Theories and Systems of Psychology

Course D P S Y 5 4 9 Course Title THEORIES AND SYSTEMS OF
Code PSYCHOLOGY
Weightages
CA ETE (TH)
30 70
Course Content
Sr. No. Content
Unit 1 The Emergence of Psychology: Introduction to psychology, Philosophical roots
ofPsychology, Beginning in physiological and natural sciences, History of psychology.
Unit 2 Experimental Psychology-I: Beginning of experimental Psychology, Methods of
experimental Psychology
Unit 3 Experimental Psychology-II: Psychophysics, Development of neuropsychology, Theory
of evolution.
Unit 4 Schools of thought – I: Structuralism, Functionalism and Behaviorism
Unit 5 Schools of thought – II: Gestalt psychology, Humanism and Existentialism
Unit 6 Schools of thought – III: Psychoanalysis
Unit 7 Neo-Freudian: Alfred Adler , Carl Jung, Karen Horney, & Erik Erikson
Unit 8 Sensation & Perception: Sensation, Definition and concept of perception, Biological
factors in perception, Subliminal perception, Perceptual organization
Unit 9 Attention: Nature, Roles, Types, Theories of Selective attention
Unit 10 Learning:Introduction of learning, Characteristics,Methods, theories of learning,
Classical conditioning, Operant learning and Observational learning
Unit 11 Memory: Introduction, Types, mnemonic techniques to improve memory, forgetting.
Unit 12 Thinking, intelligence and creativity:Characteristics andmeasurement of intelligence,
thinking, and creativity, Concept of intelligence quotient, Types of creativity, Aspects of
creativity.
Unit 13 Emotion and Motivation: Psychological and physiological basis of motivation,
perspectives on motivation, types of motivations, motivational conflicts, theories of
emotion, physiological aspects of emotions, psychological aspects of emotions
Unit 14 Indian perspective: Introduction, concept of consciousness, Mind & Body relation
Readings
1. PSYCHOLOGY EXPRESS: CONCEPTUAL AND HISTORICAL ISSUES IN PSYCHOLOGY by BRIAN
M HUGHES, 1st Edition, 2013 PEARSON EDUCATION INDIA
Additional Readings
1. GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY by NAIMA KHATOON, 1st Edition, 2011, PEARSON EDUCATION INDIA
2. ESSENTIALS OF PSYCHOLOGY FOR BEGINNERS BY DR. MOHAMMAD AMIN WANI, 1 st Edition,
2020 NOVEL NUGGETS PUBLISHERS, INDIA
6
Unit 1: Emergence of Psychology
Unit1: Emergence of Psychology
Contents
Objectives
1.1 Introduction To Psychology
1.2 Philosophical Roots Of Psychology
1.2.2 Structuralism
1.2.1 Associationism
1.2.3 Functionalism
1.2.3 Psychoanalysis
1.2.4 Gestalt psychology

1.2.5 Behaviorism
1.2.6 Humanism
1.2.7 Cognitive Psychology
1.3 History of Psychology
1.4 Summary
1.5 Keywords:
1.6 Self-Assessment
1.7 Review Questions
1.8 Further Readings
Objectives
 After studying this course students will be able to-
 Understand the meaning and conceptuality of Psychology
 Historical roots of Psychology
 Role of different schools of thoughts in Psychology.
 Role of various Psychologists in establishing the discipline of Psychology
 Basic understanding of Psychodynamics, Gestalt and structuralism
1.1 Introduction to Psychology

The history of Psychology can be dated back to the times unknown. Psychology has the vast past
but a shortest passage of history. Though Psychology presently is scientific in nature but it has its
roots from philosophy.Psychology in earlier times was known as science of soul, was derived from
Psyche and Logos. Since soul was an abstract entity and it lacked scientific validation, soon after
Psychology field's name derives from the roots psyche, meaning soul, and - logy, meaning scientific
study. Therefore, the field of psychology is the scientific study of mind and behavior. Students of
psychology develop critical thinking skills, become familiar with the scientific method, and learn to
recognize the complexity of behavior. Think about your own definitions of psychology and mental
health.
LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY 1

DPSY549: THEORIES AND SYSTEMS OF PSYCHOLOGY
The works of major researchers and theorists in the development of the field of psychology,
including William James, Wilhelm Wundt, Sigmund Freud, Max Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka,
Wolfgang Köhler, Ivan Pavlov, John B. Watson, B.F. Skinner, Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers, Jean
Piaget, Lawrence Kohlberg, Noam Chomsky, and Erik Erickson were the subject matter of this
discipline.
Psychology is not the science of Soul
1.2 PHILOSOPHICAL ROOTS OF PSYCHOLOGY

1.2.1 Associationism
This is not a particular school of thought of psychology but has many important inputs in
development of modern psychology. The works of Alexander Bain, James Mill, James Stuart Mill,
and David Hartley, etc. contributed to the thoughts of associationism. Greek philosophical
influences developed the pre-scientific psychology. In cosmological period during associationism
philosophers were interested to study the nature of universe. Thales, Pythagorus and Heraclitus
studied the natural elements. Socrates studies various types of human behaviors. He discussed in
his works Psyche which means soul. Plato described his theory of ideas in which he explained the
characteristics of idea. Plato also described about psyche which is identified as soul comprising of
moral aspects, thinking aspects, and behavioral aspects of human behavior. Aristotle also worked
with significant inputs in psychology which become foundation of modern psychology. He
described metaphysical position which defined matter and form for the build of things. Psyche in
the form of soul is inseparable from organism. Organs and tissues in the body are described as
matter which becomes the basis of functions. People have sensing and perceiving functions in daily
lives. First time, Aristotle discussed association in relation to sensation. Furthermore, he described
similarity, contiguity and contrast as the related laws to association. Rene Descartes considered the
body as a machine without psyche. He described animals as automata because they are considered
without soul and complete their behavior on the basis of reflexes, instincts and involuntary actions.
Soul was taken as mind and relation between mind and body was defined as interaction. There are
many other works and developments for consideration of mind and body and relation between two
which prepared the foundation of modern psychology.
James Mill described permanence, certainty and facility criteria for assessment of association. John
Stuart Mill detailed out doctrine of association, mental chemistry and theory of perception. The
works of Alexander Bain detail out human behavior under descriptions of psychophysical
parallelism, physiological psychology, doctrine of associationism and doctrine of will.
Especially, philosophy and physiology works contributed in understanding the mind and body
problem, associations and empiricism, etc. On the basis of earlier descriptions of associationism
theories of learning by Pavlov and Thorndike came into existence.
1.2.2 Structuralism
Wilhelm Wundt, a teacher in Leipzig University, Germany established a psychological laboratory
for experimentation in 1879 and used demonstration in among the students as a study method.
Wundt could measure reaction time to one-thousandth of a second (Nicolas &Ferrand, 1999).
“While psychology did not emerge as a separate discipline until the late 1800s, its
earliest history can be traced back to the time of the early Greeks. During the
17th-century, the French philosopher Rene Descartes introduced the idea of
dualism, which asserted that the mind and body were two entities that interact to
form the human experience.”
Principles of Physiological Psychology a prominent book was published by Wundt in 1873. Wundt
described psychology as a scientific study of conscious experience. His thoughts were that goal of
psychology is to identify components of consciousness. Further, his interest was that in which
manner human conscious experience is produced by combining these components. He explained
that by internal perception (introspection) individual examines the conscious experience. On the
2 LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY

basis of above thoughts and study process Wundt was able to describe the structure of mind and
therefore his school of thoughts was known as structuralism.
1.2.3 Functionalism
American psychologist, William James (1842–1910) was introduced to Darwin’s theory of evolution
by natural selection and accepted it as an explanation of an organism’s characteristics. James
described psychology’s purpose as to study the function of behavior in the world and therefore his
school of thoughts was known as functionalism. Functionalism focused on how mental activities
helped an organism fit into its environment. Functionalism was interested in the operation of the
whole mind rather than of its separate parts (as in structuralism). James used more objective
measures including recording devices, concrete products of mental activities and of anatomy and
physiology (Gordon, 1995).
1.2.3 Psychoanalysis
Most influential and well-known person in psychology’s history is Sigmund Freud. Freud (1856–
1939) was an Austrian neurologist who was treating the patients suffering from hysteria and
neurosis. Hysteria is an ancient diagnosis of disorders. Freud theorized the concept of unconscious
mind. Unconscious mind is a repository of feelings and impulses which are not in awareness. To
resolve the disorders it is essential gaining the access to unconscious. Unconscious mind may be
accessed with some steps including dream analysis, first words which came to people’s minds,
seemingly innocent slips of the tongue. In this way Freud developed Psychoanalytic theory which
focused on role of unconscious and early childhood experiences. Psychoanalytic theory dominated
for several decades, especially clinical psychology (Thorne & Henley, 2005).
Freud’s school of thoughts considered whole life span dividing it into five stages (Oral, anal,
phallic, latency, genital) and developed personality topology comprising three components id, ego,
and super ego working on separate principles. However, all his concepts are not verifiable and
cannot be tested in the laboratory or with empirical data. Therefore, others school of thoughts also
came into existence.
1.2.4 Gestalt psychology
Three German psychologists, Max Wertheimer (1880–1943), Kurt Koffka (1886–1941), and Wolfgang
Köhler (1887–1967) were with the thoughts of Gestalt psychology. Gestalt word means ‘whole’.
Gestalt psychology defines that a sensory experience can be broken down into individual parts. But
how these parts relate to each other as a whole is often decides the nature of perception. For
example, a song is made up of separate notes played by different instruments, but actual nature of
the song and its melody is perceived as a result of combinations notes.
Gestalt psychology propounded some basic principles of perceptual organization. Considering
individual as a whole rather than as a sum of individually measured parts became an important
foundation in humanistic theory late on. Structuralism, Psychoanalysis, and Gestalt were concerned
with describing and understanding inner experience.
1.2.5 Behaviorism
Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936) began his exploratory works and added to the field
of brain research. Pavlov contemplated learning conduct known as molded reflex, in which a
creature delivered a reflex (oblivious) reaction to an upgrade and, after some time, was adapted to
create the reaction to an alternate boost that the experimenter related with the first improvement.
The reflex Pavlov worked with was salivation in light of the presence of food. The salivation reflex
could be inspired utilizing a subsequent boost, for example, a particular sound, that was introduced
in relationship with the underlying food upgrade a few times. When the reaction to the subsequent
upgrade was "took in," the food improvement could be excluded. Pavlov's "old style molding" is
just one type of learning conduct concentrated by behaviorists.
John B. Watson (1878–1958) was a compelling American clinician whose most popular work
happened during the mid twentieth century at Johns Hopkins University. While Wundt and James
were worried about understanding cognizant experience, Watson imagined that the investigation
of awareness was defective. Since he accepted that target investigation of the brain was
unimaginable, Watson liked to zero in straightforwardly on discernible conduct and attempt to
manage that conduct. Watson was a significant defender of moving the focal point of brain science
from the psyche to conduct, and this methodology of noticing and controlling conduct came to be
known as behaviorism. A significant object of study by behaviorists was learned conduct and its
cooperation with inherent characteristics of the organic entity. Behaviorism regularly utilized

creatures in tests under the supposition that what was realized utilizing creature models could,
somewhat, be applied to human conduct. In reality, Tolman (1938) expressed, "I accept that
everything significant in brain research (aside from … such matters as include society and words)
can be explored basically through the proceeded with exploratory and hypothetical examination of
the determiners of rodent conduct at a decision point in a labyrinth.
Behaviorism ruled exploratory brain research for a very long while, and its impact can in any case
be felt today (Thorne and Henley, 2005). Behaviorism is to a great extent liable for setting up brain
research as a logical control through its target strategies and particularly experimentation.
Furthermore, it is utilized in conduct and intellectual social treatment. Conduct alteration is
ordinarily utilized in homeroom settings. Behaviorism has additionally prompted research on
ecological impacts on human conduct.
B. F. Skinner (1904–1990) was an American analyst. Like Watson, Skinner was a behaviorist, and he
focused on how conduct was influenced by its results. In this manner, Skinner talked about support
and discipline as central point in driving conduct. As a piece of his examination, Skinner built up a
chamber that permitted the cautious investigation of the standards of changing conduct through
support and discipline. This gadget, known as an operant molding chamber (or all the more
naturally, a Skinner box), has stayed a critical asset for specialists contemplating conduct (Thorne
and Henley, 2005).
Skinner proposed, make people into good citizens: “We can achieve a sort of control under
which the controlled, though they are following a code much more scrupulously than was
ever the case under the old system, nevertheless feel free. They are doing what they want to
do, not what they are forced to do. That's the source of the tremendous power of positive
reinforcement—there's no restraint and no revolt. By careful cultural design, we control not
the final behavior, but the inclination to behave—the motives, desires, the wishes.”
The Skinner box is a chamber that detaches the subject from the outside climate and has a conduct
marker like a switch or a catch. At the point when the creature presses the catch or switch, the crate
can convey an uplifting feedback of the conduct (like food) or a discipline (like a clamor) or a
symbolic conditioner (like a light) that is connected with either the uplifting feedback or discipline.
Skinner's emphasis on certain and negative support of learned practices had an enduring impact in
brain science that has melted away to some degree since the development of examination in
psychological brain science.
In spite of this, adapted learning is as yet utilized in human social alteration. Skinner's two
generally read and disputable well known science books about the worth of operant molding for
making more joyful lives stay as intriguing contentions for his methodology (Greengrass, 2004).
1.2.6 Humanism
During the mid twentieth century, American brain research was overwhelmed by behaviorism and
analysis. In any case, a few clinicians were awkward with what they saw as restricted viewpoints
being so powerful to the field. They had a problem with the cynicism and determinism (all
activities driven by the oblivious to) Freud. They likewise loathed the reductionism, or working on
nature, of behaviorism. Behaviorism is likewise deterministic at its center, since it considers human
to be as completely dictated by a blend of hereditary qualities and climate. A few therapists started
to frame their own thoughts that underlined individual control, deliberateness, and a genuine
inclination for "great" as significant for our self-idea and our conduct. Consequently, humanism
arose. Humanism is a point of view inside brain research that stresses the potential for great that is
intrinsic to all people. Two of the most notable defenders of humanistic brain science are Abraham
Maslow and Carl Rogers (O'Hara, n.d.).
Abraham Maslow (1908–1970) was an American clinician who is most popular for proposing a
progression of human necessities in rousing conduct. Maslow attested that insofar as fundamental
requirements vital for endurance were met (e.g., food, water, cover), more elevated level necessities
(e.g., social necessities) would start to spur conduct. As indicated by Maslow, the most significant
level necessities identify with self-realization, an interaction by which we accomplish our
maximum capacity. Clearly, the attention on the positive parts of human instinct that are normal
for the humanistic viewpoint is obvious (Thorne and Henley, 2005). Humanistic analysts dismissed,
on rule, the exploration approach dependent on reductionist experimentation in the custom of the
physical and natural sciences, since it missed the "entire" person. Starting with Maslow and Rogers,
there was an emphasis on a humanistic examination program. This program has been to a great

extent subjective (not estimation based), but rather there exist various quantitative exploration
strains inside humanistic brain science, remembering research for satisfaction, self-concept,
contemplation, and the results of humanistic psychotherapy (Friedman, 2008).
In 1951, Maslow took a position as chairman of the psychology department at the

recently established Brandeis University in Waltham, Massachusetts.
Carl Rogers (1902–1987) was also an American psychologist who, like Maslow, emphasized the
potential for good that exists within all people. Rogers used a therapeutic technique known as
“client-centered therapy in helping his clients deal with problematic issues that resulted in their
seeking psychotherapy. Unlike a psychoanalytic approach in which the therapist plays an
important role in interpreting what conscious behavior reveals about the unconscious mind, client-
centered therapy involves the patient taking a lead role in the therapy session. Rogers believed that
a therapist needed to display three features to maximize the effectiveness of this particular
approach: unconditional positive regard, genuineness, and empathy. Unconditional positive regard
refers to the fact that the therapist accepts their client for who they are, no matter what he or she
might say. Provided these factors, Rogers believed that people were more than capable of dealing
with and working through their own issues (Thorne & Henley, 2005).”
1.2.7 Cognitive Psychology
Behaviorism’s emphasis on objectivity and focus on external behavior had pulled psychologists’
attention away from the mind for a prolonged period of time. The early work of the humanistic
psychologists redirected attention to the individual human as a whole, and as a conscious and
self-aware being. By the 1950s, new disciplinary perspectives in linguistics, neuroscience, and
computer science were emerging, and these areas revived interest in the mind as a focus of
scientific inquiry. This particular perspective has come to be known as the cognitive revolution
(Miller, 2003). By 1967, Ulric Neisser published the first textbook entitled Cognitive Psychology,
which served as a core text in cognitive psychology courses around the country (Thorne & Henley,
2005).
Cognitive Psychology is far advanced than other areas of Psychology
Although no one person is entirely responsible for starting the cognitive revolution, Noam
Chomsky was exceptionally powerful in the beginning of this development. Chomsky (1928–), an
American etymologist, was disappointed with the impact that behaviorism had on brain research.
He accepted that brain science's attention on conduct was limited and that the field needed to re-
join mental working into its domain if it somehow happened to offer any significant commitments
to getting conduct (Miller, 2003).
European brain research had never truly been as impacted by behaviorism as had American p
sychology; and consequently, the intellectual upset restored lines of correspondence between
European analysts and their American partners. Moreover, analysts started to help out researchers
in different fields, similar to humanities, etymology, software engineering, and neuroscience,
among others. This interdisciplinary methodology frequently was alluded to as the intellectual
sciences, and the impact and unmistakable quality of this specific point of view resounds in
advanced brain research (Miller, 2003).
1.3 History of Psychology

Field of Psychology emerged from philosophical thoughts in ancient times. Thus, it is a relatively
young science having experimental roots in recent 19th century. Body and mind have been
discussed in multiple contexts by philosophers prior to the emergence of psychology. Work of
Wilhelm Wundt and William James provided different thoughts for the occurrence of human
behavior. Psychology is interested in the nature of humans and how human beings function. While
the “Psychology of today reflects the disciplines rich and varied history; the origins of Psychology
differ significantly from, contemporary conceptions of the field”.
While talking about the history of Psychology, Ebbinghaus said that “Psychology has along past
but a short history”, it is true also because if we see Psychology is too young in compare to other
sciences but its journey is not too short, it starts with legendary the era like Aristotle, St Augustine
and Democrats, even hundreds of years before the Christ, it emerged through contribution of
Wundt, Titchner, Kohler, Koffka and Maslow and many more.

The roots of Psychology can be traced to the ancient philosophers based on their records to
understand Psychology. The earlier roots of modern Psychology can be traced to two different
approaches to human behaviour Philosophy and Physiology.
Philosophy explores and attempts to explain human nature through introspection or self
examination of one’s own experiences and Physiology is the study of the human body and through
observation early Greek scholars attempted to understand the working of the human body. The
origins of Psychology can be founded some 24 centuries ago in the work of the Greek philosopher
Socrates (470-399 BC) and his successors, Aristotle (384-323 BC) and Plato (427-347 BC) some other
philosophers are Ibn-Sina (980-1037) Rena Descartes (1596-1650), John Locke (1632-1704), and
Immanuel Kant (1724-1804).
Aristotle (384-323 BC) was an empiricist who believed that knowledge is gained by experience,
observation and experimentation. He wrote extensively on the subject of human behaviour and
formulates number of laws and also discusses various topics such as sensation, perception,
learning, memory, motivation, and personality. His view formed the foundation for the methods of
empirical psychological research.
Plato (427-347BC) believed that “mind and body interact with one another but they are essentially
different. The mind is superior to body. Truth is found in our thoughts (via observation) his view
formed the foundation for arising about psychological processes an activity that may or may not
lead to subsequent empirical investigation”. He contributed to the philosophical beginnings of
Psychology.
Ibn–Sina (1980-1037 BC) was the first person who recognized “physiological Psychology for the
treatment of illness involving emotions”. He was a pioneer in psychophysiology and
psychosomatic medicine developing a system for associating changes in the pulse rate with inner
feelings. He was pioneer on neuropsychiatry as he first described “numerous, neuropsychiatric
conditions including insomnia, stroke, nightmare, dementia, epilepsy, paralysis, vertigo,
hallucination, melancholia and tremors.”
Rene Descartes (1596-1650) The French philosopher during 17th century known as the father of
modern philosophy , who had the greatest impact in relatively modern times. Descartes focused on
the relationship between mind and body. His approach is known ad dualism. According to him the
mind and the body are the two distinct entities that function independently. The body obeys the
laws of the physical universe, while the mind operates in the world ideas.
John Locke (1632-1704) believed that the interaction between mind and body is an equal
relationship between two aspects of the same unified phenomenon. He contended that the psyche
relies upon the body through the faculties for its data while the body tactile encounters for
sometime in the future. He likewise accepted that individual is brought into the world without
information which is in this way obtained through encounters and experimental perception. He
proposed the term Tabula Rasa (Blank Slate) to depict this condition.
Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) proposed that humans have asset of facilities or mental powers senses
understanding and reasoning. These offices cooperating control and give a connection among
psyche and body coordinating the two. He likewise accepted that while understanding the
psychological facilities we should utilize both rationalistic just as observational methodologies.
The work of Aristotle, Plato, Descartes and other philosophers dominated thinking about
psychological matters for nearly 2000 years, but philosophy alone was not enough. Philosophy
begins with a basic assumption that seems eminently a logical, and then uses reason to arrive at a
conclusion. But to achieve a full understanding of behaviour, observation and the application of the
scientific method are necessary. It was the discipline of philosophy which studies the operation of
body organs and system that provided the missing link. It was found necessary that Psychology
should study biological basis for the functioning of organisms; to study the biological basis of
different new psychologists came forward like Hermann, Von Helmholtz (1821-1894) Johannes
Muller (1801-1858) and physicist Gustav Fechner (1801-1870).
Hermann Von Helmholtz (1821-1894) became a surgeon at age 21, but soon lost interest and
retrained in physics and physiology. He then turned his attention to the study of perception and the
processing’s of sensation by the nervous system. He also gives theories of vision, idea on the visual
perception of space, color and version research.
Johannes Muller (1801-1858) provided an initial understanding of how impulses are conducted
along nerves in the body information crucial to the eventual investigation of behaviour. Gustav
Fechner (1801-1878) studied the translation of physical stimulation into psychological experience.

