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Physics Part 1

P H YS I C S Newton’s Laws of Motion

If a ball were rolling on a
First Law The ball will no move
unless there is a force
frictionless surface, it
would keep moving
(Law of Inertia) to cause it to move. unless met with an
“A body at rest will remain at rest, and a outside force.
Physics is the branch of science that studies body in motion will remain in motion
how nature behaves. It relates to all other types unless it is acted upon by an external
of sciences: chemistry, biology, geology, force.”
astronomy, mechanics, etc. Since the Because the mass of each ball is
knowledge that we have about the behavior of
nature is constantly growing and changing, so is
Second Law different, each ball will travel a
different distance and at a different
this branch of science. (Law of Acceleration) speed when it is hit with the same
“The force acting on an object is equal force.

FORCE and to the mass of that object times its

acceleration.” F = ma

MOTION
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When there is a force by
Third Law
Excel Review Center one side, there will be
opposite and equal force
Force is any interaction that, when (Law of Reaction) by the other side, cause
unopposed, will change the motion of “For every action, there is an equal and each to move in
an object. Force can cause an object opposite reaction.” opposite direction.
with mass to change its velocity
(which includes to begin moving from
a state of rest), i.e. to accelerate. Force
can also be described intuitively as a Newton’s “The gravitational force between two masses is directly
proportional to the product of the two masses (m1 and
push or a pull. The SI unit of force is
newton (N). Its SI base units is kg-
m/s2. Other units are dyne, poundal,
Law of m2) and inversely proportional to the square distance, d,
between them.”
pound-force and kip.
Universal d
m1m2
1 N = 1 kg (1 m/s2)
1 dyne = 1 g (1 cm/s2)
1 lbf = 1 slug (1 ft/s2)
Gravitation F F=G
d2

G = gravitational constant = 6.673 x 10-11 N-m2/kg2

Motion is the phenomenon in which an
object changes its position over time.

Inertia is the property of matter that

Work, Power and Energy
causes it to resist a change in its state Work is the product of the force applied to an object and the displacement through which the force
of motion. Excel Review Center acts on an object.

SCALAR and W=Fxd or W = Fd cos θ (if displacement makes an angle θ with the force)

VECTOR
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The standard unit of work and energy is joule (J).

1 J = 1 N-m = 1 kg-m2/s2 1 erg = (1 dyne)(1 cm) 1 ft-lb = (1 lbf)(1 ft)

Scalar quantity is a quantity that has
only magnitude. Energy is the capacity to do work. Potential energy (PE) is the energy in a body due to its
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position. Kinetic energy (KE) is the energy in a body due to its motion.
Examples: Length, Area, Volume, Speed,
Distance, Mass, Density, Temperature, 1 1
Pressure, Energy, Work, Entropy, KE translational = mv 2 KE rotational = I2
Power, Resistance, Charge, Mechanical 2 2
Advantage, Electric and Magnetic PE = mgh v = r
Potential, Angle, etc.
Where: I = rotational inertia of an object, ω = angular velocity, v = linear velocity
Vector quantity is a quantity that has
both a magnitude and a direction.
Power is the rate at which work is done or the rate at which energy is expended. Unit of power is
watt (W). Another unit of power is horsepower (hp).
Examples: Displacement, Direction,
Velocity, Acceleration, Momentum,
1 W = 1 J/s = 1 N-m/s 1 hp = 746 W = 550 ft-lb/s
Impulse, Force, Electric Field, Magnetic
Field, Weight, Torque, Moment of
Force, Dipole moment, etc. Excel Review Center
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Physics Part 2
Forms of Energy
Energy
Important Laws Excel Review Center
Can be

Kinetic Energy Potential Energy

Law of Conservation of Energy
“Energy is neither created nor destroyed, it can only be transformed
Energy due to motion Energy due to position
from one form to another or transferred from one system to another.”
Energy comes from moving Energy stored to be used later

