
(known as extremophiles)– high salt content, hot temperatures, acidic or alkaline
environments
c. Live in intestines of animals, especially cows and other grazing animals – methanogens
Produce methane gas – greatly affects our atmosphere by combining with O2 to make CO2 for
photosynthesis
 d. Same size and shape as Eubacteria, but different biochemical makeup

FUNGI
Characteristics of Fungi

• Eukaryotic

• Most are Multicellular

• Filamentous body plan

• Heterotrophic by Absorption

• Produce spores by sexual and asexual reproduction

• Haploid for part or most of life cycle

• Cell wall made of chitin

• No movement: change location by growth of body or dispersion of spores

Body Plan of Fungi

Mycelium = network of filaments

• Hypha = individual filament

(plural = hyphae)

• Septum = partition dividing cells, has pore for distribution of nutrients

• Reproductive structure extends from main body, produces spores

• Fungal Nutrition
Heterotropic by absorption

– secrete digestive enzymes

– digest macromolecules outside the body

– absorb digested nutrients

• Three nutritional modes

– Saprophytic = digestion of dead organisms

– Parasitic = digestion of live organisms,

causing disease
 – Mutualistic = beneficial relationship for two
independent organisms

Lichens
Lichens are mutualistic symbiotic organisms. They have a fungal portion and an algal portion.
There are three lichen growth forms which are predominant in nature:
1. Crustose
2. Fruticose
3. Foliose

Soredia are the asexual reproductive part of lichens, containing both symbionts. Rhizines may
be present to anchor the lichen. Notice the distinctive algal layer and the fungal layer present
in the above illustration.

Mycorrhizae
Mycorrhizae means “fungus-root”; mutualistic relationship between plant and fungi
The plant photosynthesizes while the fungus more efficiently takes up nutrients and water from
the rhizosphere than the roots would alone.
Plant benefits include:

• Improved nutrient/water uptake

• Improved root growth

• Improved plant growth and yield

• Improved disease resistance

• Reduced transplant shock

• Reduced drought stress

• Kingdom Fungi – There are 4 Major Phyla

1. Phylum Zygomycota = the Bread Molds

 Rhizopus – black bread mold
2. Phylum Ascomycota = the Sac Fungi
Yeast, morels, truffles
3. Phylum Basidiomycota = the Club Fungi
Mushrooms, puffballs, bracket fungi, rusts, smuts, toadstools
4. Phylum Deuteromycota = the Fungi Imperfecti
 ASEXUAL VS. SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Asexual Reproduction
Requires only one parent

 Offspring have 100% the same chromosomes as the parent.

 In other words, the offspring are exact “clones” of the parent.

 Most unicellular organisms reproduce this way.

 Mitosis

Binary Fission

 Bacteria
Protists
Binary fission is a form of asexual reproduction where every organelle is copied and the
organism divides in two.

Budding

 Hydra

Budding is a means of asexual reproduction whereby a new individual develops from an

outgrowth of a parent, splits off, and lives independently.

Spore
Found in fungi, algae, protozoa.
Airborne cells that are released from the parent. They are enclosed and developed when the
environment is appropriate

Regeneration
Regeneration occurs when a body part has broken off and the organism grows a new one.

Fragmentation
Fragmentation is a means of asexual reproduction whereby a single parent breaks into parts
that regenerate into whole new individuals.

Plant cuttings/ vegetative propagation

Vegetative reproduction is a type of asexual reproduction in plants that relies on multi-cellular
structures formed by the parent plant.  It has long been exploited in horticulture and
agriculture, with various methods employed to multiply stocks of plants.

Mitosis
The process where animal cells divide
 This is a type of asexual reproduction

 Body cells (somatic cells) go through the process of mitosis

 Results in an exact copy of the parent cell

Sexual Reproduction
Requires two parents that each share ½ of the genetic information.

 Offspring share the characteristics of each parent.

 Meiosis

Advantages vs Disadvantages of Asexual Reproduction

Advantages

 Asexual reproduction produces more offspring

 Asexual reproduction takes less time

 Only one parent involved. No searching for mates

 Requires less energy

Disadvantages
Same DNA being passed down NO GENETIC VARIATION IN THE
OFFSPRING
 If parent has genetic disease offspring will have it too

Advantages vs Disadvantages of Sexual Reproduction

Advantages

 Variation in offspring

 Organism is more protected because of genetic variation

 Disadvantages
Requires two organisms. Must find a mate

 requires more cellular energy

 More time required for offspring development