The years between 18758 and 1900 saw the birth and early development of Psychology as a separate
discipline. It arose of the increasing need to apply scientific principles to the study of behaviour.
The scientists who developed Psychology in those early years included William James, Ivan Pavlov
and Sigmund Freud. Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920), Wilhelm Wundt the father of Psychology
formally opened the first psychological laboratory in Leipzig Germany in 1879 for the study of
psychological phenomena. He then uses Introspection for looking inward to probe his reactions to
various stimuli. He was trained in philosophy and Psychology. He became interested in the study
of consciousness and this study became the subject matter of the new discipline of Psychology. It
was possible, Wundt held to apply the scientific methods of physics to the study of consciousness,
thus using the methods of science to study the functioning of mind. His method was to train study
to introspect. The 1880s and 1990s saw the opening of 24 new laboratories for psychological
research in United States and Canada, most of them modeled after Wundt’s contribution in
Psychology and establishment of first psychological laboratory make him the founder of
experimental Psychology and father of Psychology. Actually though Alexander Bain, a philosopher
founded the influential Journal ‘’Mind in 1876’’ and also wrote several books about Psychology. He
trained a large number of graduate students who went on to do significant work in the field of
Psychology. So in a sense, he too is a candidate for this title- although less directly than Wundt.
Wundt applied the scientific methods of physics to the study of consciousness.
One of the students of Wundt namely G. Stanley Hall (1844-1924) was influential in bringing
Psychology to the United States. He founded the first psychological laboratory at Johns Hopkins in
1883. A few years later in 1887 he founded American journal of Psychology. The first Psychology
journal published in the United States. And in 1892 Hall organized the American psychological
association (APA) and became its first president. Only 31 psychologists attended the initial
meeting. By APA has grown to o0ver members. By 1893 24 universities in United States has
established psychological laboratories.
Another great psychologist during (1842-1916) was William James. He lead a group of American
psychologists who became interested in the in the practical applications of psychological research
and in combining the direct observation of behaviour by introspection. To study underlying mental
processes 1890 William James published first major text book in Psychology (The Principles of
Psychology). From time till now many psychologists came and lead the important milestone in the
field of Psychology. In modern times Psychology is growing rapidly in every corner of the world.
Every year thousands of researches are conducted by researchers in different areas of Psychology
globally.
Broadly there are some systems or school of thoughts in the field of psychology defining mind and
human behavior differently so as to understand it effectively. In fact these are the prime school of
thoughts in which psychologists have different set of explanations for the occurrence of human
behaviors. In the early phase of field development philosophical roots provided significant inputs
in psychology.
A. Associationism
B. Structuralism
C. Functionalism
D. Behaviorism
E. Psychoanalysis
F. Gestalt Psychology
G. Cognitive psychology
A History of Psychology ,A Global Perspective SECOND EDITION Eric

Shiraev - George Mason University, USA
1.4 Summary
The field of psychology is with long past but short history. Philosophical works contributed much
of the concepts in psychology. Aristotle, Plato, Socrates and others have their thoughts on body and
mind. In early phase both were assumed to be working independently but later on mind and
body were discussed working in collaboration. Structuralism through the method of introspection

discussed about elements in mind and attempted to define the mind as a structure by the
combination of these elements or blocks. Functionalism has discussed the mind on the basis of its
functioning process. Sigmund Freud talked about unconscious, subconscious and conscious- three
parts of human mind. He also talked for Id, Ego and Super-ego as components of personality. He
studied the human life across five stages. Gestalt considered the importance of whole than the
elements of a sensation in development of the perception in human mind. Behaviorism
discussed the role of learning as a result of consequences or association. Stimulus and
response were studied for their different kinds of relationships. Humanism considered individual
as best and capable to live a good life. They discussed the behaviour on the basis of needs hierarchy
theory or kinds of self. More recently, information processing model support the
development of cognitive psychology which defined human behaviour due to processing of
sensory data in human brain and the quality of processing becomes the basis of kind of behaviour a
person will do. Finally, discipline of psychology is the result of different developments over a
period of time which are still in progress at present to strengthen the academic field of psychology.
1.5 Keywords: Psychology, History, psychoanalysis, Structuralism, Functionalism

Behaviorism
1.6 Self-Assessment
1. The word “psychology’ comes from:
a. Latin
b. English
c. Greek
d. Italian
2. Psychology is defined as the scientific study of:
a. people
b. emotions
c. perception
d. mind and behaviour
3. The scientific approach is more useful at answering
questions about ______ than questions about ______.
a. facts, values
b. ideas, love
c. values, ideas
d. emotions, ideas
4. Principles of Physiological Psychology was written by
a. Wilhelm Wundt
b. Carl Jung
c. Sigmund Freud
d. G.W Allport
5. Who among following is related to Functionalism
a. Wilhelm Wundt
b. Carl Jung
c. Sigmund Freud
d. none of the above
6- Wundt viewed psychology as a scientific study of --------------experience
7- Freud was an Austrian neurologist who was fascinated by patients suffering from “hysteria”
and neurosis (True/ False)
8- William James was the founder of Psychoanalysis (True/ False)
9- First psychology laboratory was established in
a. China
b. India
c. Japan
d. Germany

10- Ernst Weber and Gustav Fechner are known for their work in psychophysics. (True/ False)
11- Wundt helped to establish the field of experimental psychology. (True/ False)
12- Titchener and his followers adhered to a structural psychology (True/ False)
13- The Gestalt movement began in Germany with the work of Max Wertheimer (True/ False)
14- The saying “the whole is greater than the sum of its parts” is -------------perspective
15- Behaviorism rejected any reference to mind and viewed ------------------as the proper subject
matter of psychology
Answers
1 c 2 d 3 a 4 a 5 d 6 (Conscious) 7 True 8 False 9 d 10 True 11 True 12 True 13 True 14 Gestalt
15 Behaviorism

1. Psychology has short history but long past. Discuss
2. What is Sigmund Freud’s Psychoanalysis?
3. Describe in brief historical background of psychology field.
4. Discuss some major historical milestone of progress of psychological science.
5. Write in brief about behaviorism school of thoughts.
6. Detail out major points of humanism thoughts of school in psychology.

Wertheime, M. (2012). A Brief History of Psychology, 5th ed. Psychology
Press, New York.
Singh, A.K. (1991). The Comprehensive History of Psychology.
MotilalBanarasiDass publishers Pvt. Ltd. Delhi.
www.simplypsychology.com
www.psychologytoday.com
www.Study.com

Unit 2: Experimental Psychology 1
Unit: 2 Experimental Psychology 1
Contents
Objectives / Expected Learning Outcomes
Introduction
2.1 Beginning of experimental Psychology
2.2 Methods of experimental Psychology
2.2.1 Experiments
2.2.2 Correlational Research
2.2.3 Naturalistic Observation
2.2.4 Experimental Psychologists work
2.3 Summary
2.4 Keywords
2.5 Self-Assessment/ Evaluation
2.6 Review questions
Objectives
After studying this unit, you will be able to:
 Describe the beginning of experimental psychology
 Understand about experimental psychology methods
 Know major historical milestone in experimental psychology
 Learn the famous experimentation or studies in experimental psychology
Introduction
Experimental psychology is a branch of psychology to study variables or stimuli of this universe for the resulting
psychological phenomena. Goals of Psychology and Psychological research are to make you think like a scientist about
behavior and enable you to better understand how to conduct research by using hypotheses testing and solving the
practical problems. Experimental psychology uses scientific methods in to study the behavior of organism (including
humans) and the functional aspects of mental processes by manipulating variables. Thus, experimental psychology
primarily concerned with discovering laws and principles that describe manipulable relationships. The term generally
connotes all areas of psychology that use the experimental method. Experimental psychology examines relationships
between human behavior and the mind. Experimental psychology is centered on fact-based, scientific research
and experimentation. Therefore, experimental psychologists manipulate research variables in order to discover
relationships between cognition and behavior.
Experimental psychology today is a far cry from what it was years and centuries ago. We didn't have the technology or
facilities that we have today back then. Many influential thinkers debated the relationship between mind and body. When
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the mind-body problem is first mentioned, names like Plato and Aristotle come to mind. The controversies and disputes
about free will and determinism, as well as nature vs. nurture, date back decades. These controversies continue to rage
today. They grow into multi-year research projects in experimental psychology and neuroscience.
2.1 Beginning of Experimental psychology

The first references to experimental psychology were made by famous thinkers such as Plato, Aristotle, and René
Descartes. Both Plato and Aristotle pondered the controversial nature vs. nurture debate. They couldn't agree on the basic
question of where our humanity comes from. Plato argued from a genetic perspective, claiming that such aspects are
inherent in our biological makeup. He assumed that all was predetermined from the start. Aristotle, on the other hand,
emphasised the importance of nurture in the debate. Humans are sponges, he preached, soaking up knowledge with and
new experience and learning opportunity.
Did you know Experimental Psychology brought scientific validation in the

Psychology
Descartes considered a different topic that today perplexes scientists and researchers. He concluded that people's actions
and behaviours are predetermined, and that free will does not exist in and of itself. The pineal gland, according to
Descartes, is in charge of all brain activity. His viewpoint gave rise to a widely held theory known as mind-body dualism.
The pineal gland is the master gland for all other glands. The idea that the pineal gland is the master gland for all
behaviour was later disproved. The controversy about free will vs. determinism, on the other hand, continues to rage in
the twenty-first century.
Decision-making research is currently one of the hottest subjects in neuroscience. Various research studies have
now shown that neuronal spiking activity occurs before a decision is made. This sparked a firestorm of support for
determinism. Many people began proclaiming that if there is neural activity before an action, it means that the behaviour
is irrational. Many people began proclaiming that if neuronal activity occurs before a behaviour, then all acts are
predetermined. All of the philosophical questions are still relevant today, and experimental psychology uses a variety of
approaches to try to address them. It accomplishes this by examining the problem from different angles.
Leipzig, Germany, was the birthplace of psychology as a discipline. Wilhelm Wundt founded his first
experimental laboratory on the grounds of Leipzig University in 1879. Wundt was the one who coined the word
"introspection." Wundt thought he could create a guideline for the consciousness elements by asking participants to speak
in depth about their experiences during an assigned mission.
Wilhelm Wundt, known as the "Father of Experimental Psychology," founded the first psychological
research and teaching laboratory in Leipzig's Philosophy Department around 1876.
Measuring reaction times during various mental tasks is a common occurrence in cognitive psychology. Scientists are
attempting to determine which events in the brain occur first and which occur later. Researchers are attempting to find
an answer to the question of how consciousness came to be. They want to figure out where and when the first series of
neuronal spikes in the brain occur when a new stimulus is introduced. It all comes back to the same question of free will
vs. determinism, according to researchers. They are still attempting to determine which comes first: the behaviour or
action itself, or a specific event in the brain. Scientists now have a lot more advanced technology to work with.
The functionalists attempted to comprehend why humans and nonhuman animals act the way they do. The functionalism
research then progressed to what is known as evolutionary psychology. It is based on Darwin's natural selection
principles to a large extent. The idea that the strongest genetic components survived and the less valuable ones vanished
over time has been debunked. Both of our acts are designed to transfer our genes on to our descendants in order to keep
our species alive.
After the death of Wundt's laboratory and the waves of functionalism, a new branch of psychology emerged. It is the
branch of psychology that the majority of people now identify with psychology. Despite the fact that few practitioners
use it these days, it remains influential. The psychodynamic approach, established by Sigmund Freud, places a strong
emphasis on the unconscious. Psychodynamic therapists are interested in the id (the unconscious), impulses, emotions,
memories, and dreams. As compared to other fields of psychology, this one has a poor track record of proving its
hypotheses. Despite this, it was developed as a result of Freud's observations of his many patients' habits. To this day,
the general population associates it with clinical psychology and recovery strategies for different psychiatric
conditions.
One of the most well-known examples of experimental psychology is behaviourism. Behaviorists agree that the only way
to research the mind is through its attitudes and habits, and they make every effort to do so objectively and clearly. The
major names in behaviourism are Ivan Pavlov and B.F. Skinner
The cognitive method gained popularity after behaviourism. It did so because scientists at the time were becoming
increasingly interested in the brain and how it affects our behaviour. Computer production was a significant
advancement.
Experimental psychology is a broad subject that includes several different sub-disciplines and areas. It has progressed
significantly from Wundt's first laboratory to the hundreds of thousands of experimental laboratories that exist today
around the world. These laboratories are equipped with modern state-of-the-art equipment and popular technology
methods in an effort to help objectively research the mind and body, as well as their relationship.
To study the human mind and behaviour, experimental psychology employs a variety of techniques. Since the human
mind is so complex, it's a difficult task to investigate the factors that influence how we process knowledge, think, feel,
and act. To study the human mind and behaviour, experimental psychology employs a variety of techniques. Since the
human mind is so complex, it's a difficult task to investigate the factors that influence how we process knowledge, think,
feel, and act.
2.2 Methods of experimental Psychology

2.2.1 Experiments
In some cases psychologists conduct experiments to establish a relationship between independent and dependent variables
under the controlled condition.
Case Studies
Case study allows a researcher to carry out research on a focus group or on an individual.
Create an experimental design incorporating manipulation of variables
These experiments are often carried out in situations where experimentation is not feasible. When an individual of
interest has had an unusual or rare experience that cannot be repeated in a lab, a scientist might perform a case study.
2.2.2 Correlational Research

Researchers may use correlational studies to look at correlations between various variables. A psychologist might notice,
for example, that when one variable rises, another tends to fall. Although such studies may examine relationships, they
cannot be used to infer causality.
2.2.3 Naturalistic Observation

Researchers may study people in their natural settings using naturalistic observation. This technique is especially useful
when the researchers suspect that the lab environment is having an undue effect on participant behaviour.
2.2.4 Experimental Psychologists work

Experimental psychologists operate in a number of environments, including schools, hospitals, research institutes,
government agencies, and private companies. Some of these experts teach students how to perform experiments, while
others conduct research on cognitive processes, animal behaviour, neuroscience, personality, and a variety of other topics.
https://home.uni-leipzig.de/biocog/content/en/history-of-
psychology/
Myers, C. S. (1909). A text-book of experimental psychology. Longmans, Green and

Co. https://doi.org/10.1037/13628-000

There are continuous numerous studies conducted in many areas of psychology some of the important experiments
are listed below which added new knowledge to psychological literature.
Dr. Solomon Asch conducted the Asch Conformity study at Swarthmore College in 1951 to assess a person's probability
of conforming to a pattern under duress. A group of participants were shown pictures with different lengths of lines
and then asked a simple question: It revealed that people care more about being like others than being right.
Dr. Albert Bandura conducted the Bobo Doll Experiment at Stanford University from 1961 to 1963. An experiment was
carried out to show that social imitation, rather than hereditary genetic influences, plays a major role in human
behavior.
Discuss Dr. Albert Bandura conducted Bobo Doll Experiment
In 1957, at Stanford University, Leon Festinger and James Carlsmith conducted the Cognitive Dissonance Experiment.
Conflicting perceptions, beliefs, or actions are referred to as cognitive dissonance. This tension causes an underlying
sense of unease, prompting a shift in one of the participants' attitudes, values, or behaviours in order to alleviate or
remove the discomfort and restore equilibrium.
The Learned Helplessness Experiment was performed by Martin Seligman at the University of Pennsylvania in 1967.
Martin Seligman and his colleagues were studying how people learn to be powerless. The disorder is known as learned
helplessness, in which a person or animal does not try to get out of a bad situation because they have been told that
they are helpless in the past.
Noise can affect concentration and noise can be labelled as independent variable
and concentration is dependent variable
At Princeton University in 1956, George A. Miller performed the Magical Number Seven Experiment. The Magical
Number Seven experiment, also known as "Miller's Law," claims that an average person can keep 7 +_ 2 items in
working memory.
What if I told you that Many of the students and scientists who helped Wundt with his studies
went on to become well-known scientists in their own right, including James McKeen Cattell (1860-
1944), Emil Kraepelin (1856-1926), G. Stanley Hall (1844-1924), Friedrich Kiesow (1858-1940), August
Kirschmann (1860-1932), James Mark Baldwin (1861-1934), Oswald Külpe (1862-1915), Ernst Meumann
(1862-1915), Charles Spearman (1863-1945),
Pavlov's Dog Experiment was performed in the 1890s at the Military Medical Academy in St. Petersburg, Russia, by
Ivan Pavlov. Pavlov's work with dogs turned out to be one of psychology's most pivotal experiments. His observations
on conditioning spawned an entirely new field of psychology. Classic conditioning is a principle that entails learning
to equate an unconditioned stimulus with a positive outcome.
Test the level of concentration while solving a puzzle and listening two different music
simultaneously and solving a puzzle
There are many more experiments to study the cause and effect or the association among a variety of variables
in psychology. Different branches of psychology improved on the basis of findings of these experimentations or
studies. Experimental psychology facilitates a continuous and scientific study of variables and psychological concepts
for in-depth understanding and for better prediction and control on the output.
2.3 Summary
Psychology by today has emerged as a scientific academic discipline and primarily it is because of contribution of
experimental psychology which studied the psychological constructs in systematic experimental or controlled studies.
Experimental categorized the construct into independent and dependent variables and attempted to study the possible
changes in dependent variable as a function of independent variable under study. Today experimental psychology is
completely different from its starting phase of development. Beginning of experimental psychology started with
establishment of Laboratory in Leipzig, Germany. Distributing the participants into experimental and control group
many studies were conducted and psychological principles and laws and theories came into existence. From 1874 to
till date many experimental findings have been recorded in psychological literature which helped to understand the
human behaviour.
2.4: Keywords
Psychology, Behaviorism, Cognitivism, Methods, Experimentation, Variable
2.5 Self-assessment questions

1- Psychophysics is branch of Psychology (True / False)
2- Neuropsychology involves the study of -------------------in relation to behavioral changes
3- -------------------is basic structure of nervous system (True / False)
4- -------------is known as father of evolution
5- In psychophysics the physical properties of stimulus is studied (True / False)
6- -------------------------started the area of Psychophysics
7- Sensation is to ________ as perception is to ________.
8- Vision is a sensory modality (True / False)
9- Most behavior has a single cause. True/ false
10- A potential extraneous variable in an experiment is:
a. the experimenter
b. the participant
c. both of the above
d. neither of the above
11- Receiving an electric shock would be an example of a ______ whereas being frightened would be an example of a
______.
a. stimulus, response
b. punishment, reward
c. reaction, emotion
d. reinforcement, stimulus
12- Nature is to ________ as nurture is to ________.
a. environment/genes
b. conscious/unconscious
c. genes/environment
d. unconscious/conscious
13- Another term for reinforcement is:

a. stimulus
b. reward
c. response
d. condition
14 -What are the two types of research data?

A Primary and secondary.
B Qualitative and Quantitative.
C Qualitative and predictive.
D Predictive and quantitative.
15 - In a ________ experiment neither the researcher nor the participants know which condition participants are in.
a - blind
b- double-blind
c- random
d- confounded
Answers
1 T 2 Nervous System 3 Neuron 4 Darwin 5 True 6 Gustav Theodor Fechner 7 awareness,

interpretation 8 True 9 False 10 C 11 a 12 c 13 b 14 a 15 b

Describe historical background of experimental Psychology.
Discuss the major mile stone of experimental psychology development.
Discuss at least two famous experiment of experimental psychology with their major findings.

Books
Woodworth (2008). Experimental Psychology. Oxford & Ibh Publishing Co. Pvt Ltd.
Parameswaran, E.G. & Ravichandra, K. (2016). Experimental psychology. Neelkamal.
Shergill H.K. (2012). Experimental Psychology. Publisher: Prentice Hall India Learning Private Limited.
Online links
https://online.csp.edu/blog/psychology/experimental-psychology
https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-experimental-psychology-2795784
https://www.onlinepsychologydegree.info/influential-psychological-experiments/
www.simply psychology.com
www.study.com
www.apa.or

Unit 3: Experimental Psychology II
Contents
Objectives / Expected Learning Outcomes

Introduction
3.1 Psychophysics
3.2 Development of neuropsychology
3.3 Theory of evolution
3.4 Summary
3.5 Keywords
3.6 Self-Assessment/ Evaluation
Objectives
After studying this unit, you will be able to:
 Understand Psychophysics meaning
 Comprehend psychophysical laws
 Explain the neuropsychology
 Learn the theory of evolution
Introduction
Psychophysics is a merged field of Psychology and Physics. It entails the study of relationship of
physical properties of stimulus and sensation they evoke. As a discipline it deals with the research in
sensation and perception. Psychophysics was defined by Fechner in 1860 as “an exact science of the
functional relations or relations of dependency between body and mind, or more generally between
the bodily and mental, the physical and psychical world”; and Wundt, in 1902, declares in the same
spirit that psychophysics is to be understood as “an investigation of the relations that may be shown
empirically to obtain between the psychical and the physical aspects of vital processes. The field of
psychophysics is much advanced in the present times that it has it role military, forensic and
psychobiology
3.1 Psychophysics
With the works of Gustav Fechner’s publication of Elemente der Psychophysik in 1860 experimental
research trends within psychology started. In 1879, with Wilhelm Wundt’s psychological laboratory
in Leipzig experimental brought a revolutionary changes in psychological researches. Soon after the
establishment of first psychological lab, psychology was labelled to be as science. It brought
reverification, replication in most of the psychological experiments, which in turn witnessed a path
breaking researches in psychophysics. Psychophysics actually opened up the horizons of research in
the physical properties of stimulus and the threshold of sensation they evoke.
Gustav Theodor Fechner, a physicist and philosopher, is still celebrated as the founding figure of
this path breaking area of research called psychophysics. Most of laws in psychophysics deals with
the physical energy of the sensory stimulus in relation to the quantum of threshold they evoke.

DPSY549 Theories and Systems of Psychology
Psychophysics is a scientific discipline of studying mental processes. After Fechner, J.P. Guilford
(1956) in his book “psychometric methods” mentioned that psychophysics is regarded as the science
that investigates the quantitative relationship between physical events and corresponding
psychological events. Eysenck (1992) psychophysics concerns the manner in which living
organisms respond to the energetic configuration of the environment. According to Stevens
Psychophysics is an exact science of functional relationship between body and mind. The classical
psychophysics of Fechner, Muller and Wundt was concerned mainly with the determination of
sensory threshold or limens.
Three psychophysical problems have been stated out in psychology literature:
 What is the weakest stimulus that can be detected (stimulus
threshold or Absolute threshold)?
 What is the smallest difference between stimuli that can be detected (difference
threshold)?
 What is the relationship between intensity of stimulus and intensity of sensation?
The problems of psychophysics are related to the selective capacity of the organism his ability to
respond in different ways to different stimuli. Some of the problems of psychophysics are:
Threshold
In day-to-day language threshold refers to boundary separating two specified regions or areas.
In psychophysics too it refers to a boundary wall on the stimulus continuum separating the stimuli
that elicit one response from the stimuli that elicit other response. Threshold varies from
subject to subject and even within same subject at different occasions.
Any energy to which organism is sensitive, must exist in a certain amount before it is capable to
arouse a response. It is statistically defined amount of stimulation. It varies from person to
person, moment to moment and stimulus to stimulus. Three kinds of threshold: Stimulus threshold
or absolute limen or reiz limen (AL), Difference threshold (DL or JND), Terminal threshold (TL),
are described as below.
Absolute threshold
German word reiz limen (RL) is used to denote absolute threshold. It is the value of the stimulus
above zero at which a sensation takes place and below there is no experiences of sensation. It is the
value of a quantitative variable at which a stimulus is just detectable (Eysenck, 1973). Hence, reiz
limen is therefore defined as the value of a stimulus that is noticeable in 50% observations. Lower
the threshold more sensitive is the subject and vice versa. The minimum intensity of stimulation
(brightness of a light; loudness of a tone, etc.) required to produce a detectable sensory experience.
Detection
In sensation and perception detection plays an important role. Conceptually detection can be
referred as, whether a stimulus can be detected on the basis on psychophysical properties of
stimulus. Detection is usually determined by the organismic state of an individual and
psychophysical properties of stimulus
Difference threshold
Difference threshold is a concept related to psychophysics. It simply means for identifying a point
of time where we can easily infer that there is the just noticeable difference between two stimulus
thresholds
Terminal threshold
The upper limit of stimulation beyond which sensation is not possible. The terminal threshold
is the level beyond which a stimulus is no longer detected. This is the point where the sensory
stimulus is so strong the sensory receptors no longer detect the stimulus.
Experimental findings of Psychophysics-
 Just noticeable increment to any stimulus bears a constant ratio to that stimulus
 Important psychological law quantifying the perception of change in a given stimulus.
 Differential Threshold/ Standard Stimulus = Constant
 If we change the amount of standard stimulus, the ratio of the change in standard (STD) and
DL will remain almost constant.