Thermal Energy Energy experienced Chemical Energy

Law of Conservation of Mass
in different ways “Mass is neither created nor destroyed in chemical reactions." The mass
Energy due to heat Energy due to heat
at the beginning of the reaction will equal to the mass at the end of the
Mechanical Energy Elastic Energy Excel Review Center reaction.
Sound Energy
Energy of object in motion Energy we can Energy of object in motion
hear
Electrical Energy Nuclear Energy Law of Conservation of Momentum
Energy of particles Light Energy Energy of particles “The total momentum before a collision is equal to the total momentum
moving through a wire Energy our eyes moving through a wire after the collision if no external forces act on the system.”
can detect
Magnetic Energy Gravitational Energy
Energy causing push or
pull
Excel Review Center Energy causing push or
pull
Impulse – Momentum Theorem
“When a net force acts on an object, the impulse of the net force is

Momentum
equal to the change in momentum of the object.”

Elastic & Inelastic Collisions

Momentum (p) is the product of the object’s mass and its velocity.
It is also a vector quantity. It will always have the same direction
as the direction of velocity. Normally, the term linear momentum
An elastic collision is a collision between two bodies in which the
is used to differentiate it from angular momentum. The SI unit of
total kinetic energy of two bodies after the collision is equal to
momentum is kg-m/s.
their total kinetic energy before the collision. Elastic collision
occurs only if there is no net conversion of kinetic energy into other
Momentum refers to the “amount of motion” that an object has.
forms. Example: Movement of swinging balls
Since it is a function of velocity, it is a property of a moving object
only. An object that is stationary has no momentum. An object that
An inelastic collision is a collision in which kinetic energy is not
is moving, and is moving fast at that, has a large momentum. The conserved. Perfectly inelastic collision is where objects join together
larger the momentum an object has, the more difficult it can be
after the collision to form one mass. Example: Automobile collision
stopped.
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Momentum = p = mv

Impulse
Impulse (J or Imp) refers to the change in momentum of the
object. It is a function of both force and time and is also a vector
quantity. The bigger the momentum change needed for an object to