 The stronger or larger the STD, the greater increment is needed to perceive the change.
 The difference threshold in other words can be said as Weber’s Law and is also related JND
Weber's law can be explained using Fechner's law. Fechner's interpretation is divided into two
sections. The first section states that two stimuli would be distinguishable if they both produce a
visual response that is greater than a certain threshold. The visual response R to intensity I is given
by the equation R = log I
Stevens’ Law –
Although Fechner's Law seemed to operate in certain cases, there seemed to be several that the
law could not properly clarify. Consider our reactions to painful stimuli: it appears that pain
increases rapidly rather than gradually, as predicted by Fechner's Law.
Psychophysical methods are used to study the stimulus-response relationship in the situation in
which stimuli are varied along a physical dimension. By these methods experimenter may
quantify the relationship between stimulus and response. There are stimulus situation in which
variation is possible through physical dimension.
 Method of Limits
 Method of average error
 Method of constant stimuli
Method of Limits –
Method of serial discovery, Method of minimal shift, Method of only noticeable difference, and Met
hod of least noticeable difference are some of the other names for this method. Any sensory system
's most basic function is to sense energy or changes in energy in the environment. Chemical (as in t
aste or smell), electromagnetic (as in vision), or mechanical (as in auditory) energy can all be used t
o create this energy.
The method of limits entails altering the intensity of a single stimulus in discrete measures,
such as a single light, and recording the observer's response to each stimulus presentation. As in the
previous phase, the stimulus may be too small to be identified at first, causing the answer to be "not
seen"; the amplitude is then progressively increased until the stimulus is visible (ascending series),
 The method of limits is also having potential disadvantages. – Habituation and Expectation
 Observer anticipation in both the ascending and descending series.
 In case of ascending series this may lower the overall threshold.
 In case of descending series this may raise the overall threshold.
Method of Constant Stimuli

In the constant stimuli process, the experimenter selects a set of stimulus values (usually five to
nine) that are likely to encompass the threshold value based on previous exploration (e.g., using the
Method of Adjustment). This fixed set of stimuli is introduced several times in a quasi-random order
to ensure that each appears equally frequently. Following the introduction of each stimulus, The
observer notes whether the stimulus was observed (for the absolute threshold) or whether it was
stronger or weaker than a regular stimulus after each presentation (for computing a difference
threshold). The proportion of “detected” and “not detected” (or, “strong”) responses is calculated
after each stimulus intensity has been presented multiple times (usually not less than 20).
Method of Adjustment
The easiest and fastest way to assess absolute and difference thresholds is to have a subject change
the stimulus amplitude until it is just detected or unnoticed (in the case of absolute threshold
measurements) or appears to be just slightly different from, or to match, any other normal stimulus
(to measure a difference threshold).
3.2 Development of Neuropsychology

Neuropsychology is the study of how the brain functions to produce the behavior and thought
processes. Neuropsychology subject matter is that what is it about the patient's brain damage that
makes them behave in the way they do? Neuropsychology is the study of how the brain operates

to produce the higher mental functions that broadly that broadly come under the heading of
cognition (mental processes), emotion and movement. The models used by neuropsychologists may
be in terms of broad concepts that prompt pioneering research or they may be more specific in
terms of describing interactions between brain areas within networks. At yet another level,
neuropsychological research may be in terms of the roles of different neurotransmitters, being
the different types of electrochemical messages that pass between the basic units of the brain, the
neuron.
History of Neuropsychology
In 1913 Sir William Osler used the term
In 1936 neuropsychology entered into the realms of Psychology
In 1949 D.O Hebb in his book, the organization of Behavior; A neuropsychological theory used the
term
1957: When Heinrich Kluver (Behavior Mechanisms in Monkeys) indicated the book would be of
interest to neuropsychologists, the concept became a known classification for a subfield in
neuroscience.
When it first appeared in Karl Lashley's writings in 1960, the term received a lot of attention (The
Neuropsychology of Lashley). The definition had yet to be specified
Definition
Neuropsychology is the study of the relationship between brain function and behaviour is known
as neuropsychology. The field draws on data from a variety of fields, but its main goal is to establish
a science of human behaviour centred on brain function. Two traditional foci for experimental and
theoretical investigations in brain science have strongly influenced its contemporary definitions
Modern Neuropsychology
Neurologists persisted in rejecting the brain-behavior correlation positions of Broca, Wernicke, etc.
Psychology directed its attention to behavior, psychophysics, and psychoanalysis
Advancements in the following become the basis of development in neuropsychology field:
 Neurosurgery: Horsley-Clarke (stereotaxic device), Scoville (H.M.),
 Milner (surgically treated epileptics), Sperry (split brain studies)
 Psychometrics: Objective measurement and statistical analysis
 Technology: CT, MRI, functional neuroimaging
 Experimental Psychology
3.3 Theory of Evolution
The theory of evolution incorporates the widely held scientific belief that biological life on our planet
has evolved over long periods of time and continues to evolve through a mechanism known as
natural selection. The theory is credited to Charles Darwin, a 19th-century naturalist, not because
he was the first to say evolution exists, but because he suggested (in his seminal 1859 text on Origin
Of species)
The evolution theory is divided into two sections, both of which are unnecessarily divisive.
The first is the term "theory," which in everyday speech has a somewhat different meaning than it
does in science. The second controversial term is "evolution," which some contend lacks adequate
evidence to support the idea that organisms evolve over time. The supporters of the above point of
view depend on
3.4 Summary
Gustav Theodor Fechner, a physicist and philosopher, coined the word "psychophysics" in
his book "Elemente der Psychophysik" published in 1860. This term was coined to describe the
relationship between physical stimulation and various aspects of consciousness, especially

sensation. Following Fechner, J.P. Guilford (1956) claimed in his book "psychometric methods" .
Threshold is a boundary wall on the stimulus spectrum that separates stimuli that elicit one response
from stimuli that elicit another. Threshold differs from subject to subject and even from time to time
within the same subject. Stimulus threshold, also known as absolute limen or reiz limen (AL),
Difference threshold (DL or JND), and Terminal threshold (TL) are three types of thresholds.
Neuropsychology is another branch of psychology that studies how the brain works to
create actions and thinking processes. The role of different neurotransmitters and different types of
electrochemical messages that pass between the basic units of the brain, the neuron, is investigated
in neuropsychological research. The theory of evolution sought to describe a mechanism that would
justify how transition occurs.
3.5 Keywords
Psychology, Psychophysics, stimulus, Absolute threshold, Just noticeable threshold,

neuropsychology, neuron, evolution
3.6 Self-Assessment
1-The field of psychophysics was pioneered by _____.
A. Weber
B. Frued
C. Fechner
D. Descartes
2-The smallest amount of difference between two stimuli that can be detected is called the
A. absolute threshold
B. difference threshold
C. standard stimulus
D. Weber fraction
3- A study will be conducted by a researcher who is interested in the relationship between physical
stimuli and our psychological experiences and it is called
A. esp.
B. proprioception
C. auditory realism
D. psychophysics
4- A 50 cent increase in the price of a candy bar is more likely to be seen than a 50 cent increase in
the price of an iPad, illustrates
A. the absolute threshold

B. Weber’s law
C. signal detection
D. opponent processes
5. The another name of difference threshold is
A. absolute threshold
B. difference adaptation
C. just noticeable difference
D. sensory differentiation

6. Psychophysics is a scientific approach to the measurement of mental processes (True/ False
7. Psychophysical methods are used to study the stimulus-response relationship in the situation in
which stimuli are varied along a physical dimension (True/ False )
8. This minimal or liminal amount of energy is called the absolute threshold (True/ False
9. The term "psychophysics" was coined by Gustav Theodor Fechner (True/ False )
10. Psychophysics deals with the nature of the quantitative relationship between physical and
mental qualities (True/ False )
11. The terminal threshold is the level beyond which a stimulus is no longer detected (True/
False )
12. ------------deals with the nature of the quantitative relationship between physical and
mental qualities
13. The term ---------------------" was coined by Gustav Theodor Fechner
14. This minimal or liminal amount of energy is called the ---------------
15. The method of limits have a disadvantages of -----------------
1 c 2b 3d 4b 5c 6True 7 True 8 True 9 True 10 True 11 True 12

Psychophysics 13 Psychophysics 14 Absolute threshold 15 Habituation
Describe psychophysics and its

basic laws.
Define threshold and its various
types.
Detail out history of neuropsychology and its subject
matter.
Describe various methods of psychophysics.

Books
Stevens, S.S. (1986). Psychophysics: Introduction to Its Perceptual, Neural and Social Prospects.
Routledge.
Eysenck, M.W., & Keane, M.T. (2005). Cognitive Psychology: A Student's Handbook. Publisher:
Psychology Press.
Ling (2013). Psychology Express: Cognitive Psychology. Publisher: Pearson Education India.
Online links
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wmopen-psychology/chapter/outcome-sensation-
and- perception/
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-psychology/chapter/introduction-to-sensation/
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S15674231097
02060

http://cms.gcg11.ac.in/attachments/article/188/Psychophysics%
202.pdf
http://www.psy.lmu.de/exp/teaching/courses/w5-
psychophysics.pdf www.simplypsychology.com
www.study.com

Unit 4: School of Thoughts-I
Unit 4: Schools of Thought-I
CONTENTS
Objectives
Introduction
4.1 Structuralism
4.1.1 History of Structuralism
4.1.2 Wundt’s Systematic Psychology
4.1.3Titchener’s Structural Psychology
4.1.4 Strengths and criticism of Structuralism
4.2 Functionalism
4.2.1 Origin of Functionalism
4.2.2 Subject-matter of Functionalism
4.2.3 Contribution and weakness of Functionalism in Psychology
4.3 Behaviourism
4.3.1 Behaviourist Approach
4.3.2 Advent of Behaviourism
4.3.3 Basic Fundamentals of Behaviourist Approach
4.3.4 Strengths and Weaknesses of Behaviourism
4.4 Summary
4.5 Keywords
4.7 Self-Assessment Questions
4.8 Further readings
Objectives
After reading this unit, you will be able to:
 Understand about the development of structuralism thoughts.
 Explain the concept of structuralism.
 Identify the main concepts of the school of functionalism.
 Learn about the strength and weaknesses of structuralism and functionalism.
 Differentiate between ‘structuralism’ and ‘functionalism’
 Learn the evolution of behaviourism
 Define behaviour and its components
 Identify the behaviouristic approach
 Understand the basic concepts of behaviourism
 Contribution of behaviourism to modern day psychology
Introduction
A school is a collection of scientists who have similar ideas and put them under one umbrella of
thoughts. Also, these scientists also use similar methods of studying the concepts. If we look at the
history of psychology, it has its own roots in philosophy which have been already discussed in the
first unit. Psychology has been defined as the study of ‘soul’ to ‘mind’ to ‘consciousness’. The
definition of psychology that is used these days is more focussed on behaviour and cognitive
processes. Thus, as Morgan et al. (1986) stated ‘fundamental differences in viewpoints show up in
every definition and ideas about what psychology should study and how. Such differences, and the
arguments they spark makes psychology a lively field indeed.’ It is therefore that there have been
many schools of thought in the history of psychology. There always have been questions asked as
to why there is a need to study all the methods and thoughts that are no longer used are obsolete?

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The study of all the schools of thought is necessary to understand how the subject evolved. Where
it began from and where are we standing in today’s times. Also, the history is important so that we
have an awareness of what are the things that we already know, what were the methods used in the
studies so that we are able to move ahead and research in the correct direction.
In this unit, we will be studying about the three major schools of psychology which marked the
evolution of the Psychology as a Science. These three schools are; Structuralism, Functionalism and
Behaviorism. We will discuss each of these schools one by one.
Define Psychology as per you’re your own understanding.
4.1 Structuralism
4.1.1 History of Structuralism
Psychologyitselfdidnotemergeasadisciplineseparatefrombiologyandphilosophyuntil
thelate1800s.Itwasthefoundingoftheveryfirstexperimentalpsychology laboratory in
Leipzig,Germany thatformallyestablishedpsychologyasaseparatescience.Itwasthescientist
orWilhelmWundtwhowasresponsibleforestablishingthelab,whichiswhy heiswidely
regardedasthefatherofpsychology.Wundtwasinterestedinstudying theinnerworkingsofthe
mindinanobjectiveandscientific manner. He utilizeda methodknown asintrospectionwhich
involvestraining observerstocarefully analyzethecontentsoftheirthoughts.Whilehis methods
don’tstanduptotherigoroftoday scientificmethods,they didhelpmakepsychology amore
scientificdiscipline.
Structuralism was the first school of psychology and it focused on breaking down our mental
processes into various structural components. Structuralism basically focuses on the structure-
Structure of brain, mind or body- and so the name Structuralism. Scientists and psychologists
wanted to understand these basic elements of our mind or consciousness by using the method of
Introspection.
Wilhelm Wundt, who was the founder of the very first lab of experimental psychology, is the main
proponent of this school. Edward B. Titchner, who was a student of Wilhelm Wundt, coined the
term structuralism. The main difference between the two was that the theories of Wundt were
more inclined towards the holistic approach as compared to Titchener’s ideas.
Wundt was the person responsible for giving the status of science to psychology and contributed a
lot in experimental psychology and Titchener’s work on structuralism led to the development of the
very first ‘school’ of psychology but it didn’t last for very long.
4.1.2 Wundt’s Systematic Psychology

Definition and subject-matter
Wilhelm Wundt basically focused that psychology is the science of experience. He said that there
are two types of experiences, namely, the immediate experience and the mediate experience. His
study focused mainly on the immediate experience or you can say that the conscious experience.
He also added that conscious experience can be analyzed in two elements: sensations and feelings.
Sensations were regarded as the objective components and feelings were considered to be the
subjective components of the conscious experience.
Sensation come through the working of our sense organs, seeing, hearing, smelling, touching etc.
whereas the feelings have 3 dimensions- excitement-calm, tension-relaxation and pleasure-
displeasure. This is popularly known as the tridimensional theory of feeling.
The Pleasure-Arousal-Dominance (PAD) emotional state questionnaire is also

based a little on the tridimensional theory of feeling.
Wundt was of the opinion that the elements of consciousness were connected by association. Ideas,
emotions, will etc. are all examples of elements of consciousness. To explain the combination of
elements Wundt formulated the principle of creative synthesis by giving the analogy of a chemical

compound. This principle states that just like a chemical compound, when the elements of
consciousness combine together they form a complex whose characteristics are different from the
characteristics of the individual elements.
Method of Psychology
The methods of study used by Wilhelm Wundt were experimentation and introspection. Wundt used
the German term Selbstbeobachtung (self-observation) for introspection. Introspection was a method
through which an individual analyses the conscious process or conscious experience. As he was an
experimental psychologist, he believed in controlled introspection and also set forth certain rules
for that. Some of his rules were;
1. The individual who is introspecting must be able to point out where the process is
beginning.
2. The individual must be able to maintain sustained attention.
3. The entire self-observation should be such that it is capable of repetition.
4. The possibility of variation in stimulus must be there.
So this meant that the process is not only simple self-observation, but it includes experimentation
also as the experimenter will be producing variations and recording the changes as well. According
to Wundt, introspection and experimentation could not be separated if we wanted to study the
elements of the mind. This is why the introspection of Wundt is known as experimental
introspection.
Work of Leipzig Laboratory

The very first laboratory of Psychology was established by Wilhelm Wundt in 1879 in Leipzig,
Germany. All the work that was done in the Leipzig Laboratory was published in
PhilosophischeStudien – a journal that was found by Wundt in 1881.
The major work that was done in Leipzig Laboratory was:
1. Sensation and Perception experiments

2. Reaction time experiments
3. Association experiments
4. Attention experiments
5. Feeling experiments
Thus we can say that Wundt and his students did a variety of experiments in the laboratory.
Though the experiments done were heavily based on the works of Helmholtz, Weber and Fechner;
still the fresh perspective the structuralists provided valuable inputs for the field of psychology.
4.1.3 Titchener’s Structural Psychology

Subject matter of Psychology
Edward Titchner was a student of Wilhelm Wundt who has contributed to the school of
Structuralism. He disagreed with Wundt on the experiences. Titchner believed that experiences are
all immediate. It is just that in psychology we study experience with respect to the person who is
experiencing it. So basically, according to Titchner the subject-matter of psychology is experience
but the experience that is dependent on the on an experiencing person. And consciousness consists
of the sum total of an individual’s experiences at any given point of time.
The basic components of the mind can be studied by answering the questions “what”, “why” and
“how” about the experiences of an individual. The three basic elements of consciousness as
described by Titchner are sensations, images and affections. And he went on to say that all these three
elements of the consciousness have four basic elements, namely, quality, intensity, clarity and
duration. Thus, Titchener made clear structure of the consciousness in terms of elements of
consciousness and their basic attributes in continuation.
Methods of psychology
Edward Titchener also focussed on introspection as the method of study for studying
consciousness. The difference between Wundt’s introspection ndTitchener’s introspection is that it
became more formalized and had a different set of rules. The major ones are:

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1. Introspection needs to be done under an observer who must be completely impartial and
unprejudiced.
2. The observer should be able to concentrate well during the whole process.
3. Observer needs to have a positive attitude towards the process so that the process can
include experimentation and reliability.
These rules made clear that a trained observer is needed for the introspection process to be a
success. The most common error that was encountered during this process is the stimuluserror. This
meant that during introspection the individual or the observer should not be attending to the
stimulus at the time of introspecting. So when they did it was considered as error.
4.1.4 Strengths and criticism of Structuralism

The experimental methods that were being used in structuralism were considered to be too
subjective because the use of introspection was said to produce non reliable results. Also, this
school of thought received criticism because of its major focus being on the internal behaviour,
which could not be observed directly.
But structuralism still has its own strengths and it is one of the major milestones in psychology as
it was the first major school of thought. Also this particular school influenced the start of the
experimental psychology and laid foundation for further research.
4.2 Functionalism
4.2.1 Origin of Functionalism
Functionalism is the school of thought that originated after the school of structuralism. William
James (1842-1910) was the first American psychologist to talk about a different approach than the
structure of the mind. He was influenced by Charles Darwin theory of evolution by natural
selection. James used Darwin’s theory and went on to say that the purpose of psychology is to
study the function of behaviour and subsequently we will be able to know the functions of the
mind. His perspective is known as Functionalism.
The major aim of functionalism was to “understand why animals and humans have developed the
particular psychological aspects that they currently possess” (Hunt, 1993).
Functionalists did not focus on the components or the structure of the mind; rather they focused on
the purpose of the mind and purpose of behaviour. This school also emphasized on the individual
differences. The major people associated with this school of thought along with James are John
Dewey, Harvey Carr and John Angell.
4.2.2 Subject-matter of Functionalism

Functionalism as a school of thought was of the opinion, that mind is something which makes us
do certain functions. So if we study the functions that are being done due to mind, we can easily
study the mind. According to Functionalism, psychology is the science of consciousness, both of its
experience and the conditions. According to James, consciousness is a dynamic and continuous
complex that should not be divided into discrete units. The adaptation to the constantly changing
stimuli in the environment should be studied and that was the core idea or the subject-matter for
Functionalism.
Methods of study
The functionalists accepted the many methods for the studying mental activity. They continued the
method of introspection but also added observation to it. Experimentation was also used as a
method to study the function of the mind. Functionalists agreed on a point that complete control in
human studies is a highly difficult task to achieve, but still experimentation remained the most
desirable method for data collection for the structuralists.
4.2.3 Contribution and weakness of Functionalism in Psychology

Functionalism as a school of thought was criticized mainly for being unscientific. William James
was believed to not have performed any scientific experiment to reach the ideology of
functionalism and also to study the functions of mind. Also, the theory is said to be very subjective
and also unobservable and therefore not reliable.

But nonetheless, functionalism has a marked value in the history of psychology. The major
contribution of this school of thought was the theory of the subconscious mind where he related
subconscious to consciousness in various ways.
Functionalism has given way to the development of evolutionary psychology and applied
psychology. Also, functionalism has contributed in the establishment of other schools of thought as
well including behaviourism and cognitivism. The major idea of functionalism has been applied to
cognitive neuroscience widely till date.
4.3 Behaviourism
In the early 20th century, the debate between structuralism and functionalism was on an all-time
high and it sparked a variety of new ideas from the researchers and scholars worldwide. The
theoretical discussions and the researches examining psychological processes gave way for the
establishment of new schools of thoughts in the field of psychology which still continues to be of
great influence.
4.3.1 Behaviourist Approach

The term ‘behaviour’ is most commonly used for the actions which can be easily observed from the
outside. Behaviour consists of reactions and movements which are done by an organism in certain
situations and the behaviourist learning approach focuses on the how most behaviours are acquired
by organisms.
According to behaviourists, behaviour is something which can be learned and also can be
objectively studied. They considered that the mind or consciousness is something which is abstract
and cannot be seen or studied scientifically and also we do not even need to study it. Whatever
goes on inside the mind comes out in the form of behaviour and we can study the behaviour
scientifically and accurately.
The main proponents of this school of thought are Ivan Pavlov, John B. Watson, Edward L.
Thorndike, E. R. Guthrie and B. F. Skinner.
4.3.2 Advent of Behaviourism

During the time when structuralism and functionalism were flourishing as well as being critiqued
for a variety of reasons; physical sciences had also made quite a significant progress in those years.
E. L. Thorndike and Ivan Pavlov had started doing some works with behavior and physical
sciences. John B. Watson was a researcher and a psychologist who could read the developments in
the field well and in a very well timely written article in 1913 (psychology through the eyes of
behaviourist) he called out to the ideology as well as the methodology of structuralism and
functionalism. He stated that it was unscientific for the psychologists to study about things which
cannot be seen and observed like conscious or thoughts. The article rejected the subjectivity of both
the earlier schools and thus the birth of new school of thought known as “Behaviourism” occurred.
The phase of behaviourism began by 1913 and has been lasting since 1960. There are said to be two
types of behaviourists namely, methodological behaviourists and radical behaviourists (Schultz and
Schultz, 2007). Radical behaviourists such as Watson and Skinner believed that psychology is the
study of only observable behaviours and environmental processes, whereas, methodological
behaviourists such as Bandura and Rotter believed that psychology can also study the cognitive
processes with the methods of behaviourism.
When we talk about the status of behaviourism in today’s time, it has been completely
overpowered by the cognitive revolution. Most of the behaviourists define themselves as cognitive-
behaviourists.
4.3.3 Basic Fundamentals of Behaviourist Approach

1. Behaviourism believes that learning occurs in the same pattern for both humans and other
animals. This is the reason why the term ‘organism’ is used in definitions and theories
given by behaviourism.
2. The behaviourists believe that human is like a blank sheet from birth and the environment
which the individual rows in shapes it.
3. Learning can be studied by focussing on the physical subjects, which are measurable and
observable.

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4. As the qualities of humans such as feelings, ideas, motivation etc. cannot be measured
directly, therefore cannot be handled scientifically. So, it is not included in the subject of
psychology. All we can study is what is received (stimulus) and what is given out
(reaction).
5. All the principles of learning are based on the connection between stimulus and reaction.
6. Psychology should be seen as a purely objective and experimental branch of natural
sciences. The goal of behaviourism is prediction and control.
7. The theories proposed can be expressed in simple, short and brief manner. All learnings
can be explained through the same simple rules.
4.3.4 Strengths and Weaknesses of Behaviourism

The most eminent strength of behaviourist approach is that it provides clear predictions which can
be scientifically tested and supported with evidence. Behaviourism also has real life applications till
date in gender role development, behavioural therapy, phobias, education, behaviour modification,
psychopathology, depression, relationships, moral development, aggression, addiction etc. it
emphasizes objective measurement and gave many experiments to support theories. Also, it
identified comparisons between animals and humans.
The most criticised aspect of behaviourism is the fact that it does not consider moods, thoughts or
feelings. It does not take into account the mediational processes and also ignore biological
influences. Behaviourism is argued to be a little too deterministic and reductionist because of its
one-dimensional approach to understand human behaviour.
4.4 Summary
Structuralism and functionalism both these schools do not exist today but they have lain the
foundation stone for the development of the field of psychology what it is today. While
structuralism help make psychology more experimental and scientific, meanwhile functionalism
did the ground level work for behaviourism which is till date a major school of thought.
By understanding these both schools of thought, we can gain a greater appreciation of how
psychology as a science developed into a discipline that we know of today.
Despite behaviourism not being the dominant force in the field of psychology but it still has a major
influence on our understanding of human psychology. The greatest contribution of behaviourism is
in its practical applications. The process of conditioning alone can explain a range of behaviours
from how we learn to how language develops. The techniques of behaviour modification is a
powerful method which is used in psychology as well as outside of psychology parents, teachers,
animal trainers and many others to help teach new behaviours and discourage unwanted ones.
4.5 Keywords
Schools of Thought, Functionalism, Structuralism, Behaviourism, mind, consciousness, mental
activity, introspection, observation, experimentation, application

1. Discuss the contributions of Wilhelm Wundt as a systematic psychologist.
2. “Psychology needed many more Wilhelm Wundt and not one.”Comment
3. Make a comparative study of Titchner and Wundt.
4. Discuss the contributions of William James that elevated the status of scientific psychology
5. Discuss the major antecedent forces that led to the development of Behaviourism.

1. Wundt was an important contributor to the Structuralism school ofPsychology.
2. Aristotle believed that behaviour was mostly the result of nurture.
3. Cognitive Psychology focuses on mental processes.
4. The Functionalism school of Psychology was founded by Freud.
5. The lower level of explanation focuses on interpersonal processes.

6. Hindsight bias refers to people’s tendency to have positive memories of their childhood.
7. Over time, psychology changed from being a philosophical to a scientific discipline.
8. Introspection involves asking people to report on their own mentalprocesses as they
happen.
9. Forensic psychology focuses on issues relevant to the criminal justice system.
10. Evolutionary psychology has its roots in ________.
11. 11. In terms of the nature-nurture debate, Aristotle argued for ________ while Plato argued
for _________.
12. Free will is typically contrasted with ________.
13. ________ ________ are the ways of thinking, feeling or behaving that are shared by group
members and perceived by them as appropriate.
14. Western cultures are primarily oriented toward ________ while East Asian culture is
primarily oriented toward ________.
15. Freud, Jung, Adler and Erikson contributed to the ________ school of psychology.

Theories and systems of Psychology by Robert W Lundin by Wadsworth Publishing
The Comprehensive History of Psychology by Arun Kumar Singh published by
MotilalBanarasidass Publishers
Psychology by Robert Baron published by Pearson Education India
History and schools of Psychology by Ram Nath Sharma and Rachna Sharma published by
Atlantic Publishers
Introduction to Psychology by Clifford T. Morgan and Richard King published by McGraw
Hill Education
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systems_psychology#:~:text=Systems%20psychology%20i
s%20a%20branch,Bateson%2C%20Humberto%20Maturana%20and%20others.
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/waymaker-psychology/chapter/reading-
structuralism-and-functionalism/
https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Psychology/Book%3A_Cognitive_Psycholog
y_(Andrade_and_Walker)/01%3A_History_of_Cognitive_Psychology/1.04%3A_Early_Ps
ychology_-_Structuralism_and_Functionalism
https://www.verywellmind.com/behavioral-psychology-4157183
https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/behaviorism/

Unit 5: Schools of Thought-II
Unit 5 :Schools of Thought-II
CONTENTS
Introduction
5.1 Gestalt Psychology
5.1.1 History
5.1.2 Contributions
5.1.3 The Impact of Gestalt Psychology
5.2 Humanism
5.2.1 Introduction to Humanism
5.2.2 History
5.2.3 Basic tenets of Humanistic Psychology
5.2.4 Strengths and weaknesses of Humanism
5.3 Existentialism
5.3.1 Introduction to Existentialism
5.3.2 Major contributions
5.3.3 Existential neurosis
5.4 Comparison between Existential and Humanistic psychology
5.5 Summary
5.6 Keywords
5.8 Self-assessment Questions
5.9 Suggested readings
Objectives
After reading his unit, you will be able to:
 Know the basic postulates of Gestalt psychology

 Know the basic principles of Humanistic Approach
 Know the relevance of Gestalt psychology with respect to perception
 Know the basic principles of Existentialism
 Know the contribution of Carl Rogers in Humanistic School of Thought.
Introduction
The time period in which Behaviorists of United States were rebelling against the unscientific nature of
Structuralism and Functionalism, in that same time period a young German Psychologist also rebelled
against the idea of Wundt’s Experimental program which said that there are distinct elements of mind.
Behvaiorsts’ attack focused on the theory of consciousness the method of introspection, whereas the
German demonstrators attacked Wundt’s elementism. They believed that consciousness can’t be and
should not be reduced into various components as doing this will distort the true meaning of the

Theories and Systems of psychology
conscious experience. They believed that the true essence of studying the mind is to not distort the
whole experience.
They believed that if we isolate different fragments, we are not experiencing events but certain
configurations. We should not see black, blue and red patches; instead we should be seeing people,
vehicles, trees and clouds etc. So this seeing the whole thing has been named Gestalt psychology
because the German word for ‘whole’ is Gestalt.
Also, while the Behaviorism and Psychoanalysis were on full swing and were gaining a lot of
popularity; there were a few people who had a completely opposite viewpoint about human mind and
behavior. This group of people believed that the human mind or human psyche is inherently good.
This gave us an alternative perspective and is not a brain child of any single person. This wave was
known as the third force psychology and named as the Humanistic School of thought.
Around the same time as Humanism, there were other people who disregarded the elemental view of
Sigmund Freud and gave an alternative perspective to view human mind or consciousness. They put
emphasis on the existence and meaning of the human life and man’s search for meaning in life.
In this unit, we will talk about each one of these viewpoints one by one in detail and get to know about
the origin and meaning of the alternate perspectives of psychology and how they shaped the field of
psychology.
5.1 Gestalt Psychology

5.1.1 History
In 1910, MaxWertheimerwasonatrain, onhis wayfrom Viennatoa holidayintheRhineland,when
hehad the idea ofstartingGestaltPsychology.
Theaimwastoorganize ourexperiencesinwaysthatsensory inputdoesn't.Thatis,ourexperiencesare
isolatedfromtheirsensations.Tofurtherexplorethisnotion,WertheimergotoffthetrainatFrankfurt,
boughta toy stroboscope(a devicethatallowsstillimagestobe flashedinsuchaway thatthey seem tobe
moving),and beganexperimentingina hotelroom.
Clearly,Wertheimerperceivedmotionwheretherereallywasnone.HewenttotheUniversity of
Frankfurtto investigatethis phenomenoninmore depth,where he hadatachistoscopemade
availabletohim.(A tachistoscopewillflashlightsonandoffformeasuredfractions of
asecond.)Flickeringtwolightsin succession,Wertheimerfoundthatif thetime
betweentheflasheswaslong(200millisecondsorlonger),the observer observedtwolights flashing
onandoffsuccessively—whichwas the case,infact.
Iftheintervalbetweenflasheswasvery short(30milliseconds orless),bothlightsatthesametimeappeared
tobe on.Butifthetimebetweentheflasheswasabout 60milliseconds,onelightseemedtoshiftfrom one
locationto another.
Wertheimernamedthisobviousmovementthephiphenomenon,andhis1912essay
"ExperimentalTestsof thePerceptionofMotion"explainingthisphenomenonisusually
takenastheformalbeginningofthe psychologicalschoolofGestalt.
TworecentBerlindoctoralstudentswereWertheimer'sresearchassistantsattheUniversityofFrankfurt:
KurtKoffkaandWolfgangKöhler,bothof whom servedasthesubjects of Wertheimer'sperception
experiments.KoffkaandKöhleraresoclosely linkedtothegrowthofGestaltpsychology thatthey are
generallyconsideredco-foundersofthe schoolalongwithWertheimer.
5.1.2 Contributions
1.Isomorphismandthe LawofPragnanz
Onebasic questionWertheimerhadtoaddresswashowthe perceptionofmotioncould betriggeredby
only twostimuli.
Wertheimerdidnotdiscoverapparentmotion;ithadbeenknownforyears.Inaddition,25yearsbefore
Wertheimer discoveredthe phiphenomenon,the motionpicturehad beeninvented.
WhatwasdifferentwasWertheimer'sdescriptionof thephenomenon.Aswesaw,Mach,Ehrenfels,and
J.S.Millallunderstoodthatthewholewassometimesdifferentfrom thesum ofitsparts,butallbelievedthat
somehow thewhole(Gestalt)resultedfrom thecharacteristicsoftheparts.Thatis,afterthe
parts(elements) were attendedto,theysomehowcombinedand gave rise tothe whole experience.

Nevertheless,Wertheimerprovedthroughaninnovativeexamplethatexplications dependent
onexperience are notpossible.Usingatachistoscopeagainheshowedthatthephiphenomenoncould
occursimultaneously intwodirections.Three lightswere arranged:the centerlightwas flashedonand
the twootherlightswere
immediatelyflashedonshortlyafterwards.Wertheimerrepeatedseveraltimesonthisseries.Themiddlesli
t oflightseemedtoslipsimultaneouslytotheleftandright,andsincetheeyescouldnottravelintwo
directions atthe same time,anexplanationbasedonsensations fromthemuscles ofthe eyeswas
untenable.
ApplicationofFieldTheory
If sensorymechanisms,inferences,orfusionscouldnot describethe perceptionof
psychologicalphenomena, howcouldthatbeexplained?TheresponseoftheGestaltistswasthatthe
braincontainsorganizedfieldsof electrochemicalforceswhichexistbeforesensory
stimulation.Afterenteringsuchanarea,thesensory data bothalterandchangethe
fieldstructure.Whatweareactively feelingcomesfrom theinteractionofthe
sensorydataandthebrainforcefields.Thesituationissimilartooneofputtingmetalparticlesintoa
magneticfield.Fielddynamicswillhaveastronginfluenceonhow theparticlesaredistributed,
butparticle characteristicswillalsoaffectthedistribution. For
example,therewillbeadifferentdistribution of larger, more numerous particles inthe
fieldthansmaller,less numerousparticles.The importantpointinthe case of cognitive experience is
thatfields ofbrainactivityturnsensorydata andgive that data characteristics itwould otherwise
notpossess.According tothistheory,beforetheparts(individualsensations)thewhole
(electrochemicalforcefieldsinthebrain)remains,anditisthewholethatgivesthepartstheiridentity or
significance.
PsychophysicalIsomorphism
Todescribemorefullytherelationshipbetweenthe fieldactivityofthebrainandconsciousexperience,
theGestaltistsintroducedtheconceptofpsychophysical isomorphism,whichKöhlerdescribedas
follows:“Experiencedorder inspaceisalwaysstructurally identicalwitha
functionalorderinthedistribution ofunderlyingbrainprocesses”(1929/1970,p. 61).Elsewhere,
Köhlersaid, “Psychologicalfactsandthe underlying eventsinthebrainresembleeachotherin
alltheirstructuralcharacteristics”(1969,p.66). TheGestaltnotionofisomorphismstressesthe
factsthattheforcefieldsinthebraintransformincoming sensorydataandthatitisthetransformed datathat
weexperienceconsciously.The wordisomorphism is
fromtheGreekiso(“similar”)andmorphic(“shape”).Thepatternsofbrainactivityandthe
patternsofconsciousexperienceare structurally equivalent.TheGestaltistsdid notsaythatpatterns
ofelectrochemicalbrainactivityarethe sameaspatterns ofperceptualactivity.Rathertheysaidthat
perceptualfieldsarealwayscausedbyunderlyingpatterns ofbrainactivity.Itwasbelievedthat,although
thepatternsofperceptualand brainactivitymight have somesimilarity,thetwo
representtotallydifferent domainsandcertainlycannotbeidentical.The
relationshipislikethatbetweenamapoftheUnited StatesandtheactualUnitedStates;althoughthe
twoarerelatedinimportantways,theyare hardly identical.
2. TheLawofPragnanz
TheGestaltistsbelievedthatthe sameforces that create configurations suchas soapbubbles
andmagnetic fields alsocreate configurations inthebrain. The configurations
ofenergyoccurringinallphysical systems always resultfromthe totalfield ofinteracting
forces,andthesephysicalforces always distribute themselves inthe most simple,symmetrical
waypossible underthe circumstances.Therefore,according tothe
principleofpsychophysicalisomorphism, mental experiences toomust be simple and
symmetrical.TheGestaltists summarizedthis relationship betweenforce fields inthe
brainandcognitive experiencewiththeirlawofPrägnanz,which was centraltoGestalt psychology.The
Germanword Prägnanzhas no exactEnglishcounterpartbutanapproximation is“essence.” Prägnanz
refers tothe essence or ultimatemeaningofanexperience. Sensory informationmaybe
fragmentedandincomplete, butwhenthatinformationinteracts withthe force fields inthebrain,the
resultantcognitive experience is complete and organized.The lawofPrägnanz states that
psychological organizationwillalways be as goodas conditionsallowbecausefields ofbrainactivity
willalways distribute themselvesinthe simplest waypossible underthe prevailingconditions, just as
otherphysicalforcefields do.The lawofPrägnanzasserts thatallcognitive experiences tendto be as
organized,symmetrical,simple,andregular asthey can be,giventhepatternofbrain activityatany
givenmoment.This is what“as good as conditions allow” means.

Itis temptingtocategorizeGestalt psychologyas nativistic,butthe Gestaltistsdisagreedwiththat.

Köhler said, “Such concepts as genes,inherited,and innate shouldnever be mentionedwhenwe
referto the basic ...dynamic ... processes inthe nervous system” (1969,p.89).AccordingtoKöhler,what
governsbrainactivityis notgeneticallycontrolled programs butthe invariant dynamics thatgovernall
physicalsystems.
3.PerceptualConstancy
Perceptualconstancy(notto be confusedwiththe constancyhypothesis) refers tothe waywe respond
toobjects as iftheywere the same,eventhoughthe actualstimulationoursenses receivemay vary
greatly. Themanwhoapproaches usonthestreet doesnot
seemtogrowlargerasforsimpleopticalreasonshe should.The circle whichlies inanobliqueplane does
notappearas anellipse;itseems toremaina circle eventhoughits retinalimage maybe a very
flatellipse.Thewhite objectwiththe shadow acrossitremains white;the blackpaperinfulllight remains
black,althoughthe formermayreflect muchless lightthanthe latter.Obviously,these three phenomena
have somethingincommon.The physical objectas suchalways remains the same, while the
stimulation ofoureyesvaries,as the distance, the orientation orthe illuminationofthat
constantobjectare changed.Now,whatweseemto experience agreeswiththe actualinvariance ofthe
physical objectmuch betterthanit does withthe varyingstimulations.Hence, the terms constancyof
size,constancyofshape andconstancyofbrightness. (Köhler,1929/1970)
Principles oforganization
Gestalt psychologists enunciated certain principles orlaws thatgovernthe
organizationofperceptualwholes. Wertheimerpointed outthattheselawsof organizationwere
nativeandtherefore,natural.Hence,theywere alsocalledasprinciples of
primitiveorganization.ThusthroughtheselawstheGestaltpsychologiststriedto deemphasizetherole
oflearning in perception.Therewereseveralsuchprinciples ofwhichtheimportant ones are as under:
(a) Principleofsimilarity: Those objects which are similar in their structure tend to beperceived as
organizedtogetherorintowhole.
(b) Principle ofproximity :Thoseobjectswhichareclosetogethereitherintimeorspacewouldtendtobe
organizedtogether
(c) Principle ofcontinuity:Alsoknownasprincipleofgoodcontinuationorprinciple of direction,itstates
thatobjectsthathavecontinuitywitheachothertendtobeperceivedasflowinginthesamedirection
andtherefore,theyare perceivedas a figure.
(d) Principleofobjectiveset:Ifweseeataparticularpatternofobjectanddevelopamentalsetforit,it
mightbepossibletocontinuetoseethatpatterneventhoughthestimulusarrangementsmightbe
slightedchanged.
(e) Principleof closure:Thisisaspecialcaseof principleof goodform.Thisprinciplestatesthatwhen
certain partoftheperceptualobject is left out, we have a tendencyto fill the gap and perceive
accordinglybymakingthe Gestaltcomplete.
Phi-phenomenonandIsomorphism
InBerlinin1912MaxWertheimerconductedaseriesofexperimentsontheperceptionofmovement.In
theseexperimentsKohlerandKoffkahadassistedhim inseveralways.Intheseexperimentshe
observedthat whenthetimeintervalbetweenthetwoexposuresofthesameverticalline (secondexposurea
littleright or lefttothefirstexposure)wasone-
fifteenthofasecond,thesubjectreportedthelinetobemovingtheright or left. This illusionof movement
was named as phiphenomenon. If thetime interval increased or decreased,theillusionofthe
movementstoodabolished.Sincetheperceptualfieldofmovementwasnot identicaltowhat
happenedactually, howcouldthis be explained? Inordertoexplainthis,the Gestalt
psychologistsformulatedthe principle ofisomorphism.Accordingtothis principletheseexistsone-to-
one relationshipbetweenwhatoneactually
perceivedandwhathappenedinbrainalthoughthecorrespondence betweenthetwomay
notexistinexactform.Therefore,therelationshipbetweenthetwoistopologicaland
nottopographical.Explainingphi-
phenomenonwiththehelpofthisprinciple,Gestaltistsassumedthatthere
mustbeadynamicrelationbetweentwocentresinbrainstimulatedby twoflashesoflight.Thisdynamic
relationmustbeinsuchamannerthatoneareaof braininfluencestheotherareainawaysimilartotheflow

ofelectricityacrossapoorlyinsulatedgap.Inordertoexplaintheprincipleofisomorphisminastillbroaderp
erspective,Woodworth(1948) usedananalogy showing-relationshipbetweenamapandthecountryit
represents.Althoughthetwoarenotthesamebutthey bearthesimilarityinthesensethatonecanreadthe
characteristics ofthecountry from the map. The perceptualfieldandthe physiological
brainfielddemonstratesuchdirectrelationship.Toknowwhathappensinthe
brainfield,Gestaltistsassumedthatthere weretwotypesof forcesinbrain—
cohesiveforcesandrestrainingforces.Thecohesiveforcesrefertothe tendency totheexcitationsof nerve
impulsesinthebrainthatattractedeachotherprovidedthereremains
nothingtointerferewith.Retrainingforces refertothose excitations that preventedthe cohesive forces.
5.1.3 TheImpact ofGestaltPsychology

Like anyschoolinpsychology,Gestalt psychology has hadits share ofcriticism.Critics have saidthat
manyofits centralterms andconcepts are vague and therefore hardto
pindownexperimentally.Eventhe termGestalt,critics say, has never been definedprecisely. The same
is true forthe lawofPrägnanzfor insightandforcognitive equilibriumand disequilibrium. Asmight be
expected,the behaviouristsattacked the Gestaltists’concernwithconsciousness, claimingthatsucha
concernis a regressiontothe oldmetaphysical positionthathadcaused psychology somanyproblems.
Followinga discussionwith KöhleronGestalt psychology,the illustriousneuropsychologist
KarlLashleysaid,“Excellentwork— butdon’tyouhave religionupyoursleeve?”
(Henle,1971b,p.117).Despite these andothercriticisms, however,Gestalttheoryhas
clearlyinfluencedalmost every aspect ofmodern psychology.Sokal (1984)saidthe following aboutthe
influence of Gestalt psychology: [Gestalt psychology]enrichedAmerican psychology greatlyand
didmuchtocounter the attractions ofextreme behaviorism.IfGestalt psychology has todaylost its
identityas a schoolofthought—and veryfewofKoffka’s,Köhler’s, Wertheimer’s, or Lewin’s students
callthemselvesGestalt psychologists— itis notbecausethe mainstreamofAmerican psychologyhas
swampedtheirideas.Rather, theirworkhas done muchtoredirectthis mainstream,
whichadoptedmanyoftheir points ofview.
Fewothermigratingscientific schools have beenas successful.(p.1263) Ina thoughtfulchapter
entitled“Rediscovering GestaltPsychology,” Henle (1985) discusses several
importantrelationshipsthatexistbetweenGestalt psychologyandcontemporarycognitive psychology.
5.2 Humanism
5.2.1 Introduction to Humanism
The term Humanistic psychology was coined in 1962 by a group of psychologists under the
leadership of Abraham Maslow who was mainly interested in providing an important theoretical
alternative to two most influential forces or currents in psychology – psychoanalysis and
behaviourism. Maslow called it as third force of psychology. It is a movement in psychology that is
a collection of number of lines and thoughts of different schools. It is never a system of single
person or a group of persons.
Since 1950s the opponents of the two forces – psychoanalysis and behaviourism, were criticising
them. It was being said that behaviourism was too cold and lacking interest in real understanding
of human beings. This movement considered man as a passive victim of the stimuli present in the
environment. This movement considered man as a passive victim of the stimuli present in the
environment. This movement also fails to recognize the person’s growth, potentialities and self-
actualization that distinguishes him from laboratory animals (Bugental, 1967).
Some psychologists also voiced against the basic tenets of psychoanalysis that considered man as
the product of instincts and conflicts only. Criticising psychoanalysis, Maslow argued that by
focussing upon abnormal people alone how can psychoanalysis explain the behaviour of a normal
and mentally healthy person? It means a psychoanalyst can’t explain the positive side of the person.
Maslow (1954:234) has rightly commented that, “the study of crippled, strutted, immature and
unhealthy specimens can yield only a cripple psychology and cripple philosophy”
The humanistic psychology has tried to present a radically different picture of human nature.
According to Abraham Maslow, who is considered as spiritual father of humanism in America,
human beings are considered basically good and worthy of respect and self-actualisation. If the
environmental conditions are favourable, persons will readily move towards realization of their
underlying potentialities and abilities. Thus humanistic psychology by opposing the pessimism,
conflict and despair of psychoanalysis on the one hand and the ‘robot’ view of human beings on the

other hand, has tried to emphasize upon potential for healthy and creative growth of human
beings.
5.2.2History
The humanistic psychology can be traced as far back as the Middle Ages when the philosophy of
humanism was born. The basis of this philosophy says that every single individual has worth and
right to achieve self-realization.
Humanism as a school of psychology began as a revolution against the two most famous ideas at
that time which were behaviourism and psychoanalysis. Thus, the humanistic psychology is
usually called the “third force” in psychology (Maslow, 1968).
Another reason for the development of humanism was the World War II. The war created a
tremendous demand for therapies, rehabilitations, counselling due to the traumas encountered by
the veterans.
Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow are considered to be the founders or main proponents of this
school of thought. They set out to construct a positive approach to the human and psychology in
general.
Maslow in 1943 developed a hierarchical theory of human motivation and thus put forward his
thoughts about self-actualization. Carl Rogers in 1946 developed his very own therapy which is
known as client-centered therapy which worked as a revolution in the field of counselling and
therapy.
During 1957 and 1958, various meetings were held among psychologists who believed in the
meaningful and humanistic vision of human beings and thus in 1962, Association for Humanistic
Psychology was formally launched and the first issue of Journal of Humanistic Psychology got
published in the year of 1961.
Humanistic psychology expanded throughout the years of 1970s and 1980s. It has had a major
impact on the field of psychology as it gave a new set of values to approach and understand a
human. Also, it gave us different number of methods to study the human behaviour.
5.2.3Basic Tenets of Humanistic Psychology

Humanistic psychology is not a single organized theory or system. It is a movement which
incorporates psychologists of different lines and thoughts. Therefore, all humanistic psychologists
like all structuralists or functionalists, don’t think exactly alike. However, there are some common
threads that bind them together.
Buhler (1971) who is considered as one of the important humanistic psychologists has spelled out
some of the basic tenets of humanistic psychology in her encouraging and clear style. Those tenets,
with some modifications, are presented below:
Person as a whole: The person as an integrated, unique and organised whole is the main subject of
humanistic psychology. The humanistic psychologists emphasize upon understanding rather than
explaining human behaviour. Maslow has pointed out that psychologists, for a considerable period,
have concentrated only upon minute analysis of behaviour neglecting the study of whole person
which, in fact, can yield more valuable information.
Emphasis upon entire life history: The humanistic psychology is concerned with collecting
knowledge of a person’s entire life history. For understanding the person as an integrated whole, it
is essential that the entire life history of the person is taken into account. Thus Buhler intended to
include the study of entire life cycle for complete understanding of the person. In emphasising
upon such cycle he gave considerable importance to human existence and interaction. By intention
he meant the experiences of the person regarding his identity.
Self-actualization as life goals: Humanistic psychology is not only concerned with satisfaction of
biological needs and instincts but is also concerned with self-realisation or self-actualisation as the
basic life goal. Maslow emphasized upon such goals to be highly motivating to humans.
Person’s inner nature: As we know, Freud had considered man’s nature as necessarily of evil
character which, if left uncontrolled, would lead to destruction of others as well as to self. Contrary
to this view of Freud, humanistic psychologists have pointed out man’s nature as basically good.
The evil and destructive force in a person arises from a bad environment rather than from anything
rotten within a person.