Coefficient of Restitution
be stopped, it will take larger force to be applied and the time that
the force is applied should also be longer. The SI unit of impulse is
N-s. Excel Review Center It is the negative ratio of the relative velocity between the objects
after collision to the relative velocity between the objects before
Impulse = Ft = mv = mv f − mv i collision. If the coefficient of restitution is 1, then the collision is
perfectly elastic. If the coefficient of restitution is 0, then the
collision is completely inelastic. Excel Review Center
Newton's cradle is a device that
demonstrates conservation of
v 2A − v 2 B
momentum and energy using a series e=−
of swinging spheres. When one sphere v1A − v1B
at the end is lifted and released, it
strikes the stationary spheres,
transmitting a force through the Another way to get the coefficient of restitution is in terms of the
stationary spheres that pushes the initial height and the bounce height:
last sphere upward. The last sphere
h bounce
swings back and strikes the still nearly e=
stationary spheres, repeating the h initial
effect in the opposite direction. Excel Review Center
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Physics Part 3
Periodic Motion Simple Pendulum Waves A wave is defined as
a repeating and periodic disturbance that
Another system Excel Review Center
Periodic motion is a type of motion that regularly travels through a medium. A medium is
that follows
repeats, meaning the object returns to its initial any substance or material that carries the
simple harmonic
position after some time or simply motions that wave. As a wave travels through a certain
motion is a
repeats on a regular cycle. medium, energy is being transported from
simple pendulum.
one point to another with transporting
A simple
A special type of vibratory or periodic motion is matter. Excel Review Center
pendulum
Mechanical Waves
called simple harmonic motion. Simple harmonic
consists of a
motion is a motion that occurs when the restoring
concentrated Mechanical waves are waves that requires
force on an object is directly proportional to the
bob, with mass
object’s displacement from equilibrium. For simple certain medium in order for them to be able
m, attached to a to transport energy. Two types of mechanical
harmonic motion, the acceleration of the object is
string, with waves are transverse waves and longitudinal
proportional to its position and is oppositely
length L, of waves.
directed to the displacement from equilibrium.
negligible mass.
Excel
The period, the time required for the
Transverse Wave
k Review
a=− x system to proceed through one complete When the paths in which the particles of
m Center the medium vibrate are perpendicular to
cycle, is:
the motion of the wave, it is said to be a
L transverse wave.
An example of a T = 2
system that g
follows simple where:
harmonic motion
L – length of the pendulum’s string (m)
is the motion of a
block on a g – acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m/s2)
frictionless
surface connected The angular frequency of the pendulum
to a spring. is: Excel Review Center
Figure shows a g
Spring and Block
 = 2 f =
system of Simple
where:
L
Longitudinal Wave
Harmonic Motion
f – frequency of oscillation (Hz) When the paths in which the particles of
L – length of the pendulum’s string (m) the medium vibrate are parallel to the
g – acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m/s2) motion of the wave, it is said to be a
longitudinal wave.
Period (T) is the time required for the system to Notice that the period, frequency and
proceed through one complete cycle. angular frequency of the pendulum is
independent of the mass of the bob.
m
T = 2
k Torsional Pendulum
The value of the spring constant, k, can be derived Another system
using Hooke’s Law: Excel Review Center that follows simple
Electromagnetic Wave
harmonic motion is Electromagnetic waves are waves that are
F = kx a torsional capable of transporting energy in free space.
pendulum. This
The frequency of the motion indicates how type of pendulum
frequently the motion repeats itself. It has a unit twists back and
Hertz, named after the German scientist, Heinrich forth with respect
Hertz. to its equilibrium
1 1 k position.
f= =
T 2 m The period, the time required for the
system to proceed through one complete
cycle, is: Excel Review Center
I
The frequency can also be expressed in terms of T = 2
angular frequency: 
where:
Transverse WaveMechanical wavesLongitudinal
are waves thatwave
requires
 = 2 f =
k Speed
I – moment of inertia
κ – torsional constant v=
certain medium
T Excel Review Center in order
transport energy. v =
for
E hem to be able to
m  
Excel Review Center
of wave
where: where:
T - tension the string is stretched (N) E - modulus of elasticity (N/m2)
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 - mass per unit length of string (kg/m)  - density (kg/m3)
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Physics Part 4
Mechanical Wave Electromagnetic Wave
Can travel
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“Every point on a wave front may
be considered as a new source of
Reflection
and Refraction
Requires a
through a medium disturbance, sending wavelets in
medium to travel
or through the vacuum forward directions.”
of space Reflection is the bouncing off of a wave as it
Longitudinal wave Can hits a barrier. The angle that the wave hits the
Transverse wave transmit barrier should be the equal to the angle at
Transverse wave only
energy but This is known as which it bounces off the barrier. That is the
Examples: not matter Huygen’s Principle.
most basic premise of the Law of Reflection.
Sound wave
Examples: Named after the
Seismic wave
Light Dutch mathematician Refraction is the changing in the direction of
Ropes and springs a wave as it travels from one medium to a
and physicist,
Water waves Christiaan Huygens different medium. Every medium or material
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has a property known as the index of
Excel Review refraction which is the ratio of the speed of

What is Frequency
Center light in free space to the velocity of the wave
in the actual medium.
c
Frequency (f) is the number of waves per unit time n=

Snell’s Law
v
that pass a point. Period (T) is the time required for
one wave to pass a point. Just like simple harmonic