De-emphasis on animal researches: Humanistic psychology has put de-emphasis upon animal
researches. They have considered these animal researches as irrelevant because they ignore the
basic characteristics of human beings such as ideals, values, art, humour etc. Maslow and his
supports have pointed out that behaviourism had emphasized upon such animal researches too
much. They further emphasized that behaviourism had ‘dehumanized’ the humans to nothing but
simply a machine that consisted of chains of conditioned and unconditioned reflexes. Humanistic
psychologists made distinction between human behaviour and animal behaviour and concentrated
upon the former. For them, the study of animal behaviour gives no clue to understanding about the
basic nature of human beings.
Creative potentiality: Humanistic psychologists have considered creativity as a common
characteristic to human nature. Maslow (1970) is of view that creativity is potentially present in all
individuals at birth. It becomes a universal human function that leads to different forms of self-
expression. Prior to Maslow, Adler had also stressed the idea of creative self but it was Maslow
who emphasized on it in a more scientific way.
Emphasis upon psychological health: Humanistic psychology criticized the orthodox Freudian
psychoanalysis by branding it to be one-sided because it simply concentrated upon the abnormal
part of human behaviour. Maslow has strongly emphasized that even the mental illness can’t be
properly understood without understanding the mental health of the people. If one studied only
crippled immature persons, it will produce only a ‘crippled’ psychology. Therefore, he has strongly
stressed the study of the self-actualizing and psychologically healthy individuals.
It is therefore clear that the humanistic psychology gives overall emphasis upon “fully functional
human beings”, “modes of living” and “goals in life”.
The key features of humanistic school of thought are:
• Authenticity
• Phenomenology
• Self-actualisation
• Self-concept
• Hierarchy of needs
5.2.4Strengths and weaknesses of Humanism

The major strength of humanistic school of thought was that it shifted the focus of behaviour to the
whole of a person rather than the unconscious mind and simple machine like object. It has various
real life applications in therapy such as person centered therapy, motivation, depression, education,
self-worth and making the human realise the true potential. Humanistic psychology values
personal ideals and self-fulfilment and also provides genuine insight and more holistic information
about human behaviour.
The major criticism that humanistic school of thought received was that it is unscientific because of
the complete subjective nature of its concepts and also it completely ignored the biological
influences on human behaviour. Also, the concepts of humanistic psychology were considered not
to be universal as they were more biased towards Western culture.
5.3 Existentialism
5.3.1 Introduction to Existentialism
Existential psychology has rejected the mechanistic view of the Freudian psychology and instead
tries to view people as engaged in definite search for meaning. It appears to promise the restoration
of meaning to life and tends to bring spiritual awakening and growth that may bring freedom from
the conventional shackles of the society (Bugental, 1965). The major tenets of the existential
psychology may be outlined as under:
Existential psychology deals with person as such an individual who exists as a being-in-the-world.
The basic aim of the existential psychology is to understand a person in his total existential reality.
It takes special interest in those problems which are unique to each individual. Thus it recognizes
that every person has a unique personal life with various types of perceptions. It further
emphasizes that a man is unique not only from inner or personal life but he is also unique from all
other species. He is a special creature with some endowments not found in other animals.

Existential psychology is basically concerned with a person's consciousness, his moods,

emotions, feelings, thinking as well as his various experiences as they are related to the existence in
the environment of other people. It always aims at understanding human nature as a whole.
There are some common elements that have been emphasized by different existential psychologists.
They are: human values, meaning of life, man-to-man relationship, suffering, anxiety, conflict, and
death.
Existential psychology states that since a person has freedom to choose, he is also responsible for
his own existence. What he is and he will be, is the sole responsibility of the person himself. Thus
the existential psychologists have rejected any kind of external determinism.
The major concerns of the existential psychologists have been areas like personality, psychotherapy
and counselling.
5.3.2 Major Contributions

Existential psychology is not a clear-cut system. It is such a movement that incorporates the
viewpoints of several persons of which popular names are Adrian van Kaam, Ludwig Bins-
Wanger, Medard Boss, and Rollo May. Before we consider their viewpoints separately, it is
essential that the common thread that has kept different existential psychologists tied together
should be examined. The common thread is their viewpoints regarding the subject-matter and
methods of psychology.
According to the existential psychologists, psychology is concerned with the study of nature of
consciousness and the subjective reality. They are opposed to the traditional experimental
psychology where independent variables are manipulated and the organism is studied under
maximum control condition. They considered the technique of experimental psychologists as push
and pull technique where the organism is not allowed to exercise his freedom and choice and is
treated like a robot. For existential psychologists, the scientific method of analysis is not
experimental rather phenomenological that gives emphasis upon description of the experienced
state of consciousness. Spiegel- berg (1960) pointed out that the phenomenological technique makes
distinction between intuiting, analyzing and describing. Intuiting refers to intensive concentration
on the phenomenon of one's consciousness. Analyzing refers to seeing the relationship among the
various parts of consciousness. Describing refers to giving an account of consciousness in such a
language that can be understood by others.
The major contributions to the development of existential psychology are as under:
Ludwig Binswanger
Binswanger was a Swiss exponent of existential psychology. He had also important influence upon
American psychology. He got his basic training in medicine but applied his existential ideas to
psychology. His important publication is Being-in-the world, selected papers by Ludwig
Binswanger (1963). He has also written three important chapters that appeared in Rollo May's
edited book, Existence (1958). Being-in-the world (Daesin) was considered to be the most important
concept for existential psychology. Daesin means to be there: It means that as human beings a
person has no existence apart from the world. In other words, there is no line which separates
human beings and the objects in the world. It means there is oneness between persons and the
objects in the world. Binswanger pointed out many modes of being-in- the world— singular mode,
dual mode and plural mode.
A singular mode is one in which a man lives only to himself as we find in case of a lover. A dual
mode is one which two people have mutual interactions as we find in case of love. A. plural mode
is one in which person makes interactions with several people as we find in case of struggle, strife
and any competitive effort. Apart from all these modes, a person also develops a world design
which is nothing but a highly subjective and unique mode of being-in-the world. There are several
mentally ill-people who somehow develop inadequate world design.
Being-in-the world consists of a threefold reality — physical, human environment and the person
himself. Physical reality includes surroundings of the person himself. Binswanger was also aware
of the fact that the person was not concerned with his present surroundings but he also intended to
go beyond- the-world. That way he was aware with the viewpoints of earlier existential
philosophers who had made distinction between authentic existence and unauthentic existence.
The former included realization of one's future possibilities and the latter included restriction on
realization of such possibilities due to environment. A person has always freedom to choose
between these two kinds of existence.

Binswanger had deemphasized upon determinism, material ism as well as upon positivism. The
significant implication of rejecting determinism or cause-effect relationship was that it regarded a
person as, not the product of heredity, nor of the Being-in-the world consists of a threefold reality—
physical, human, environment and the person himself. Physical reality includes surroundings of
the person himself. Binswanger was also aware of the fact that the person was not concerned with
his present surroundings but he also intended to go beyond- the-world. That way he was aware
with the viewpoints of earlier existential philosophers who had made distinction between authentic
existence and unauthentic existence. The former included realization of one's future possibilities
and the latter included restriction on realization of such possibilities due to environment. A person
has always freedom to choose between these two kinds of existence. Binswanger had
deemphasized upon determinism, material ism as well as upon positivism. The significant
implication of rejecting determinism or cause-effect relationship was that he regarded a person as
neither the product of heredity, nor of the environmental influences. For him, a person was left
with a complete freedom of choice and therefore, he was solely responsible for what he would do
or would not do. AlthoughBinswanger rejected the heredity and environmental explanation for a
person's existence; he stressed the concept of becoming or growth. He pointed out that an infant's
mode of existence was different from an adult's mode of existence. Likewise, a neurotic's mode of
existence was different from normal person's mode of existence. Why? This is because of the role of
becoming or growth in human development. It means that the existence changes and there is
always possibility for becoming something better. Those who refuse to become, remain fixed and
static. Neurotic persons have such fixed or static mode. Binswanger's idea of becoming was later
praised and shared by many existential psychologists.
Mcdard Boss
Boss was also a Swiss psychologist who received his degree in medicine. His important
publications included Psychoanalysis and Daesin analysis (1963) and Existential Foundations of
Medicine and Psychology (1977). Rather than talking about different modes of existence and about
being-in-the world he prefers to emphasize upon the different characteristics inherent in human
existence. He has called these characteristics as essentials. Some of these characteristics are as
under:
1. Spatiality: It refers to the psychological closeness or distance that a person develops towards
others.
2. Temporality: This refers to having a time or not having a time for doing a certain thing.
3. Bodyhood: It refers to not only human physical body but also extends to our relations with objects,
events and persons of the world.
4. Sharing: It refers to sharing the feelings with other people of the world.
5. Mood: It indicates that the way we perceive the world depends upon our moods at that moment.
This is also known as attunement.
Like other existential psychologists, Boss emphasized upon becoming. He pointed out that human
existence was a constant process of becoming something new. A man is free to choose an authentic
or an inauthentic life. Since a man has such freedom, he is also considered capable of changing and
growing. Of course, there are people who refused to become or grow. However, they can change
the direction of their lives towards realization of their basic potentialities. Boss also stressed that a
man was aware of his death. Since death is inevitable, a person is aware of the termination of his
life. This has also been the major concern of the existential psychologists. Boss was also interested in
making analysis of dream. He rejected the symbolic analysis of dreams as made by Sigmund Freud.
His notion was that dreams could be fully understood only by questioning the dreamer properly.
There could be more than one meaning of dreams and they should not be regarded as disguises
rather they tended to give a different expression of modes of living. In his analysis of 823 dreams
during psychotherapy, Boss pointed out that there was a parallel between changes in the contents
of dreams as well as in improvement in the waking existence of the patients. In fact, during
psychotherapy the patient moved from inauthentic existence to a more dependable authentic
existence.
Rollo May
May was born in Ada, Ohio in 1909. He obtained his Ph. D. degree from Columbia University. He
was one of the American supporters of the existential psychology whose chief exponents
(Binswanger and Boss) were in Europe. His important publications were: Man’s search for Himself

(1953) , Love and Will (1969) and Existential Psychology (1969). He is very close to his other
colleagues in explaining the basic principles of the existential psychology. For example, like
Binswanger, he emphasized upon the principle of Daesin or being-in-the world. According to him
there are three important modes of existence: the physical and psychological modes, the social
environment of the persons and the particular relationship with the inner nature. The notion of
being-in-the world requires that the person must develop responsibility to choose his own
freedom and must be accountable for his various activities done for fulfilment of being-in-the-
world. May has also pointed out that a person has the realization of termination of his existence
and this realization causes anxiety. If a person remains unable to fulfil his basic potentials, it
produces guilt. Thus May recognized two important emotions of a person-anxiety and guilt.
Despite giving emphasis upon these emotions, he also stressed on the positive side by recognizing a
person's capacity to will. This includes a person's active desire to select the best of different
possibilities and to plan for actualization of his potentials. On the positive side, he also considered
love of human beings which has four major components: sex, eros (to get associated with others
whom one considers significant), philia (concern for others' welfare) and agape (to a deep concern
for affectionate relations to all).
5.3.3 Existential Neurosis

Since the existential psychologists like Binswanger, Boss and May were also concerned with giving
therapy to the mentally ill-persons; they designated a new kind of neurosis called the existential
neurosis. This term was first explained by Maddi (1967). Such neurosis has several symptoms. The
patient shows withdrawal tendency and loss of self-identity. He lacks interest in his day-to-day
activities. He fails to put faith in the truth. On affective side, he is bored and this boredom is
accompanied by the occasional feelings of depression. On the whole, an existential neurotic finds
no meaning in his life and he considers his life as dull and colourless. In general, existential
neurosis results mainly from continued stress in life particularly at the time of social change.
Thus we find that existential psychology, on the whole, deals with the different aspects of the
whole person and how he relates to those around him. It is also concerned with anxiety and conflict
that results from human awareness regarding the termination of human existence and inability to
choose between authentic existence and inauthentic existence.
5.3.4 Criticisms
The major points of criticisms were:-
1. Some critics have said that the existential psychology has brought psychology back to
philosophical speculations and theological conjectures. It lacks objective methods and principles. In
absence of such objectivity, it is difficult to accept the basic tenets of the existential psychology
especially in modern days of experimental science. Critics stress that with recognition of
existentialism, psychology has completed its cycle— from the complete subjectivism of the Middle
age through experimental and objective psychology back to the subjective psychology.
2. Behaviourists and related experimental psychologists have frequently pointed out that the
existential psychology is characterized by subjectivism, dualism and lack of objective referents.
Moreover, its methodology also resembles the classical method of introspection. As such, it is
difficult to accept the existential psychology as representative of scientific psychology.
3 In a bid to explain human nature and inner states existential psychology has used obscure and
vague language. It has used vague terminology that does not give a clear picture to the reader's
mind. Despite those criticisms, the existential psychology has contributed a lot and its concepts
after a new challenge to the present day experimental psychology.
5.4 Comparison Between Existential and Humanistic psychology

As we know, both the existential psychology and the humanistic psychology are together called
third force in psychology. The two psychologies are very similar to each other because they
basically aim at explaining human nature by considering the whole organism. Following are the
major points of similarities between the existential psychology and the humanistic psychology.
1 Both the existential psychology and the humanistic psycho logy emphasize upon the study of a
person's inner structure, his experiences, images, feelings, cognitive abilities. Hence both emphasize
upon subjectivism in psychology.
2. Both psychologies emphasize upon the common method, that is, phenomenological method in
studying and analyzing the inner structure of the person.

3. Both psychologies emphasize upon "free will" of the person and consider each person as having
complete freedom to choose his own style of life. It is this freedom that brings a sense of
responsibility to own life in a creative way.
4. Both emphasize upon man's uniqueness and individuality. They consider that each person is
different from other in approaching the objects and events of the world in his own unique way.
5. Both psychologies are concerned with treatment of mentally ill-persons. They believe that the
personality disorganization arises when the person develops incongruence in the perception of
several objects. Such incongruence in the long run tends to disrupt human psychological growth.
6. Both are movements in psychology and not systems of psychology.
Despite these similarities, there are some points of distinction between the existential psychology
and the humanistic psycho logy.
Those major points of distinctions are as under:
1. The humanistic psychology emphasizes more upon study of different types of needs including
the need for self- actualization. The existential psychology, on the other hand, emphasizes more
upon the study of being — in the world for studying human nature.
2. Humanistic psychology is more optimistic in explanation of human nature and his potentialities.
It gives much emphasis upon the potentials for good in human beings. The existential psychology
points a pessimistic picture in explaining human nature because in making such explanation it
stresses upon fear, anxieties, sorrow, etc., which it considers a natural part of human existence.
Thus the explanation of humanistic psychology is more similar to the explanation of Freudian
explanation that was very pessimistic about human nature.
3. Two psychologies differ basically with respect to the interpretation of motivation. Humanistic
psychology has emphasized more upon the process of self-actualization or self-fulfilment whereas
existential psychology has emphasized more upon the spiritual motives or spiritual mission in our
lives. It emphasizes that it is this spiritual mission that gives person his freedom, responsibility,
dignity and superiority in his life.
Thus we find that the existential psychology, despite some similarities, is a slightly different
movement from the humanistic movement.
5.5 Summary
Gestaltpsychology isaGermanschool foundedby Max Wertheimerandsubsequently expandedby
hiscolleagues,namely,Wolfgang Kohlerand KurtKoffka.Theimportant
developersofthisschoolwereKurtLewin,R.H.Wheeler,E.BrunswikandRoger Barker.
Likeothersystem,theGestaltpsychology hadstrong antecedent forces thatwere instrumentalin
itsemergence.Wertheimer'sstudy onthephi-phenomenonwashighly
impressiveandimportantforthisschool. Among theimportantcontributions thathavebeenincludedare
theemphasisofGestaltpsychology uponpart-whole psychology,principlesoforganization, field
dynamics,phi-phenomenaandisomorphism. Apartfrom itscontribution
inthefieldofperceptionGestaltpsychologyhasalsomade significant impact in the field of
learning,thinking andmemory. Existential psychology, like humanistic psychology, has been
included within third force in psychology. It developed in Europe but gradually spread to
America. It mainly deals with the person as such an individual who exists as a being-in-the world.
It basically aims at understanding of person in his total existential reality.Both the existential
psychology and the humanistic psychology have some points of similarities and distinctions.
5.6 Keywords
Humanism, growth, self-actualisation, Consciousness, human experience, existence, meaning of life

1. Discuss the major contributions of Gestalt psychology in the field of perception.
2. “Gestalt psychologists were the forerunners for cognitive psychology.” Discuss.
3. Discuss major antecedent forces that led to the growth of humanistic psychology.
4. Discuss the contributions of Ludwig Binswanger and Medard Boss as existential
psychologists.

5. Present a comparative study of the existential psychology and the humanistic psychology.

1- Abraham Maslow is known for Humanistic Psychology (T/F)
2- Of the following, who is associated with the Gestalt school of psychology?
a) Ivan Pavlov
b) B. F. Skinner
c) J.B Watson
d) Max Wertheimer
3- Which of the following psychological theories is known as the one that emphasizes ‘free will’?
a) psychodynamic psychology
b) behaviorism
c) humanistic psychology
d) Neo-Freudian psychology
4- Among the antecedents of Gestalt psychology were J.S. Mill, James, Dewey, and Ehrenfels. (T/ F)
5- The law of Pragnanzstates that figure is the focus of consciousness, andground is the field. (T/F)
6- Phi phenomenon is related to:
a) motion
b) Gestalt Psychology
c) Max Wertheimer
d) All of the above
7- According to Gestalt psychology, qualities of wholes determine the qualities of parts. (T/F)
8- According to the Gestalt theorists, the nature of things that are connected affects their connection.
9- Gestalt theorists argued that “and-connections”; are basically field processes.
10- Specialists and philosophers deals with existentialism (T/F)
11- The concept of free will, is largely discussed in
a) Gestalt Psychology
b) Humanistic psychology
c) Existential psychology
d) All of the above
12- Non directive counselling is given by humanistic psychology
13- ____________focuses on more positivity among individuals than psychoanalysis
14- Client centred therapy is given by:
a) Abraham Maslow
b) Carl Rogers
c) Max Wertheimer
d) Kurt Koffka
15- McDard Boss introduced:
a) Daesin analysis
b) Existential neurosis
c) Being-in-the-world concept
d) None of the above

5.9 Suggested Readings

Theories and systems of Psychology by Robert W Lundin by Wadsworth Publishing
The Comprehensive History of Psychology by Arun Kumar Singh published by
MotilalBanarasidass Publishers
Psychology by Robert Baron published by Pearson Education India
History and schools of Psychology by Ram Nath Sharma and Rachna Sharma published by
Atlantic Publishers
Introduction to Psychology by Clifford T. Morgan and Richard King published by McGraw
Hill Education
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systems_psychology#:~:text=Systems%20psychology%20i
s%20a%20branch,Bateson%2C%20Humberto%20Maturana%20and%20others.
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/waymaker-psychology/chapter/reading-
structuralism-and-functionalism/
https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Psychology/Book%3A_Cognitive_Psycholog
y_(Andrade_and_Walker)/01%3A_History_of_Cognitive_Psychology/1.04%3A_Early_Ps
ychology_-_Structuralism_and_Functionalism
https://www.verywellmind.com/behavioral-psychology-4157183
https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/behaviorism/

Unit 6: Schools of Thought-III
Contents
Objectives/Expected Outcomes
6.1Brief life-sketch of Sigmund Freud
6.2 History of Psychoanalysis
6.3 Basic tenets of Psychoanalysis

6.4 Contribution of Freuds
6.5 Criticism of the work of Sigmund Freud
6.6 Summary
6.7 self- assessment questions

6. 9 Further readings
Objectives
• Understand the theoretical principles of psychoanalytic theory

• Learn about the origin of free association
• Explain the components of mind
• Apply the psychoanalytic principles to personality
• Explain the treatment principles and techniques
Introduction
Psychoanalysis comes from the Greek word meaning soul and analysis meaning investigate.
Psychoanalysis is a set of theories and techniques given by Sigmund Freud which are used to study
the unconscious mind. The field of psychoanalysis was established in the early 1890s by Austrian
neurologist Sigmund Freud. Psychoanalysis is known for its controversial status and its validity as
a science is always in question. The school of psychoanalysis was developed in very different
circumstances than the other schools. This school was developed by Freud in non-academic settings
and he has his personal interests in developing the theories. His theories not only impacted
psychology but also other fields such as literature, sociology, art and drama, anthropology etc.
despite of the controversial status, it still has a very significant influence in psychiatry and
treatment of mental disorders. So much so that psychotherapy is synonymous to psychoanalysis
because of the famous couch of Sigmund Freud.
6.1 Brief Life-Sketch of Sigmund Freud

Sigismund (later changed to Sigmund) was born on 6 th May,1856 in Frieburg, Austria. Freud’s
father was a poor merchant and family shifted to Leipzig when Freud was very young and then
later settled in Vienna where Freud got most of his education. Sigmund Freud was Jewish and
because of the anti-Semitism, he could study either law or medicine, out of which he chose
medicine.

System and Theories
He started studying medicine in the year 1873 and graduated in 1881 with neurology as his major
interest. After his degree, he started working in the Vienna General Hospital and published
numerous papers on anatomy and neurology. Then he collaborated with Josef Breuer and worked
with him on Hysteria and its treatment using hypnosis. In 1895, Freud and Breuer published an a
very famous paper Studies in Hysteria. This year marked the beginning of psychoanalysis.
The paper consisted of the very famous case of hysteria of a woman named Bertha Pappenheim
who was referred to as Anna O in the paper. This case was the starting point for Sigmund Freud to
get himself indulged in the development of therapy for patients with hysteria and this is how he
developed Psychoanalysis. Although he used hypnosis as a treatment method but slowly he left
that method for a new technique developed by him which he called free association. In the year
1885, Freud went to Paris and studied under neurologist Jean Charcot and then he returned to
Vienna to set up a private practice. He also got married the same year to Martha Bernays and had
six children with her.
He deeply analysed all his patients and gave a theory which said that humans have an unconscious
which contains aggressive and sexual impulses. These impulses are in a constant conflict for
supremacy leading to development of various defences. In the year 1900, he published his first
book named “Interpretation of Dreams” in which his extensive analysis of dreams (from patients
and his own) was given in terms of the unconscious and the aggressive and sexual impulses and
experiences.
He held the position of Professor of Neuropathology in University of Vienna from 1902 to 1938. His
theories about unconscious and sexual impulses were rejected by a lot of people but also he had a
lot of followers. In the year 1910, Freud and Carl Jung (associate of Freud) founded the
International Psychoanalytic Association and it had many members.
Due to the hate against the Jews, the Nazis annexed Austria and publicly burnt a lot of books of
Sigmund Freud. Freud left Vienna and moved to London with his family. He was diagnosed with
cancer of jaw and had over 30 surgeries. In the end, he died of cancer on 23rd September, 1939.
6.2 History of Psychoanalysis

Psychoanalysis term was used by Sigmund Freud first in year 1896 and formed his own school of
thought. Sigmund Freud was a neurologist who wanted to find an effective treatment for patients
with hysterical symptoms and while dealing with a lot of patients with aphasia or hysterical
symptoms, he realised that there are a lot of things that did not have any organic cause.
Freud’s presentation of 1895 on the ‘Studies of Hysteria’ co-authored by his mentor Josef Breuer is
said to be the birth of psychoanalysis. Freud believed that the roots of all hysterical symptoms are
repressed desires and repressed memories. He also believed that the symptoms always have direct
or indirect sexual associations.
According to Freud, psychoanalysis is a psychological method that is meant to understand and
cure mental illnesses; the illnesses which do not have any organic cause. He had a very clear idea
how the human mind actually works. He had some major principles on which his work is based.
He talked about unconscious mind, psychosexual stages of development, dreams, the energies that
we have and gave various models of mind which will be described later in the chapter.
6.3 Basic tenets of Psychoanalysis

The basic assumptions or fundamentals of psychoanalysis include:
• The development of a human being is not determined by the inherited traits alone but also
determined by the past experiences which are often forgotten events of early childhood.
• The behaviour and cognition are majorly influenced by the instincts and drives that are
rooted in the unconscious mind.
• Due to the great influence of instinctual drives and childhood experiences, psychological
problems are rooted in the unconscious mind.
• Unravelling the unconscious mind and bringing the memories/ drives to awareness leads
to resistance and the person defends using defense mechanisms.
• Conflicts between unconscious and conscious mind results in the mental health problems.

Thus it is evident that the unconscious mind and the early childhood experiences are given a lot of
importance in Psychoanalysis.
6.4 Contributions of Freud

The Iceberg Model of mind
In 1900s Freud gave the mind model and described it beautifully. He used an iceberg as a metaphor
to depict mind. He was opinion that just like we are only able to see the tip of the iceberg which is a
very small portion of the iceberg and rest of it is not readily seen, similarly consciousness is
something which is on the surface and there is a lot more to mind which is not in our conscious
awareness.
On the surface is the conscious mind and Freud described that conscious mind consists of all the
mental processes which we are aware of and that is the tip of the iceberg.
Below the conscious mind, there is preconscious mind which contains the thoughts and feelings
that a person is not currently aware of but can easily bring into our awareness with ease.
Unconscious mind comprises mental processes that are not accessible to our conscious mind but
influences our decision making, feelings, judgements, behaviour and also shapes our personality.
Freud believed that the unconscious mind is the primary source of human personality and human
behaviour and the most important part of human mind is the part which you cannot see and which
is the unconscious mind (Freud, 1915).
The feelings, motives and decisions are very powerfully influenced by our past experiences which
are stored in the unconscious.
This model of mind was used by Freud to establish his structure of the psyche.
The Psyche
The most persistent theory of Sigmund Freud is probably his theory of human psyche (personality).
He gave the idea that psyche has more than one aspect (Freud, 1923).
The Human psyche is divided into three parts: the id, the ego and the superego.
Id: this is the first and present at the birth as a part of the psyche. It contains all genetic mechanisms
of personality at birth. Id always operates on pleasure principles. It means id always wants
immediate gratification without having any concerned about the consequences.
Freud talked about 2 instincts- Life and death instinct on the basis of Darwin’s theory and on the
baisi of world war. First is life instinct or Eros; the life instinct drives us to engage in acts which
helps in life sustaining, and other is death instinct or thanatos; the death instinct is our dark side of
humans such as competition, aggression, violence etc.