Sound
motion, the period is reciprocal with the frequency Named after the Dutch astronomer and mathematician, Willebrord Snellius.
and vice versa. Sometimes known as the Law of
1 Refraction, it states that the ratio of
f= the sines of the angles of incidence and
T
the angle of refraction is a constant It is a mechanical wave that
Wavelength is the distance between one particle in that depends on the ratio of the indices carries disturbances from
a wave and the corresponding particle in the next of both media. one location to another
wave. Two particles are in the same phase if they through a certain medium.
have the same displacement and are moving in the n1 sin i = n2 sin r Most of the time, this
medium is air, though it
same direction. Relation between speed v, where:
frequency f and wavelength : could be any other media
n1 – refractive index of medium 1
such as water or steel.
Excel Review n2 – refractive index of medium 2
Sound is also classified as a
Center v = f  i - angle of incidence =  1
Excel Review Center longitudinal wave since the
Intensity of wave refers to the energy transferred
 r - angle of refraction =  2 particles of the medium
through which the sound
per unit time per unit area through a surface moves vibrate parallel to
Frequency and Pitch of Sound
perpendicular to the direction of the motion of the
the direction of the sound.
wave.
I = 2 vf A
2 2 2 For sound, the particles of the medium that moves back and forth will determine its frequency. 1
Hertz is 1 vibration per second. The human ear is capable of detecting sound waves with a very
where: wide range of frequencies, ranging from 20 Hz to 20 kHz. Sound with frequencies below 20 Hz
v - speed of wave (m/s)  - density (kg/m3) is called infrasound while sound with frequencies beyond 20 kHz is called ultrasound. These
f – frequency (Hz) A – amplitude (m) frequencies are now outside the audible range for the human ear. Pitch is synonymous with
frequency.
Excel Review Center Speed of Sound
Intensity of Sound The speed of the sound wave is the rate at which the disturbance in the medium is carried on from
The intensity of sound refers to the amount
one particle to the next. The faster the sound travels, the more distance it covers in a certain
of energy that is transferred per unit are period of time. There are different factors that can affect the speed of sound. First, the properties
and per unit time. The SI unit of intensity is of the medium in which the sound travels greatly affects the speed of sound. The phase of the
W/m2. medium affects the speed as well. It is established that sound travels fastest in solids and slowest
in gases. Aside from that, if the medium is air, the temperature and even the humidity can also
Energy Power
Intensity = = affect the speed of sound. With E = elastic constant of medium,  = density of medium or gas, T
Area  Time Time = temperature of gas, P = pressure of gas, R = universal gas constant, M = molecular mass of gas.
The lowest intensity that the human ear E
Speed of sound if the medium is a thin rod: v =
can detect is around 1x10-12 W/m2. This is 
also known as the threshold of hearing. A
P RT Excel Review Center
more practical way to measure intensity is
Speed of sound if the medium is a gas: v = =
to do it in the decibel scale, with 1x10-12  M
W/m2 being 0 dB.
Intensity At standard temperature of 0°C, the speed of sound in air is v  331 m/s  1,100 ft/s
Intensity ( dB ) = 10log
W At any other temperature: v = 331 + 0.6T
1  10−12 2
m Where: T - temperature of air in degrees Celsius
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Physics Part 5
What is Doppler Effect It is the variation of the pitch heard from a moving source of sound or by a moving
observer. Named after Austrian Physicist, Christian Andreas Doppler.

As the source approaches an observer, Long wavelength Excel Review Center Shortwavelength Relation between apparent frequency and
the frequency or pitch of the wave will the frequency of the source is expressed as:
appear higher than it actually is. As the V − vo
source moves away from the observer, fo = fs
the frequency or pitch of the wave will V − vs
appear lower than it really is. where:
fo - frequency of the observer
This is sometimes known as Doppler fs - frequency of the source
shift. V - speed of wave relative to medium
Excel Review Center vs - speed of source
vo - speed of observer
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LIGHT Mirrors and Lenses
Light is to the aspect of radiant energy of which
an observer is visually aware. The range of
Plane Mirrors
wavelength that is visible as light is from 3900 Plane mirror is a mirror with a flat or planar
A to 7600 A. The speed of light in vacuum is reflective surface. This is the simplest mirror
approximately 3.00 x 108 m/s. around. The flat surfaces reflect a beam of light
in one direction instead on either scattering it
PROPERTIES OF LIGHT widely in many directions or absorbing it. The
angle of reflection of this mirror is equal to the
Luminous flux is the amount of visible radiation Convex mirror
angle of incidence
passing per unit time. The SI is lumen. Lumen is Principal rays for convex mirrors:
defined as the flux emitted by a point source of Properties of Plane Mirrors: 1. A ray parallel to the principal axis is
1 candela through a solid angle of 1 steradian. reflected as if it comes from a focal
point.
1. Plane mirrors produce virtual images. 2. A ray along a radius is reflected back
F
I= 2. Plane mirrors produce upright images. upon itself.
 3. The presence of the left-right reversal 3. A ray directed toward the focal point is
where: phenomena. reflected parallel to the principal axis.
I – luminous intensity (candela) 4. A ray incident on the vertex of the
F – luminous flux (lumen)
4. Images produced are of the same size as
mirror reflects at an equal angle to the
ω – solid angle (steradian) object.
axis.
5. Images produced are with the same distance
The total luminous flux emitted by a point as object. A concave mirror curves toward the viewer
Excel Review Center with its center of curvature in front of the
source is:
F = 4I Spherical Mirrors mirror. A
concave
A spherical mirror is a mirror which has the
mirror is also
Illuminance is the luminous flux per unit area. shape of a piece cut out of a spherical surface. called
Its unit is lumens per square foot or lumens per In a spherical mirror, the reflecting surface is a converging
square meter. Illuminance is sometimes referred section of a sphere. There are two types of mirror since it
to as illumination. spherical mirrors, namely concave and convex. makes parallel
F A convex mirror curves away from the viewer rays converge
E= to a point.
A with its center of curvature is behind the mirror. Concave mirror
where: A convex mirror is also called a diverging Principal rays for concave mirrors:
E – illuminance (lumen/m2) mirror since the reflection of a set of parallel 1. A ray parallel to the principal axis is
F – luminous flux (lumen) rays is a set of diverging rays. The focal point of reflected through the focal point.
A – area (m2) a convex mirror is on the principal axis a 2. A ray along a radius is reflected back
Excel Review Center upon itself.
distance 0.5r behind the mirror where r is the
For light from a point source, the illuminance 3. A ray along the direction from the focal
on the surface is given by the inverse-square
radius of the sphere. Excel Review Center point to the mirror is reflected parallel
law, as follows: to the principal axis.
4. A ray incident on the vertex of the
1
E= cos  mirror reflects at an equal angle to the
s2 axis.
1 1 1 r
Luminance is the luminous intensity per unit The mirror equation: + = f=
p q f 2
projected area emitted by an extender source.
image size q
B=
I Magnification: M= =−
A object size p
where:
B – luminance (candela/m2) where:
I – luminous intensity (candela) p = object distance f = focal length
A – area (m2) q = image distance r = radius of curvature
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Physics Part 6
Key words
Mirrors & Lenses
Linear magnification is the ratio of the size of the
image to the size of the object.
Aberration the convergence to different
Continuation… foci, by a lens or mirror, of rays of light
image size q emanating from one and the same
SIGN CONVENTION FOR SPHERICAL MIRRORS M= =−
object size p point, or the deviation of such rays from
a single focus; a defect in a focusing
Power of a lens (D) is the amount by which the mechanism that prevents the intended
lens can change the curvature of a wave. It is focal point Excel Review Center
equivalent to the reciprocal of the lens’ focal length. Achromatic doublet a type of lens made up
The unit of the power of a lens is diopter. of two simple lenses paired together
designed so that the chromatic
aberration of each lens partially offsets
Excel Review Center 1
P= the other; in this way light in a range of
f wavelengths may be brought to the
Excel Review Center same focus
Properties of Concave Mirrors (Converging): Properties of Concave Lenses (Diverging): Afocal system an optical system that
produces no net convergence or
1. Image produced by diverging lenses are