System and Theories
Ego: the ego develops to mediate between the instinctive nature of the id and the external world
that we live in. the ego works on the reality principle and tries to maintain balance between id and
the acceptable way of fulfilling all the id’s desires and demands. The ego works on the basis of
reason and social realities, the norms and etiquettes. The ego uses secondary process thinking and
oriented towards problem solving. If the ego is not able to use reality principles, an individual
usually experiences anxiety and to ward off the unpleasant feelings of anxiety the ego uses
unconscious defense mechanisms.
Superego: This is that portion of the mind which operates on moral principles. Like good and bad,
right and wrong tough to a kid. The superego controls the id’s impulses and also tries to direct the
function of ego towards morality rather than simply reality. The superego strives for perfection and
tries to make id and superego comply with the same. The superego has conscience and the ideal
self and it encourages us to function in the society is moral ways.
The theory of instincts

Freud was of the opinion that human beings are energy systems. He talked majorly about two
energies, namely, the physiological energy and the psychic energy. The physiological energy is derived
from the food we eat and utilised in the major bodily functions like breathing, walking, talking etc.
whereas the psychic energy is derived from the neurophysiological excitation and is utilised in
mental processes like thinking. According to him, both these energies can be transformed into one
another and id is the mediating point between these two energies. He said that the psychic energy
is limited in human beings and it is increased when we try to reduce the bodily excitations that are
produced due to various needs. And the mental representation of these needs induced bodily
excitations is known as instinct. So basically, instinct is a wish (mental representation) for fulfilling
the need of the body.
Thirst is an instinct produced by the water deficit in the body which is

mentally represented to us as our wish of drinking water.
In short, instinct drives us constantly, is a part of id but comes to be under the ego control. After
defining instinct, Freud went on to distinguish two categories of instincts- the life instinct and the
death instinct.
The life instinct or eros as he named it deals with the basic survival of the human being, pleasure
as well as procreation. Eros is essential to sustain life and continue the species. Thirst, hunger,
avoiding pain, procreating all are life instincts which help us survive and also are known to be the
constructive force for human life. Out of all the life instincts, Freud majorly focussed on libido (the
sex instinct) which he said is the energy created by life instincts. His major theories of development
are based on libido.
The death instinct or thanatos as he called it is known to be the destructive force of human life. He
said that “the goal of all life is death” and believed that the death instincts are channelled outwards
by the human beings. The human manifestations of murder, suicide, aggression, cruelty etc. are all
underlined the thanatos.
According to him eros and thanatos are constantly at loggerheads with each other. As people hold
an unconscious desire to die but the eros almost always overpowers the thanatos. Eros will make
you look forward towards life seek quality relationships and maintain social support all of which
are essential for emotional health. Thanatos leads us to engage in activities that are harmful like
getting involved in life threatening sports or games, showing aggression etc. So a maintaining
balance between eros and thanatos is what human psyche does.
Psychosexual stages of Development

One of the most debated work of Freud is his psychosexual stages of development plus his concept
of libido (sexual energy). He believed that children are born with libido and there are stages in the
child’s development during which he tries to seek pleasure from different-different ‘objects’.
Freud went on to say that the successful resolve of the conflict at each stage will result in the
formation of a psychologically healthy individual; whereas if any of the issue is not resolved
successfully, the person becomes “fixated’ at that stage which can result in mental abnormality.
This theory reinforces the basic idea behind psychoanalysis that the individual’s personality is
shaped up by the early childhood experiences. The 5 stages are described as under:

1. Oral stage: The oral stage starts from birth and goes till 18 months. In this stage the main
source or the main erogenous zone is the mouth. Rooting reflex, sucking reflex are
important for child’s development. The child derives pleasure through mouth (oral
stimulation) by sucking, eating, biting etc. and placing everything they find into their
mouth. This is the stage when the child is completely dependent on the caregivers for
feeding etc. and the child also develops comfort through oral stimulation. The child’s
functioning is completely based out of pleasure principle which means that id dominates.
The ego and superego are still not fully developed at this stage of life. The successful
completion of this makes the child gradually become less dependent on the caregivers and
also develop a sense of trust. A child who gets fixated at this stage has issues with
dependency. They can be too dependent, pessimistic and argumentative and may indulge
in drinking behavior, over-eating, chain smoking, nail-biting, biting on pencil, chewing
gum excessively.
2. Anal stage: The anal stage ranges from 18 months to three years and main erogenous zone
is bowel and bladder control so the anal region is the main part. The main focus of the
libido in this stage is on controlling the bladder and bowel movements and the major part
during this stage is to get toilet trained. in this stage there is a conflict between id (instant
gratification) and ego (delayed gratification). The type of parenting style and the way the
parents toilet train their children have an effect on the resolution of the id-ego conflict of
this stage. The successful completion of this stage leads to competent, productive and
creative adults. Whereas fixation in this stage again depends on parents. If the parents are
too strict for the toilet training it leads to the development of anal-retentive personality
and person becomes stringent, orderly, very rigid and obsessive too. And if the parent is
too lenient for toilet training it leads to the development of anal-expulsive personality
which means the individual will be messy, self-indulgent, weak sense of self, destructive
and wasteful.
3. Phallic stage: The phallic stage ranges from 3-6 years of age and the main erogenous zone
is the genital region. In this stage the child starts identifying their gender and discovers the
differences of males and females body. Freud said that the little boys start feeling jealous
of their father’s for mother’s affection known as Oedipus complex and a similar set of
feeling is termed as Electra complex in females. Oedipus complex is the complex feeling in
boys to possess the mother and replace the father along with having a fear that they will
get punishment by their father for having such feelings. This kind of fear was named as
castration anxiety. Similarly, Electra complex is a complex feeling in girls to possess the
father and replace the mother. But unlike boys girls suffer from penis envy. Eventually by
the end of this stage the child boy/girl starts to identify with the similar gender parent and
learn the mannerisms of the gender from them.
4. Latent period: This period ranges from 6 years till puberty. The sexual desires are
suppressed and in this period child learns interactions, value of relationships, develop
social skills and values. The development of super ego occurs and the sexual energies are
present but directed towards other intellectual areas such as development of social skills
and other effective communication skills, self-concept, build self-confidence etc.
5. Genital stage: This stage starts at puberty and in this stage the sexual energies resurface. In
this last stage of development, individuals start having strong sexual feelings towards the
opposite gender. Apart from individual needs, interest in social welfare and other
activities also grow in this stage. By this stage, the ego and super ego are well developed

System and Theories
and this stage is to maintain healthy balance in various areas of life. Teenagers in this stage
are most likely able to control their urges and function according to the social norms and
the demands of reality.
The Defence Mechanisms

Sigmund Freud gave a theory of defence mechanisms in which he says that in order to solve mental
conflicts which arise due to id and super ego and also to prevent anxiety and maintain one’s self-
esteem in their own eyes; human beings make use of various mental processes known as defense
mechanisms. These defense mechanisms are usually unconscious in nature and it usually conceals
the hidden drives or urges from oneself. The major defense mechanisms are:
1. Denial: Denial is a concept we as humans are fairly familiar with. It’s the act of rejecting a
self-concept or notion that we in fact know is true, but that is not ideal and sometimes too
unbearable to accept.
when there is death in family and members/member is denying to accept it.
2. Displacement: In this defense mechanism, person target the less threatening

object/person but not the original source.
When rebuked by boos, husband start arguments with wife when comes back home or
slapped kid for making noise at home/or kick the wall or pet.
3. Projection: This is to project your feelings or emotions to others.
If anyone is having a habit of cheating n exams will say that whole students in the class are
cheaters. OR if husband is having an extra-marital affair will be suspicious that the wife is
having an affair outside.
4. Reaction Formation: just doing or shoeing the opposite emotions
If we dislike someone, but one their face we become so happy to see that person but inside we
hate it to be with them.
5. Rationalization: Rationalization is giving acceptable excuses for undesirable behavior.
When fail in exam we start rationalizing that exam was out of syllabus, health was not
well, marking was very strict etc.
6. Regression: Going back to the early stage of development where there were no
responsibilities but a very comfort zone.
When sometimes there is a responsibility to be taken and a person starts behaving or

talking like a kid, that means this is regression
7. Repression: this is unconscious repressing emotions which are disturbing
For example, forgetting the foot injury it was on right or left foot after the full recovery.
8. Sublimation: presenting unacceptable desires and wishes in an acceptable way to society.

Person who is having high sexual desire will become a painter and start painting nude
pictures. Because this is acceptable in society.
6.5 Criticism of the work of Sigmund Freud

1. He gave more emphasize to sexual desires.
2. He gave more importance to unconscious mind
3. His theory is not that assessable.
4. He focused only till adult age and negated the others life stages.
5. He focused more on past rather than present and future.
6.6 Summary
1. Sigmund Frued was a pioneer in the origin of healing and therapy for people with mental
health disorders.
2. He gave us theories which are major breakthroughs in the field of psychotherapy.
3. The theories of id, ego and superego and components of mind are accepted and even
taken forward by a lot of other psychologists.
4. The concept of psychosexual stages of development are equally criticised and accepted,
but despite the criticism the stages of development give us a lot of insight into a child’s
personality development.
5. The defense mechanisms are majorly studied and carried forward by Anna Freud.
6. Sigmund Freud is someone whose theories are not completely scientific in nature, but still
can’t be ignored.

1. As per psychoanalytic school main cause of behaviour is remained in
a. Conscious mind
b. Preconscious mind
c. Unconscious mind
d. Subconscious mind
2 . Facts which are not in conscious but are available for possible use in the future, stated to be in
the
a. Subconscious mind
b. Conscious mind
c. Preconscious mind
d. Unconscious mind
3.Who is considered as the father of Psychoanalysis?

a) Jung

System and Theories
b) Adler
c) Freud
d) Wundt
4. After getting poor marks, the student is blaming teacher for his failure is the example of?
a) projection
b) sublimation
c) displacement
d) rationalization
5. Which of the following is the last stage of psychosexual of development by Freud??
a) oral
b) genital
c) anal
d) phallic
6.In which of the following stages the sexual desires become dormant?
a) oral
b) anal
c) latency
d) phallic
7. What is the another name of death instinct?
a) eros
b) aggression
c) thanatos
d) libido
8.Going back to early life stage is which of the following defense mechanisms?
a) displacement
b) projection
c) regression
d) sublimation
9. ________ metaphor was used to explain the levels of consciousness?
a) Iceberg
b) Greenland
c) Everest
d) Ocean
10. _______ operates on reality principles.
a) ego
b) super ego
c) id
d) consciousness
11.Freud divided conscious levels into how many parts?
a) 5

b) 4
c) 3
d) 2
12.We use ______ to minimize the anxiety level.
a) fixation
b) defense mechanisms
c ) levels of consciousness
d) ego
13._____ According to Freud, tells us about what is good and what is bad.
a) ID
b) Ego
c) Superego
d) Libido
14. Infants are born with Id and live their lives on
a) Reality principle
b) Pleasure principle
c) Avoidance principle
d) Moral principle Lesion is?
15. Infants are born with Id and live their lives on

a) Reality principle
b) Pleasure principle
c) Avoidance principle
d) Moral principle
Answer Key
1C. 2A. 3C. 4D. 5B. 6C. 7C. 8C. 9A. 10A. 11C. 12B. 13C. 14B. 15D.

Discuss the fixation at each psychosexual stages of development.
What are defense mechanisms?
Explain the thyes of personality by Freud with an example.
Discuss the limitations of Freud’s theory of Personality.

Singh, A. K. (1991). The comprehensive history of psychology. Motilal
Banarsidass Publ..
Robert A. Baron (2008) Introduction to Psychology. Pearson Higher
education.
Morgan, C. T., King, R. A., Weisz, J. R., & Schopler, J. (2006).
Introduction to Psychology, 7th eds.

Unit 7: Neo-Freudians
Content
Objectives
Introduction
7.1 Alfred Adler
7.1.1. Life Sketch
7.1.2 Alders Psychology
7.2 Carl Jung
7.2.1. Life Sketch
7.2.2 Carl Jung’s Analytical Psychology
7.3 Summary
7.4 Review question
7.5 Self assessment Question
Objectives
1. Learn the proceeding in the field of psychology after Sigmund Freud.
2. Understand the reason for deviance of Freud’s followers.
3. Know about the contribution of Jung and Adler.
Introduction
Psychoanalysis as developed by Sigmund Freud attracted many persons who became associated
with him but later broke with him to establish their own thoughts and ideas. Alfred Adler, Carl
Jung, Otto Rank, and SandorFerenczi were four such rebels. Apart from these rebels, there were
psychologists who were not directly associated with Freud's psychoanalysis but tried to improve
upon it by giving emphasis upon social and cultural factors. They are called Neo-Freudians. Karen
Homey, Erich Fromm, Harry Stack Sullivan, and Erik Erikson are the popular neo-Freudians.
Adler's contributions are associated with organ inferiority and compensation, striving for success or
superiority, social interest, style of life, creative power, fictional finalism, and birth order.
Difference between Adler and Freud has also been emphasized. Jung's analytical psychology
mainly stresses upon conscious and unconcious attitudes and functions, psychic energy and
personality development. Attempt has been made to distinguish between Freud and Jung.
Neo-Freudians like Homey, Fromm, Sullivan and Erikson have emphasized upon social and
cultural forces that were outright rejected by Freud. Homey 's concepts like basic anxiety, neurotic
needs and neurotic trends, defence mechanism, have been very popular ones. Fromm 's emphasis
upon methods of escape, basic needs, personality types has also earned him much popularity.
Sullivan has formulated developmental stages of personality and has also emphasized upon
various modes of cognition like prototaxic, parataxic and syntaxic modes. Erikson is well-known
for his developmental outlook to personality and his eight stages of development are definitely an
improvement over Freudian five stages of psychosexual development. A comparative outlook
between Freud and Erikson has also been presented. Finally, Erikson's system has also been
criticized.

DPSY549: Theories and Systems of Psychology
7.1 Alfred Adler

7.1.1 Life Sketch:
Alfred Adler (1870-1937) was the second of parents' six children. His father, Leopold, was a
wealthy merchant. Adler was also a Jew and as a child he was weak and frail. He had also suffered
rickets. At the age of five, he developed pneumonia and came very nearer to death. Adler's younger
brother had died a year earlier. All these bitter childhood experiences specially related to health
forced him to take a decision to be a doctor. Accordingly, he entered the University of Vienna from
where he received his medical degree in 1895. He took his specialization in ophthalmology but later
changed to medical practice and ultimately to psychiatry. In 1902 Freud invited Adler to join him in
formation of organization that became popular as the Vienna Psychoanalytical Society. This was the
starting point of association of Adler to Freud. Adler was not a disciple of Freud nor did he
consider himself as a psychoanalyst (Feist, 1985). However, he was much influenced by Freud's
work. For the next several years Adler remain the charter member of the Vienna Psychoanalytic
Society and became its president in 1910. However, he was not ready to accept Freud's heavy
emphasis on sex in explanation of neurosis. Gradually, theoretical and personal differences
between the two Viennese physicians (Adler and Freud) grew and in 1911 he resigned from his
post of presidentship and left Freudian circle along with six other followers to form Society for Free
Psycho analysis. A year later its name was changed as Society for Individual Psychology
(Ellenberger, 1970). The term individual here does not connotate individualism or self-centredness
but it means that each person is unique and indivisible because of his unique style of life that gives
unity (or indivisibility) to all behaviours. Gradually Adler became popular and started taking
interest in child psychology and participated actively in child guidance clinic and the public
schools. After several visits to United States, he finally decided to settle in this country in 1935. He
settled in New York City where he became professor of medical psychology. He lectured widely in
the United States and abroad. In 1937 he died pro bably of heart attack while on a lecture tour in
Aberdeen, Scot land.
7.1.2 Adler’sPsychology
Adler's psychology had many distinguishing features. First, it was like a common sense psychology
that could be easily applied or understood. Second, his psychology was more optimistic. He always
took a realistic attitude in explaining human personality. The entire psychology of Adler can be
presented under the following seven headings :
1. Organ Inferiority and Compensation
In 1907 Adler published one of his most important papers. The Study of Organ Inferiority and its
Psychical Compensations. In this paper Adler tried to explain that people having some kind of
organ inferiority such as poor vision, poor hearing, etc. try to compensate for it by developing
excellence in other fields. However, the important thing is that what type of attitude the person has
developed toward the self. He may try to compen sate the loss or he may keep himself satisfied by
having only defensive measures. In 1910 he extended his concept of inferiority and reported that
inferiority feelings are innate and therefore, universal in nature. Such feeling is created in children
due to being helpless and having weak structures. It is this feeling of inferiority that gives birth to
the striving for superiority and that gives us 'upward drive' from 'below to above'. Thus it is the
feeling of inferiority and not the defective organ that motivates us for maturing proper
compensation. Adler has cited several cases of such compensation from history. For example,
Demos thenes who was a structure became a famous orator and Cunningham, with severely
injured legs became a good runner. From Indian personalities example may be given of Surdas who
was blind but became a good poet. Related to the concept of inferiority and compensations is the
concept of masculine protest. By masculine protest he meant a striving to be strong and powerful as
a compensation for feeling of being inferior and unmanly. To be masculine means to be superior
and to be feminine means to be inferior. Later on, Adler replaced the concept of masculine protest
by striving for superiority and the term masculine protest was kept reserved for only a restrictive
use.
It now referred to the protest woman expressed against their feminine role (Ansbacher and Ansba-
cher, 1956). Women, being weaker than men, wish for qualities and privileges regarded in our
society as important and dominant such as strength, courage, sexual freedom, etc. As a
consequence, they prefer to be lawyers, business executives, car drivers — roles usually played by
men. Sometimes such women don't marry or don't want to have any children. This use of
masculine protest is similar to the Freudian concept of penis envy. Modern women's lib

movement in which women are striving for greater equality is nothing but the expression of
masculine protest.
2. Striving for success or superiority
In 1908 Adler pointed out that aggression was the dynamic power behind all motivation. That way,
he antedated Freud in postulating aggressive drive. Soon after, he changed the name of this drive
and called it masculine protest. By 1912, he replaced the concept of masculine protest with the
concept of striving for superiority because he thought that masculine pro test did not explain
human motivation in a satisfactory way. Later in Adler's writings this term was modified as
striving for success or perfection. It refers to the basic urge to move towards getting perfection. This
has many features as under:
(i) The striving for success is innate and remains present at birth. Therefore, it precedes the
feelings of inferiority rather than springs from them.
(ii) Although the striving for success is innate and remains present at birth, it must be
developed because at birth it exists in form of potentialities and not in form of actuality. It,
therefore, continues throughout life.
(iii) The striving for success is not a confluence of motives rather is a single motive that shapes
the other drives.
(iv) The striving for superiority is an universal drive found in both normal as well as neurotic
individuals. However, the path adopted by these two types of people in arriving at goal differs. The
neurotic persons adopt the path of exaggerated personal superiority whereas the mentally healthy
people adopt the path of social interest or perfection for everyone.
3. Social Interest
The notions of social interest and striving for success are closely related. According to Adler, it is
the social interest that motivates the person to strive for success in healthy way. When this lacks
person's functioning becomes maladaptive. What is, after all, meant by the concept of social
interest? Adler's original term is a German word Gemeinshaftsgefuhl from which social interest is
an approximate translation. Social interest may be defined as an attitude of caring and concern for
humanity in general as well as showing empathy for others. It guides human behaviour throughout
the life. Like striving for success, social interest is inborn no doubt but it also needs to be developed
because at birth it remains present at potentiality in everyone. There are people who never develop
social interest and among them, exaggerated personal superiority dominates. Neurotics drunkards,
criminals, sex perverts, prostitutes are some of the examples who lack social interest.
4. Style of Life
Adler claimed that the social interest of a person develops in accord with the person's style of life.
By style of life is meant a person's unique way of arriving at a particular goal as well as his self-
concept, feelings towards others and attitude towards world. It is the product of several forces like
heredity, environment, social interest, goal of success, etc. Adler considered style of life as one
major governing force and in that sense; it is equivalent to Freudian concept of ego. However, style
of life includes no forces like id and superego. It always refers to the whole personality plus the
unique attitude that makes a person unique. Style of life is formed and established by the age of
four or five and person's major actions revolve round that. Ordinarily, style of life does not change
but it may change if the person clearly recognizes the errors or faults and deliberately change the
direction (Ansbacher and Ansbacher, 1956). Adler proposed four general life style attitudes— the
ruling type the getting type, the avoiding type and the socially useful type. The ruling type of
people has dominating attitude towards others and has little social interest. The getting type of
persons is interested in getting as many as possible from others. Such person is too much
dependent upon others. Under extreme stressful situation, he may become neurotic. Such person
has little social interest and contributes little to society. The avoiding type of person is
characterized by having attitude of general avoidance and withdrawal that is accompanied by
little social interest. The getting type of persons is interested in getting as many as possible from
others. Such person is too much dependent upon others. Under extreme stressful situation, he may
become neurotic. Such person has little social interest and contributes little to society. The avoiding
type of person is characterized by having attitude of general avoidance and withdrawal that is
accompanied by little social interest. The socially useful type of person is one that does behaviour
which is useful to society. Such person is active and has high social interest. He rightly recognizes
three basic social problems, namely, neighbourly love, sexual love and occupation behaviour easily
comprehensible. In reaching the final goal, we make many preliminary goals. These subgoals are

often conscious but the connection between these goals and final goal remains in unconscious.
Through fictional final goal, Adler has expressed his stand on teleology, that is, the fact that our
future strivings tend to shape our present behaviour.
7. Birth Order
Adler is well-known for his viewpoints regarding impact of a child's birth order on the
development of personality. He studied four types of birth order — the first-born, the second- born,
the last-born and the lone child. The first-born child gets undivided attention and care from parents
and then experiences a traumatic experiences of dethronement when a new baby is born. This
creates a feeling of hostility and resentment in the first born child towards younger brother or
sister. This child has also overprotective tendencies and high anxiety. The second- born child starts
his life in a better situation. Such child is highly competitive, cooperative and has wider social
interest. His style of life constantly tries to prove that he is better than his older siblings. Thus the
second-born child is achievement oriented. It is also a matter of interest here that Adler was himself
second-born. The position of the last-born is unique and he has a great risk of being a problem
child. He has strong feelings of inferiority and lacks independence. However, he is highly
motivated to surpass the older siblings. Hence, he is also achievement oriented and competition
minded. The only child has no siblings to compete and hence, he has to compete with his parents.
This child has an inflated self-concept and exaggerated sense of superiority. Such child is too
dependent upon others and lacks the feeling of cooperation and social interest. Thus, Adler's
psychology, on the whole, was more optimistic and realistic and recognized the impact of
social forces in shaping human behaviour.
7.2 Carl Jung