1. As the object is moved closer, image distance always upright, virtual (same side of lens divergence of the beam, i.e. has an
increase and image height increases. as object) and reduced in size. infinite effective focal length
2. When the object is at the focal length, there is 2. As the object moves closer to the lens, Thin lens one whose thickness allows rays
no image. the image moves closer to the lens as to refract but does not allow properties
3. Within the focal length, the image is upright, well. such as dispersion and aberrations.
virtual. 3. As the object moves closer to the lens, Airy pattern the diffraction pattern formed
the image size is increased. by a perfect lens with a circular
4. As the object approaches the mirror, image
height becomes very close to the object height. Excel Review Center aperture, imaging a point source
Properties of Convex Lenses (Converging): Coma an off-axis lens aberration resulting
Properties of Convex Mirrors (Diverging): from a variation of lens focal lengths as
1. As object is moved closer to the lens, the
image distance and height increases. a function of aperture zone or annulus
1. Field of view of convex mirrors is wider 2. At twice the focal length, image and Complex lens a lens assembly consisting of
2. Image is always virtual, upright and smaller object distance and height are equal. several compound lenses
3. As object approaches the mirror, the virtual 3. As object approaches one focal length, Compound lens a lens assembly consisting
image distance and height approaches of a number of simple lens elements
image on the other side approaches the mirror
infinity Condenser lens a lens assembly designed
and becomes larger 4. When object is at focal length, there is to collect energy from a light source
Excel Review Center no image.
Thin Lenses 5. Within the focal length, image is upright,
Diffraction limited lens a lens with
negligible residual aberrations
When a ray of light passes through a lens, it bends virtual and same side as object.
Dispersion the variation in the refractive
toward the thicker part of the lens if the lens has an
index of refraction greater than that of the Lensmaker’s Equation index of a medium as a function of
wavelength; the property of an optical
surrounding medium. Principal focus is the point The lensmaker’s equation is used to relate the radii system which causes the separation of
through which rays parallel to the principal axis of of curvature, the thickness, the refractive index and mononochromatic components of
the lens pass. Focal length is the distance from the the focal length of a thick lens. radiation.
lens to the principal focus. Optical center is a point Effective focal length the distance from the
1  1 1 (n − 1)d 
on the principal axis through which rays pass For thick lens: = (n − 1)  − +  principal point to the focal point
without changing direction. When the rays actually f  R 1 R 2 nR 1R 2  Hyperfocal the distance at which a lens
pass through the image after refraction, the image where: may be focused to produce satisfactory
formed is known as real image. When the rays only f = focal length Excel Review Center image quality over an extended range of
appear to come from the image after refraction, the R1 and R2 = radii of curvature object distances. Excel Review Center
image is known as virtual image. n = index of refraction Image distance the distance of the image
d = thickness of lens from the center of the lens
Converging lens makes a set of parallel rays 1  1 1  Petzval curvature the natural tendency for
converge after refraction. It forms real images when For thin lens: = (n − 1)  −  a lens to produce its final image on a
the object is farther from the lens than the principal f  1
R R 2 curved rather than flat surface
focus and virtual images when the object is between Ray tracing a technique used in optics for
the lens and the principal focus. Diverging lens The focal length f is positive for converging lenses, analysis of optical systems
makes a set of parallel rays divergent after and negative for diverging lenses. The reciprocal of Surface vertices the points where each
refraction. It forms a virtual image of any object. the focal length, 1/f, is the optical of the lens. If the surface crosses the optical axis
The position, size and nature of an image can be focal length is in meters, this gives the optical Thick lens lenses whose thickness are not
determined by the use of the following lens power in diopters (inverse meters). negligible, i.e. one cannot make a
equation: simple assumption that a light ray is
1 1 1 The signs of R1 and R2 indicate whether the refracted only once in the lens
+ = Thin lens one whose thickness allows rays
p q f corresponding surfaces are convex or concave. If
R1 is positive the first surface is convex, and if R1 to refract but does not allow properties
where: such as dispersion and aberrations.
p - object distance q - image distance is negative the surface is concave. The signs are
Throughput a measure of the efficiency of
f - focal length reversed for the back surface of the lens: if R2 is
Excel Review Center an optical system in terms of the
positive the surface is concave, and if R2 is negative
For the sign convention for lens, it is exactly the same as luminous flux collected and delivered
the surface is convex. If either radius is infinite, the
the sign convention for mirrors. corresponding surface is flat.
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