7.2.1 Life Sketch:
Carl Jung (1875-1961) was born in a small village in Switzerland. His mother's family had long
tradition of spiritualism and mysticism. His father was a believer in the occult and often reported to
have some talk with dead including his first wife. Due to such family background, it seems natural
that Jung had developed interest in spiritualism and in occult. As a child, Jung was very emotional
as well as sensitive one. He was deeply attached with both his parents. He was a Chris tian but was
not a church-goer. Jung's initial choice was archaeology but later on he shifted to medicine. He
completed his medical degree from Basel University in 1900. He joined Burgholtzli Mental Hospital
in Zurich as a psychiatric assistant. The director of this hospital was EugenBleuler, a Swiss
psychiatrist and authority on Schizophrenia. During 1902-3 he had also chance to study for six
months in Paris under Pierre Janet, a successor to Charcot. After returning from Paris to
Switzerland, he got married with Emma Rauschenbach, a young Swiss woman. Two years later he
started teaching at the University of Zurich and also kept himself associated with duties at mental
hospital. Under the directorship of Bleuler at the mental hospital, he began to study word
association and also started writings on Schizophrenia. It was through this writings that he made
contact with Sigmund Freud. In 1909 he resigned from his post of psychiatric assistant at
Burgholtzli because of some differences with Bleuler.
Freud's famous book Interpretation of Dreams was published in 1900. Like Adler, he was deeply
influenced by this book. He became a good defender of Freudian psychoanalysis and the
correspondence between two persons started (McGurie, 1974). In 1907, Jung visited Vienna upon
the invitation of Freud. Freud loved and respected him much. With backing of Freud, Jung was
selected as the first president of International Psychoanalytic Association in 1911. This also arose
some protests among Freud's Viennese colleagues. In
1909 Freud and Jung had gone together to America to deliver lectures at Clark University at the
invitation of G.S. Hall. Gradually personal as well as theoretical differences between Freud and
Jung started emerging and as a consequence in 1913 these two persons terminated their personal
correspondence. The next year Jung resigned his presidency and shortly thereafter he withdrew his
membership from International Psychoanalytic Association (Brome, 1978). The break was complete
and these two men never saw each other again. He founded his own school called analytical
psychology.
In the years immediately following the break with Freud, he was surrounded by loneliness and
self-analysis. After several years he resumed his research works and writings. He travelled widely
in developing his theory of personality and published his most influential books Psychological
Types in which he discussed his religious beliefs* myths etc., in detail. In recognition of these works
he was awarded honorary degrees from several famous Universities like that of University of

Harvard, Oxford and the University of Calcutta (Feist, 1985). In 1944 he became professor of
medical psychology at the University of Basel but in 1945 he had to resign on ill-health ground. He
died on June 6, 1961, in Zurich at the age of 86 years approximately. Thus Jung lived long and his
reputation was of world fame and extending beyond psychology.
7.2.2 Carl Jung’s Analytical Psychology
Jung was the second of Freud's earlier associates to rebel and establish his own system called
analytical psychology. In this system Jung accepted some of the concepts of Freud no doubt but he
rejected several other concepts charging them to be overloaded with sex.
The major contributions of Jungian analytical psychology may be outlined under the following four
headings:
1. Conscious and Unconscious
Like Freud, Adler divided the structure of psyche into two parts— conscious and unconscious. Any
psychic event that is sensed by ego is called conscious and any psychic event not sensed by ego is
called unconscious. Thus, for Jung, ego is always identified with conscious aspect of psychic. It is
different from self that is identified with both conscious and unconscious psyche. Thus, self is
concerned with whole of the personality whereas ego is concerned only with conscious psyche.
Unconscious, as said above, is that aspect of the psyche which is not related to the ego. It contains
all previously repressed conscious images as well as those psychic events that have never been
conscious. For Jung, unconscious is more important and therefore, he emphasized unconscious
even more than Freud (Jung, 1953). Unconscious is divided into two parts— personal unconscious
and collective unconscious. Personal unconscious consists of repressed infantile memories, for
gotten events or subliminally perceived experiences of a person. It is called personal because it
varies from person to person and at the same time, is unique to the person concerned. The con tents
of personal unconscious are called complexes. He devised his famous word association test to
uncover such complexes particularly feeling-toned complexes. The nature of the con tents of
personal experiences is such that some may be recalled readily, some are remembered with little
difficulty and some can't be recalled at all. Obviously Jung's personal conscious differs a lot from
Freudian concepts of unconscious. Collective unconscious is the most important but controversial
concept of Jung. It consists of primordial images that include memory traces not only from our
human past but also from our prehuman and animal ancestry (Hall, Lindzey, Loehlinand
Manosevitz, 1985). In fact, these images are the record of those experiences that have passed from
one generation to other. Our distant ancestors' experiences with God, sun, earth, which are
transmitted from one generation to another, are stored in collective unconscious. People's many
types of myths, legends and religious beliefs are stored in collective unconscious which is revealed
through various activities of the persons. It is also manifested through "big dream".
The contents of collective unconscious consist of ancient and archaic images called archetypes. Like
complexes, archetypes are affectively toned. But these two also differ from each other. Complexes
are individualized and constitute the contents of personal unconscious whereas archetypes are
generalized and constitute the contents of collective unconscious. Jung recognized several types of
archetypes. However, the most important types of archetypes that shape our personality and
behaviour are: the persona, the anima, the animus, the shadow and the self. The persona is the
mask that people exhibit before public. It reflects the way a person wishes to be perceived by
others. Like Freud, Jung reported that all human beings are essentially bisexual and possess both a
masculine and a feminine side. The feminine side of the male represents anima and the masculine
side of the female represents the animus. Through these two types of archetypes Jung tried to focus
upon the traditional views of what is masculine and what is feminine. The shadow archetype
reflects the animal instincts that human beings have inherited through their evolutionary cycles.
The self-archetype is one which motivates the person towards the wholeness. It governs the process
of individuation that is useful and creative aspect of the unconscious and is made productive and
conscious.
2. Attitudes and Functions:
Jung's psychological types Jung pointed out that there are two aspects of personality that function
at both conscious and unconscious level. They are attitudes, that is, introversion and extraversion
and the functions, that is, thinking, feeling, sensing and intuiting. A person having attitude of
introversion tends to focus on inner and private world having very limited objective experience.
Such people are reserved, and self-centred. Likewise, a person having attitude of extraversion tends
to focus on external activities, events and things. These people are active and outgoing. These two

types of attitude oppose each other and while one tends to rule the personality, other remains
repressed and unconscious. There are four functions — thinking, feeling, sensing and intuiting.
Thinking is a function that seeks to connect ideas with each other so that a person may solve the
problem and understand the world nicely. Thus it is an intellectual function. Feeling produces
some subjective experience relating to pleasure, pain, love and anger. So it is an evaluative function.
Sensing means providing sensation and perception of oneself and the world around the person.
Intuiting refers to the subliminal perception or unconscious perception. Since sensing and intuiting
are not evaluative functions, they are called non-rational functions.
One basic characteristic of these four functions are that normally one function is dominant
and conscious, while the other three functions remain dormant and unconscious. Jung also stressed
that everyone has his own unique pattern of attitudes and functions and on the basis of these two
types of attitudes and functions, herecognized eight basic psychological types — introversion-
thinking, extraversion-thinking, introversion-feeling, extraversion-feeling, introversion-sensation,
extraversion-sensation, introversion-intuition, extraversion-intuition.
3. Psychic energy
Like Freud, Jung postulated the concept of psychic energy that can't be produced or destroyed. Our
personality structure is charged with psychic energy. The nature of psychic energy is such that is
can be repressed, displaced and sublimated. However, it can never be destroyed. He postulated
two principles that govern psychic energy— principle of equivalence and principle of entropy. The
principle of equivalence (first law of thermo dynamics) stated that energy may be transformed but
not lost. One common example of this principle is that of an adolescent boy deeply infatuated with
his girlfriend. In such situation the energy that he previously used in concentration on academic
activities, is now being spent on his girlfriend. After the infatuation is over, there occurs
improvement in the academic performance. In this example, we find a mere change in energy first
from academic activities to beloved and then from beloved to again academic activities. The
principle of entropy (the second law of thermodynamics) states that when two bodies are kept
together, the energy from higher charge tends to flow to one of the lower charge until they are
equal. Applied to the personality structure, this principle states that there is a tendency toward a
balance of energy charges among the various systems. This principle brings stability in functions
and results in a certain kind of attitudes in the person. That is why this is also called as the
equalization of energy principle.
4. Personality development
For Jung, personality development takes place through a series of stages that culminate in
individuation. He divided those stages into four parts — childhood, youth, middle age and old age.
He emphasized particularly upon the second half of the life which starts at middle age that begins
at approximately age 35 for women and 40 for men. At this stage the person has sufficient
opportunity to bring together the different aspects of personality that help in the fulfilment or
actualization of the self. Thus he emphasized upon self-actualization that is one of the major goals
of personality. However, impulse for neurotic reactions remains also present at that time and a
person's direction of movement depends upon his ability to maintain balance between the poles of
the various and conflicting forces. In explaining personality development Jung used two terms—
individuation and transcendent function. The concept of individuation or psychological rebirth
refers to the process of becoming an individual or whole person. Transcendent function refers to
going beyond ordinary development by bringing together all different parts of personality in
harmony.
A sound development of personality involves both individuation and transcendent function. Thus
we find that like Freud, Jung also made significant contribution to psychology. His concept of self-
actualization has been very much inspiring to later psychologists like Maslow, Alport and Murphy
who have incorporated this in their own explanation of motivational basis of personality. Likewise,
Jung's words association test has been considered by many psychologists to be one of the most
valuable contributions to psychology. It has proved very useful in uncovering feeling- toned
complexes, emotional conflicts as well as in detection of lie.
7.3 Summary
Alfred Adler and Carl Gustav Jung have been the two most important rebels of Freudian
Psychoanalysis. While rejecting overemphasis upon sex by Freud, Adler made significant
contributions by way of formulating and recognizing concepts like organ inferiority and

compensation, striving for success or superiority, social interest, style of life, creative power,
fictional finalism, birth order. Despite these, his individual psychology has been criticized on three
major grounds. His system also differed from that of Freudian system on five major grounds. 2.
Carl Jung has been another important rebel of Freudian psychoanalysis. Like Adler, he also rejected
Freudian overemphasis upon sex. Among his important contributions are conscious and
unconscious, attitudes and functions, psychic energy and personality development. His analytical
psychology has also been criticized on four major grounds. Jung's psychology differed from that of
Freud's psychology basically on three major grounds.

 Assess the contributions of Alfred Adler to the development of psychology.
 Evaluate the contributions of C.G. Jung in development of psychology.
 What were the major points of distinctions among Freud, Adler and Jung towards their
interpretation of various psychological concepts?

1- Alfred Adler was a Neo Freudian (T/F)
2- Trust vs. mistrust in the context of neo Freudian was given by -------
3- Adler dealt with inferiority and superiority complexes (T/F)
4- Sense of independence in many tasks develops can be found in the work of ________
5- Erikson gave ____________ vs. inferiority
6- In the age group of 12–18, Identity vs. confusion is related to psychoanalysis
(T/F)
7- All the neo-Freudians have in common? They were all mentored by Freud (T/F)
8- The Ego-Theorists is the another name for Neo- Freudians (T/F)
9- Drive for Superiority was given by Adler (T/F)
10- Basic human problem is Inferiority Complex as reported by Adler (T/F)
11- Development is stage like & universal was said by Erikson (T/F)
12- Trust versusmistrust is true for Neo- Freudians (T/F)
13- According to Adler, human beings have several competing motivations. (T/F)
14- ____ was the primary proponent of the collective unconscious.
15- According to Jung, we have easy access to the material in our collective unconscious. (T/F)

Cioffi, F. (1998).Freud and the question of pseudoscience. La Salle, IL: Open Court.
Esterson, A. (1993). Seductive mirage: An exploration of the work of Sigmund Freud. La Salle, IL:
Open Court. Gay, P. (1988). Freud: A life for our time. New York: Norton.
Hannah, B. (1976). Jung, his life and work: A biographical memoir. New York: Putnam.
Horney, K. (1967). Feminine psychology. New York: Norton. (Original works published 1923–1937)
Loftus, E. (1993). The reality of repressed memories. American Psychologist, 48, 518–537.
Rubins, J. L. (1978). Karen Horney: Gentle rebel of psychoanalysis.

Unit 8: Sensation and Perception

CONTENTS
Objectives
Introduction
8.1 Sensation
8.1.1 Visual sensation
8.1.2 Auditory sensation
8.1.3 Olfactory sensation
8.1.4 Kinesthetic sensation
8.1.5 Tactile sensation
8.2 Perception
8.2.1 Perceptual process
8.2.2 Perceptual constancies
8.2.3 Perceptual organisation
8.2.4 Depth perception
8.2.5 Perceptual illusions
8.3 Summary
8.4 Keywords
Objectives
 Define sensation and learn its connection with our day-to-day life.
 Understand the functioning of five major sensations.
 Learn the process of visual and auditory sensation.
 Describe perception and perceptual process.
 Understand laws of perceptual organization.
 Describe how sensations become perception.
Introduction
Sensation and perception are distinct processes that are interrelated to each other. There is a lot of
information in the world which every one of us deals with on a daily basis. Sensation is the process
by which all this input goes on in the body and the input is obtained by our body through sensory
receptors. Perception is the next step. It is basically the process by which our body selects, organises
and interprets all the information received through sensory receptors. Perception of the same
information can be different for different individuals because perception is based on our learning,
life experiences, memories, emotions etc.
8.1 Sensation
Sensation is the input about physical world around us which is provided by our sensory receptors
which are the special receptors in our sense organs. Sensation activates our sense organs by source
of any physical energy. The study of sensation includes the initial connection between organisms
and their physical surroundings. Also we study how the physical information that is received is
translated in the form of electrical signals, a process known as transduction.
The sensory receptors are nothing but specialized form of neurons. Neurons are the building block
of our nervous system. The senses provide us with very accurate information of whatever is
happening inside and outside of the body. We generally think of five sensations like vision,

hearing, taste, touch and smell, but there are more senses like somosthesis which is actually a
combination of senses including touch, pressure and pain. Kinaesthetic and vestibular sensations
are other extra senses which are important but very less talked about.
Sensory thresholds
Ernst Weber gave us Weber’s law of just noticeable difference (jnd) also known as the difference
threshold. A jnd is the smallest difference between two stimuli which we are able to detect 50% of
the time. So Weber’s law simply states that the jnd for different sensations is constant. The work of
Ernst Weber was expanded by Gustav Fechner (1801-1887) by studying absolute threshold (Fechner,
1860). An absolute threshold is the lowest point or the minimal level of stimulation that a person
can detect 50% of the time. People normally get confused between jnd and absolute threshold. Jnd
is detecting difference between 2 stimuli whereas absolute threshold is detecting the minimal level
of stimulation.
Examples of absolute thresholds
Sense Threshold
Sight A candle flame at 30 miles on a clear, dark night
Hearing The tick of a watch 20 feet away in a quiet room
Smell One drop of perfume diffused throughout a 3-room apartment
Taste 1 teaspoon sugar in 2 gallons of water
Touch A bee’s wing falling on your cheek from 1 cm above
There are many a time we get influenced by stuff that is on the television or in the movies which we
did not even pay a lot of attention to. How does this happen? This happens by subliminal stimuli.
‘limin’ means threshold so sublimin means below the threshold. The stimuli which are strong
enough to actvate our sensory recpetors but not strong enough to get our conscious attention are
known as subliminal stimuli. These subliminal stimuli affect the way we think and behave by a
process known as subliminal perception.
Habituation and Sensory Adaptation
We all know that the information present around is infinite and we cannot be aware of each and
everything that is going on around us. Just like we never seem to notice the sound of the fan until it
is suddenly turned off. The process by which our brain deals with the information that is relatively
unchanging in our environment is known as habituation. There is another process known as sensory
adaptation. Sensory adaption is a process by which receptor cells become less responsive to an
unchanging stimulus and no longer send signals to the brain. Just like when you first come home
you can smell the odour of the garbage but after a while you no longer notice.
8.1.1 Visual sensation
Visual sensation is the process where we take in information about the outside world through eyes.
Our eyes receive the stimulus from the environment through eyes. Our eyes detect the presence of
light which is a small part of the electromagnetic radiation. Our eyes can detect radiations between
wavelength of 380 and 760nm. The colour of the light perceived by us is determined by us in three
dimensions, namely, hue, saturation and brightness. The hue depends on the wavelength of the
light wave. The colour corresponds to the wavelength of the light from the electromagnetic
spectrum. If the light received by the eyes is of only one wavelength is received more pure or
saturated the colour perception is. Brightness of light depends on the amplitude of the light wave-
larger the amplitude brighter the colour.
To understand visual sensation we need to understand the structure of the eye and what happens
when light enters the eye. The following image might help.

The front surface of the eye is covered by a transparent membrane known as cornea. The cornea
protects the eye from foreign substances and also focuses the light inside the eye. The black
coloured hole we can see in the centre is known as pupil. Light enters the inside of the eye through
this hole. The pupil is formed by a round muscle known as iris. Iris is responsible for the colour of
our eye and also is very flexible as it can change the size of the pupil and let more or less light
inside the eye. Behind the pupil is the lens or the eye lens. The lens is flexible, so that it can focus the
light directly onto the back of the eye which acts as a screen known as retina. So, the light enters the
eye and falls on the retina. Retina is the light sensitive area consisting of photoreceptors cells,
bipolar cells and ganglion cells.
The photoreceptor cells receive the light and turn them into neuronal signals. There are two types
of photoreceptor cells present in the eye, namely, rods and cones. Cones are responsible for colour
vision and our ability to see very fine details. There are around 6 million cones in the retina
concentrated on a point known as foveacentralis. Cones function at their best in brightly lit
conditions. Rods function best in dim-lit conditions and are responsible for vision at night. Rods
can see in black and white and are responsible for peripheral vision. There are about 100 million
rods in each eye which are found all over the retina except the fovea.
There is a spot in the eye where all the neurons leave the eye in the form of optic nerve which
carries information from the eye to the brain. This particular spot in the eye is known as the “blind
spot” as there are no rods and cones at this spot. We are not usually aware of the blind spot because
of the presence of two eyes because of which there is no blind area.
8.1.2 Auditory Sensation
The auditory sensation is the process by which we receive information from the physical world
through our ears. In this particular sensation our ears receives input from the physical world in the
form of sounds. We can hear through solid, liquid as well as gaseous matter. The sounds are
detected by ur ears in the form of mechanical waves which are vibrations detected by the ear.
The vibrations which can be detected by human ear are measured in terms of frequency and it is
quite vast. We can hear the sound ranging from about 20 to 20,000 Hz. Sound waves has 3
properties, namely, pitch, volume and timbre. The pitch of the sound is determined by the
frequency, the loudness of the sound is determined by the amplitude of the wave- higher the
amplitude, higher is the volume. The purity or timbre of the sound is determined by the
wavelength of the sound waves.

The ear is a series of structures divided in three parts the outer ear, the middle ear and the inner
ear.
The outer ear: the visible external part of the ear is known as the pinna. The pinna does the function
of concentrating the sound waves towards the inside of the ear and also enables us to detect the
direction of the sound. After the pinna the sound travels to the auditory canal or ear canal which
ends at the tympanic membrane or the ear drum. When the sound waves reach the ear drum, it
vibrates and makes the bones in the middle ear to oscillate.
The middle ear: the middle ear consists of auditory ossicles. The auditory ossicles are three tiny
bones known as the hammer (malleus), anvil (incus) and stirrup (stapes). The malleus, incus and
stapes are known as the smallest bones in the human body. These three bones amplify the vibration
that they receive after the sound waves hit the ear drum. The stapes, which is the last in the chain,
causes vibration in a membrane which covers the opening of the inner ear. This membrane is
known as oval window.
The inner ear: the vibrations received by the oval window sets into motion a set of chain reactions
inside the ear. The inner ear consists of a snail-shaped structure known as cochlea. Cochlea is a fluid-
filled structure which has a membrane running all through the middle of it known as the basilar
membrane. The basilar membrane houses the organ of Corti which has specialised hair-like cells
which are the receptors for sound. It is at this place that the sound gets converted into neuronal
signals and the message is sent to the brain with the help of auditory nerve.
8.1.3 Olfactory sensation
Olfaction, also known as olfactics, is the sense of smell. This sense is mediated by specialized
sensory cells of the nasal cavity of vertebrates, which can be considered analogous to sensory cells
of the antennae of invertebrates. The olfactory system translates the chemical molecules our nose
receives into neural signals and this system is located at the top of the nasal passage. The olfactory
system though small in area, consists of about 10 million olfactory receptors. Each receptor cells
contain little hair called cilia and they send signals to the brain when these hairs are stimulated by
different molecules of the substances that are in the air moving around them. They send signals
directly to a part of the brain known as olfactory bulbs.
8.1.4 Kinesthetic Sensation
Kinesthetic sense is the sense of body position and the movement of body parts relative to each
other. It is a sense that provides sensory feedback about motor activities of our body, for example
how the hand moves to pick up the telephone when it rings.
8.1.5 Tactile sensation
Tactile sensation also known as sense of touch is one of important factors in the design of various
products. The most characteristic feature of tactile sensation is a diversity of perceptual contents. In

tactile sensation information is received from varying pressure or vibration against the skin. Tactile
sensation is considered a somatic sensation, meaning it originates at the surface of the body, rather
than internally.
8.2 Perception
Perception is a mental process by which humans organize sensation into meaningful patterns and
give meaning to the lot of information that is received by our sense organs. Perception is a process
by which brain receives information through sense organs and organises them and interprets them.
Basically sensation is input and perception is the processing of that input.
Perception is a dynamic process because it is ever changing and involves ordering and attaching
meaning to raw information. Perception is the process of attaining awareness or understanding of
sensory information.
8.2.1 Perceptual Process

The perceptual process includes the following stages:
1. Theenvironmentalstimulus: everything that our environment which has the potential to
be perceived is known as the environmental stimulus. The environmental stimulus can be
received through eyes, ears, nose, tongue and skin.
2. Attendedstimulus: out of all the environmental stimulus that we have we choose to focus
our attention onto certain things or objects and these are known as the attended stimulus.
3. The image on the retina: if we take example of visual sensation, then the image that is
formed on the retina after the light enters the eye is the third step in the process. Basically,
this is where the physical information from the outside world reaches the end stage where
it needs to be translated.
4. Transduction: the translation of the physical information into neuronal signals is a process
named as transduction.
5. Neuralprocessing: in this stage, the electrical signals go through neural processing. This
includes the decision as to which path these signals need to follow and depends upon the
type of signal. The auditory signal will follow the path of auditory nerve and reach the
cortex; the olfactory signals reach the olfactory bulbs and so on.
6. Perception: Perception is a stage when we become consciously aware of the stimulus
present. This is the stage where we actually perceive the stimulus in the environment.
7. Recognition: perception not only involves the conscious awareness of the stimuli but also
it involves giving meaning to it. So, this is the stage where we are categorizing and
interpreting whatever we are sensing.
8. Action: this stage involves the action taken in response to the stimulus.
8.2.2 Perceptual Constancies

The input that we receive from our sensory receptors is vast and in varying forms of shape size and
colour which is changing at every given moment. To make sense of this ever changing physical
information our perceptual process has the feature of constancies to keep a few things constant.
1. Size constancy: It is our tendency to interpret an object of always being the same size
regardless of the distance that it has from us. So, if a person who is 6 feet tall is casting a
very small image on the retina, we do not perceive the person to be small rather we
interpret that the person is standing far away from us.
2. Shape constancy: This is our tendency to interpret the shape of the object to be constant. For
example, when we toss a coin, the image that is falling on our retina keeps changing its
shape from round to oval to elliptical, we still perceive the coin to be a round only.
3. Brightness constancy: This is our tendency to perceive the brightness of the object as
constant even when the lighting condition changes. For example, if a plain white paper
has a shadow cast on it, the paper is reflecting less light as compared to before but we still
perceive the paper to be of white colour only.
8.2.3 Perceptual Organization

Perceptual organization is the way in which we organise information into a structure which is
easier for us to understand and to make meaning of. The input that our sensory receptors receive is

way too much and is in variety of shapes, blobs, swirls patches, lines, edges etc., and to have an
idea of what is going around we need to organise it in meaningful structures and this is what
perceptual organisation does. The work on perceptual organisation is done mostly by the Gestalt
psychologists and they gave us a few principles of perceptual organisation.
Figure-ground relationship is one of the major principle given by Gestalt psychologists. The figure-
ground relationships refer to the tendency to perceive objects on a background. The stimulus that
we are paying most of our attention to becomes the figure and the rest of the visual area becomes
the background. The figure and ground are reversible in nature.
The Gestalt psychology gave us a series of laws to explain how features of the visual sense are
grouped together in an organised manner. The laws are given below:
1. Law of proximity
2. Law of similarity
3. Law of simplicity
4. Law of closure
5. Law of continuity
PROXIMITY: Very simple rule of perception which states that the closer the objects are to each
other, the more is our tendency to group them together. This is known as law of proximity or
nearness.
The above circles are usually seen as one vertical group and one horizontal group rather than just
some circles.
SIMILARITY: This law states that we tend to group similar items together. Humans can usually
recognise the physical resemblance quite easily and we make groups based on the same property.
In the figure below, we usually see columns of squares and triangles rather than just squares and
triangles.
SIMPLICITY: Law of simplicity states that we tend to organise things to make a balanced or
symmetrical figure. This law is also known as law of pragnanz or law of good figure.
In this image, we usually perceive it as 5 circles, instead of all the

complicated shapes it is made up of.
CLOSURE: The law of closure states our tendency to fill in the gaps automatically. Just like in the
figure below, there are actually no triangles or circles but our brain fills in the gaps and we perceive
circles as well as triangles.

CONTINUITY: This law states our tendency to perceive things as simply as possible by keeping it
in a continuous pattern, rather than a complex, broken pattern.
This particular image is easier to interpret as 2 lines crossing each

other than perceiving each small segment of lines.
8.2.4 Depth Perception

The capability of humans to see the world around us in three dimensions is known as depth
perception. There are two types of cues that exist to help perceive depth in the world. These are
monocular cues and binocular cues. Monocular cues require the use of only one eye and binocular
cues require the use of both eyes.
Examples of monocular cues are: Linear perspective, Relative size, Overlap, Aerial perspective,
Texture gradient, Motion parallax and Accommodation.
Convergence and Binocular disparity are the binocular cues.
8.2.5 Perceptual illusions
The errors in the process of perception are known as perceptual illusions. We can also say that the
stimulus that “fools” the eye is the illusions.
Müller-Lyer illusion is one of the most famous visual illusions shown in the figure below.
When you look at the image the line above ‘appears’ to be longer than the line below, even when
the two lines are of exact same length. Similarly, there is The Moon illusion in which the moon at
the horizon appears to be much larger than the moon in the sky. This is due to the fact that when
the moon is in the sky, it is alone and no other stimuli are present to compare it with. Whereas,
when the moon is at the horizon, the moon appears to be behind the trees or houses which act as
cues for depth and make the moon appear larger.

8.3 Summary
Through this chapter we got to know about the meaning of sensation and perception. Sensation is
taking input and perception is about interpreting and processing that input. We receive information
through sensory receptors that are there in the sense organs like eyes, ears, nose, tongue and skin.
The different sense organs have intricate biological mechanisms for receiving sensory information
and transducing it into neuronal signals. Perception is a complete process by which we recognise
and interpret sensory information. Gestalt school of psychology has given us principles of
perceptual organisation. Apart from all these principles and laws of perception, we can still have
errors in perception which are known as perceptual illusions.
8.4 Keywords
Sensation, sensory threshold, absolute threshold, perception, perceptual constancies, perceptual
illusions

1. What is light and how does it travel through the eye?
2. If light works like waves, does sound have similar properties?
3. How is the sense of taste and smell alike?
4. How is our interpretation of the world relatively constant?
5. What are visual illusions and how are they influence perception?

1- The middle ear contains six tiny bones. (T/F)
2- The moon appears larger when it is near the horizon than when it is seen overhead. (T/F)
3- Sensory adaptation refers to diminished sensitivity after prolonged and constant exposure. .
(T/F)
4- Rods specialize in detecting black, white and gray. . (T/F)
5- The retina is a membrane in the upper nasal passage. . (T/F)
6- The field of psychophysics was founded by Fechner. . (T/F)
7- People with blind sight are psychic (T/F)
8- Interposition, relative size and linear perspective are ________ depth cues.
9- ________ is defined as the organization and interpretation of sensations.
10- The ________ ________ is defined as the intensity of a stimulus that allows an organism to
just barely detect it.
11- The visual cliff is used to assess ________ perception in infants.
12- The absolute threshold for human hearing is ________ decibels.
13- ________ ________ describes our ability to focus on some sensory inputs while tuning out
others.
14- Vestibular system is a set of liquid-filled areas in the inner ear that monitors the head’s
position and movement, maintaining the body’s balance. . (T/F)
15- The retina is a membrane in the upper nasal passage (T/F)
North, A & Hargreaves, David &McKendrick, Jennifer. (1999). The Influence of In-
Store Music on Wine Selections. Journal of Applied Psychology. 84. 271-276.
10.1037/0021-9010.84.2.271.
Coren, S., Ward, L. M., &Enns, J. T. (2004). Sensation and perception (6th ed.). New
York, NY: John Wiley and Sons.
May, M., &Chudler, E. H. (2007). Sensation and perception. New York, NY: Chelsea
House Publications.
Coren, S., Ward, L. M., &Enns, J. T. (2004). Sensation and perception (6th ed.). New
York, NY: John Wiley and Sons
Ackerman, D. (1990). A natural history of the senses. Vintage.
Sacks, O. (1998). The man who mistook his wife for a hat: And other clinical tales.
Simon and Schuster.

Best Illusion of the Year Contest website http://illusionoftheyear.com/

Unit 9: Attention
Unit 9: Attention
CONTENTS
Objectives
Introduction
9.1 The nature and roles of Attention
9.2 Types of Attention
9.3 Theories of Selective Attention
9.3.1 Broadbent’s Filter Model
9.3.2 Treisman’s Attenuation Model
9.3.3 Visual Attention
9.4Attentional Systems and Neuroanatomy
9.5 ADHD, inattention, and other disorders associated with attentional problems
9.6 How can you rehabilitate or improve attention?
9.7 Summary
9.8 Keywords
Objectives
 Understand the nature and roles of attention

 Differentiate between types of attention
 Learn about top down and bottom up processing
 Understand the theories of attention
Introduction
Imagine at a very large and noisy part you are trying to find your friend. You look all around the
crowd for the green color which she is wearing and trying to hear her calling out your name.
Somehow you heard your name amidst the loud noise and you start moving towards her. While
you were moving towards her you suddenly heard the sound of breaking glass and you turned
your head towards it to see someone has broken a dish. Then you again return to moving towards
your friend and meet her. The process by which you were able to do all these functions like hearing
your name despite so much noise at the party, spotting the green dress of your friend amidst the
sea of colors, turning your head towards the breaking glass sound; involves attention. When we
talk about information processing by human brain attention is that process by which certain
information can be enhanced and certain other be inhibited.
Every single day of our life or rather every minute of our life our sense organs are bombarded by
immense amount of sensory information which is not humanly process. The information
processing centre which is our brain has a certain capacity and cannot make sense of the constant
stimulation from every sense all around us. So what is the coping mechanism of our brain? How
can we as human beings sensibly choose what information is meaningful or useful to us at the

moment and also avoid distractions by all the irrelevant input? In this chapter we will try to answer
these and more such questions.
9.1 The nature and roles of Attention

One answer to all our above asked queries is the process named attention. Attention is a resource
which we use to selectively focus on certain information and selectively ignore the irrelevant but
perceivable information. All of us have an intuitive understanding of attention; as in we all know
what paying attention to something means, but still the studies related to attention have been
many. The concept and process of attention is studied under the branch of cognitive psychology.
Moray (1970) gave us six different meanings of the very term, attention. Posner and Boies (1971)
gave us a model of attention which had three components, namely, orienting to sensory events,
detecting signals for focused processing and maintaining a vigilant state. There are many terms that
have been used synonymously with attention like, arousal, effort, capacity, perceptual set,
consciousness etc. The process of attention is so effortless and natural in human beings that it is
really hard to design and conduct studies experimentally. The field of cognitive psychology has still
conducted a lot of experiments and given us a deep understanding of the process of attention.
Attention is a cognitive and behavioral process by which we choose relevant stimuli and ignore the
other perceivable but irrelevant stimuli. Attention is a process by which our brain organizes and
understands the world in which we are surrounded by insanely large amount of stimulus every
moment. Attention is studied in education, psychology as well as neuroscience. The key aspects or
major characteristics of attention are:
1. Attention is limited, both in terms of capacity as well as duration.

2. As the attention is limited, it also is selective as in it is very particular about what and
where to focus at any given moment.
3. Attention is cognitive, as it aids our mental processes and thus considered to be the part of
cognitive functions.
9.2 Types of Attention

The cognitive psychologists studying attention have agreed on the fact that attention is not a single
process but a group of sub-processes. Sohlberg and Mateer (1987, 1989) gave a model of attention
which was based out of their studies in experimental neuropsychology. According to their model,
attention can be divided into the following parts:
 Arousal: Refers to our activation level and level of alertness, whether we are tired or energized.
 Focused Attention: Refers to our ability to focus attention on a stimulus.
 Sustained Attention: The ability to attend to a stimulus or activity over a long period of time.
 Selective Attention: The ability to attend to a specific stimulus or activity in the presence of
other distracting stimuli.
 Alternating Attention: The ability to change focus attention between two or more stimuli.
 Divided Attention: The ability to attend different stimuli or attention at the same time.
The description of some of the most studied types is given below:

Selective Attention
Selective attention refers to the ability of attention to select particular information to focus
on and leave the rest. This is the most basic and most deeply studied type of attention.
Selective attention is the type of attention which helps us handle complex settings around
us. From the variety of sensory information that we have, we select and focus on what we
consider as important. Just like at a workplace we have colleagues, canteen and gadgets that
are very good distractors. So when we choose to focus on our work by keeping other things
away, we are using selective attention.
Sustained Attention
Sustained attention is our ability to focus on a particular stimulus for a longer amount of
time. So whenever we are able to focus on a work which is time-consuming, we are using
sustained attention. There are three stages for sustained attention, namely,

Unit 9: Attention
 Paying attention, when you start to focus

 Keeping attention, when you continue to focus
 Ending attention, when you finally stop paying attention
Students studying for examination, focussing in meetings,

webinars and seminars, making a business plan etc.
Divided Attention
Divided attention refers to focussing on two or more tasks at the same time. Divided
attention is also known as multitasking. In this type of attention we are basically dividing
our attention in two or more tasks. For example, when we talk on phone while cooking or
writing an email along with attending a seminar etc. require us to divide our attention.
Though it is a very cool feature of attention to divide itself and do multiple tasks at once,
but it is not very helpful as it doesn’t last long. It can even be harmful as it has adverse effect
on the productivity of each of the task we do simultaneously as we are not able to fully
concentrate on any one. So we should divide our attention only when it is absolutely
necessary.
Alternating Attention
Alternating attention refers to shifting our focus to and fro between multiple tasks. It is a
little similar to divided attention, but unlike divided attention here we are not doing
multiple tasks at once. In alternating attention we keep shifting our attention from one task
to another and then back. So, that means even we are switching our attention, we are
focussed only at one task at any given point of time.
For example, when we make notes in the classroom what we do is we shift our attention to
and fro between listening to the teacher and then writing in our notebook and back to
listening. Also, when you follow a recipe for making a dish then also you are alternating
attention between reading the recipe and then performing that task.
9.3 Theories of Selective attention

9.3.1 Broadbent's Filter Model
Donald Broadbent (1958) said that humans have a limited capacity to process information at any
given point of time. Therefore, the information that the brain has to process is selected early on
from the vast amount of sensory information which is presented. The stimuli from all the senses
enter into a sensory buffer from which a selective filter is needed to filter out the information that
we need at the moment.
According to Broadbent, the stimulus to be attended is selected by the filter based on the physical
properties of the stimulus. Once information is selected by the filter, the other ones are unattended
and are lost. Broadbent also performed dichotic listening tasks to experimentally check the theory.
So, once the input to be attended is selected by the filter, it is then passed on to the short-term
memory for processing and manipulation before storage in the long-term memory.
This theory says that all the processing of the information related to semantics is done after the
filter has selected what information to pay attention to based solely on the physical characteristics
of the stimulus. Therefore, all the messages that do not pass through this filter are not understood
and simply lost.
9.3.2 Treisman's Attenuation Model

Anne Treisman (1964) gave an extension to the Broadbent’s bottleneck filter theory of early
selection. Treisman was of the opinion that the information which we do not pay attention to is also
sometimes there in our memory but Broadbent’s model is saying that all the unattended
information is lost. Therefore this filter model does not account for the other information.
Treisman gave another theory which came to be known as Treisman’s attenuation model. In this
theory, Treisman agreed to the bottleneck filter however, Treisman’s filter attenuates the
unattended information rather than eliminating it altogether. Attenuation means reduction of the
force/impact of the stimulus. For example, if we have 4 things to attend in one room (like tv,

people talking, fan whirring, phone ringing) we can turn down or attenuate 3 in order to focus on
one. But that doesnot mean that the other three are not being perceived at all.
Treisman (1964) agrees with Broadbent's theory of an early bottleneck filter. However, the
difference is that Treisman's filter attenuates rather than eliminates the unattended material.
Treisman carried out dichotic listening tasks using the shadowing technique in order to establish
her theories. Clearly, the result of her studies show that the unattended messages are also being
processed for meaning rather than selecting information only on the basis of physical characteristics
only.
9.3.3 Visual Attention

Visual attention refers to the selection of relevant stimulus from a cluttered visual scene. Visual
attention is thought to be operating at a two-stage process like attention being distributed
uniformly over the whole scene and then processing the information. In our day to day life, the
visual information that our eyes receive a lot more information than our brain can process. Visual
attention is a cognitive process by which helps us in coping up with this limited capacity problem.
Visual attention is a very flexible process and operates on the regions of space, physical
characteristics of the objects and movement of the objects in the visual perceptual field.
Spotlight Model
The term “spotlight” was inspired by the work of William James, who described attention as
having a focus, a margin, and a fringe. The focus is the central area that extracts “high-resolution”
information from the visual scene where attention is directed. Surrounding the focus is the fringe of
attention, which extracts information in a much more crude fashion. This fringe extends out to a
specified area, and the cutoff is called the margin.
Zoom-Lens Model
First introduced in 1986, this model inherits all the properties of the spotlight model, but it has the
added property of changing in size. This size-change mechanism was inspired by the zoom
lens one might find on a camera, and any change in size can be described by a trade-off in the
efficiency of processing. The zoom-lens of attention can be described in terms of an inverse trade-
off between the size of focus and the efficiency of processing. Because attentional resources are
assumed to be fixed, the larger the focus is, the slower processing will be of that region of the visual
scene, since this fixed resource will be distributed over a larger area.
Cognitive Load
Think of a computer with limited memory storage: you can only give it so many tasks before it is
unable to process more. Brains work on a similar principle, called the cognitive load theory.
“Cognitive load” refers to the total amount of mental effort being used in working memory.
Attention requires working memory; therefore devoting attention to something increases cognitive
load.
9.4 Attentional Systems and Neuroanatomy

According to the neuroanatomical model from Posner and Petersen (1990), there are three different
attentional systems. They are the following:
 Reticular Activating System (RAS) or Alert System: This system is mainly in charge of Arousal
and Sustained Attention. It is closely related to the reticular formation and some of its
connections, like the frontal areas, limbic systems, the thalamus, and the basal ganglia.
 Posterior Attentional System (PAS) or Orientation System: This system is in charge of Focused
Attention and Selective Attention of visual stimuli. The brain areas related to this system are the
posterior parietal cortex, the lateral pulvinar nucleus of the thalamus, and the superior
colliculus.
 Anterior Attentional System (AAS) or Execution System: This system is in charge of Selective
Attention, Sustained Attention, and Divided Attention. It's closely related to the prefrontal
dorsolateral cortex, the orbitofrontal cortex, the anterior cingulate cortex, the supplementary
motor area, and with the neostriatum (striate nucleus).

Unit 9: Attention
9.5 ADHD, inattention, and other disorders associated with attentional

problems
Attention is a vital cognitive process that is required for the proper functioning of all the other
cognitive skills. For example, we can learn something only when we properly pay attention to it
and same with memory. The information is stored in the memory only if it properly paid attention
to. Similarly with reasoning and problem solving etc. proper attention to the information is
required to carry out the process effectively. Therefore, any alteration or fault in any of the
attentional processes can make our daily life more complex and difficult.
Attention span or attention levels can vary a lot throughout the day which is absolutely a normal
thing to happen. So not able to pay much attention when you are sleepy or just after a meal will not
mean that your attention process has become faulty. Tiredness, fatigue, certain drugs, very extreme
temperature conditions etc. are some of the factors which can negatively affect our attentional
process.
If we talk about actual faults in attention, then Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) or
Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD) are the most well-known and well-studied disorders of attention.
The major characteristic of ADHD is known to be difficulty in arousing and maintaining attention.
Also, there is difficulty in controlling and directing behaviour in general along with difficulty in
controlling and directing of behaviour towards a particular stimulus.
It has been observed in various brain imaging techniques that the brain of patients with ADHD
show anatomical differences in certain areas like nucleus accumbens, the striate nucleus, the
putamen, the amygdala, hippocampus, thalamus and the prefrontal areas. The differences in these
brain areas might be the reason of inattention in ADHD patients.
There are other states like coma, vegetative state, state of minimal consciousness etc. in which
alterations in attentional processes or sub-processes can be seen. Brain damage like stroke or
chronic traumatic encephalopathy can be the cause of the above said disorders. Brain damage may
also cause other serious disorders like heminegligence, Alzheimer’s etc. and also other problems
related to attention like excessive fatigue or distractibility.
9.6 How can you rehabilitate or improve attention?

Every cognitive skill, including attention, can be trained and improved. Brain plasticity is the basis
of attention rehabilitation and other cognitive skills. The brain and its neural connections can be
strengthened by challenging and working them, so by frequently training these skills, the brain
structures related to attention become stronger.
Did you know that you can train your mind to pay attention and increase your attention span?
Here are a few effective tips to help you improve your attention span:
Read It Again
Imagine that you are reading your favorite book for the second time. You’re likely to notice
other details such as character motivation and plot points that you had missed the first time.
Rereading helps pay attention to details and memorize things with greater efficiency.
Take A Moment To Reflect

It’s easy to get caught up in the workplace, but you need to monitor your thoughts and
feelings too. Self-awareness comes from paying attention to yourself. It is a great way to
understand your strengths and weaknesses—enabling you to feel more in control of your
thoughts and actions.
Challenge Yourself
Improving your ability to pay attention to detail may be challenging, but who said it can’t
be fun? Practice noticing small features in games or comic books. You can even play online
games like ‘I Spy’ or ‘Where’s Waldo’ to train your eyes to see specific things.
Break Down Goals

Every goal, no matter how big or small, requires a series of actions. If you have a long-term
goal that you need to accomplish, break it down and pay attention to each component.
Imagine that you have to appear for a job interview. You can break it down into multiple
steps—things that you should carry, the clothes you should wear and the time you should
reach the office.

Take A Walk
It may sound strange, but paying attention to details can be achieved with an activity as
simple as taking a walk by yourself. Take a route that you normally don’t use—it can be the
road to your office or the nearest restaurant. You will be surprised by the number of things
that you notice.
9.7 Summary
 Attention is a cognitive process that allows us to choose and concentrate on relevant stimuli.
 According to Sohlberg and Mateer model (1987, 1989) there are several types: arousal, focused,
sustained, selective, alternating and divided.
 Attention can be altered by some disorder or condition such as Attention Deficit Hyperactivity
Disorder (ADHD) or without hyperactivity (ADD), stroke, dyslexia, anxiety, etc.
 It is evaluated with neuropsychological tests and can be measured in different areas of life
(academic, clinical, professional, etc.).
 Attention can be improved or rehabilitated by training and thus increasing brain plasticity.
9.8 Keywords:
Attention, selective attention, divided attention, models, multitasking attention span, brain
plasticity, ADHD
1. Discuss the implications of the different models of selective attention for

everyday life.
2. Think of examples of when you feel you can successfully multitask and
when you can’t.
3. Discuss what aspects of tasks or situations seem to influence divided
attention.
4. What advantages and disadvantages would be associated with being able
to filter out all unwanted information at a very early stage of processing?
5. What are the implications of processing all ignored information fully,
even if you are not consciously aware of that information?

1. Cocktail party effect occurs as a result of:
a. Central attention
b. Selective attention
c. Egotistical attention
d. Self-focused attention
2. The general concern for the Broadbent’s Filter Model is?
a. It was not falsifiable
b. It was based on correlational data and thus cause and effect conclusions were not
possible
c. It was not generalizable across populations
d. It lacked ability to account for all of the data.
3. The _______ is the lowest level of a stimulation that an organism can detect.
a. All-or-nothing phenomenon

Unit 9: Attention
b. Minimal activity stimulus

c. Absolute threshold
d. Sensory adaptation
4. During which of the following activities might you use selective attention?
a. Driving on a busy road during rush hour
b. Attending a concert at a sold out show
c. Having a conversation with a friend at a loud party
d. All of the above activities
5. Attention is limited. (True/False)
6. James (1890) is known for his work on:
a. Attention
b. Perception
c. Memory
d. None of the above
7. Alertness refers to an individual’s readiness to deal with stimuli that appear before
him/her. (True/false)
8. Large, bright and moving objects can _______ catch our attention.
a. Chemically
b. Easily
c. Ability
9. The size, intensity and movement of stimuli are
a. Determinants of attention
b. Characteristic features of attention
c. Types of attention
10. Several psychologists have studied the processes of perception in different socio-cultural
setting (True/False)
11. Broadbent did ________ listening experiments.
a. Selective
b. Divided
c. Focused
d. Perceptual
12. Broadbent wanted to see how people were able to focus their attention (selectively attend),
and to do this he deliberately overloaded them withstimuli. (True/False)
13. Human figures are more likely to be attended then the in animate objects. (True/False)
14. What is inattentional blindness?
a. One’s ability to focus one’s attention on multiple sources
b. Looking at the big picture as opposed to focusing on smaller details
c. A developmental disease impacting one’s vision
d. Failing to see objects when one’s attention is directed elsewhere
15. Which of the following is not a principle of Gestalt psychology?
a. Closure
b. Gradient
c. Connectedness
d. Continuity

Answers: 1. B 2. A 3. C 4. D 5. True 6. A 7. True 8. A. 9. A. 10. True 11. A. 12.

True 13. False 14. D 15. B

Bargh, J., & Morsella, E. (2008). The unconscious mind. Perspectives on Psychological
Science, 3(1), 73–79.
Deutsch, J. A., & Deutsch, D. (1963). Attention: some theoretical
considerations. Psychological Review, 70, 80–90.
Spelke, E. S., Hirst, W. C., & Neisser, U. (1976). Skills of divided attention. Cognition, 4,
215–250.
Treisman, A. (1960). Contextual cues in selective listening. Quarterly Journal of
Experimental Psychology, 12, 242–248.
https://www.britannica.com/science/attention
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attention
https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fncom.2020.00029/full
https://pressbooks.bccampus.ca/intropsychstudyguide/chapter/multiple-choice-
questions-3/

Unit 10: Learning
Unit 10: Learning

CONTENTS
Objectives
Introduction
10.1 Introduction of learning
10.2 Characteristics of learning
10.3 Methods of learning
10.4 Theories of learning
10.4.1 Classical Conditioning
10.4.2 Operant conditioning
10.4.3 Observational learning
10.5 Summary
10.6 Keywords
10.9 Suggested readings
Objectives
After going through this unit, you would be able to
 Define and concept of learning.
 Characteristics of Learning
 Explain method and types of learning.
 Explain the theories of learning.
Introduction
Learning the most complex and interesting construction of human behavior. Learning the process
of changing the way we behave throughout life. Learning is a fundamental process in all of our
behavior. It is an important process in human behavior as we learn to perform a variety of tasks
such as (speaking, writing, thinking and perception). We have also learned about our attitudes and
emotional states. The learning process is related to our changing behaviors and inconsistent
behaviors, perceptions and affective behaviors. These are powerful and help the person to adapt to
its changing environment
10.1 Introduction of Learning

Learning can be defined as a relatively permanent change in behavior as a result of experience. The
psychology of learning focuses on various ways in which people learn and interact with their
environments. There are three important factors in this definition:
i) Learning takes change in behaviour.
ii) Change brings place through rehearsal differing here from changes due to growing/ maturation
and experience
iii) The behaviour should be change permanent to be learning
Learning is a major contribution in the field of psychology discipline. In Learning so many
complexes in process involves a complex interaction of conscious and unconscious processes.

DPSY549: Systems and Theories of Psychology
Learning is so many complexes in the process of interaction with conscious and unconscious.
Learning has been learned extensively the relationships that our minds make automatically
between events. Our minds have a natural tendency to connect events that take place in close
proximity. Integrated learning is the process of physical activity in the interaction between stimuli
or events in nature. Associative learning has three basic learning processes. we have discussed in
this section (i) the classical conditioning tends to involve unconscious processes, the operant
conditioning tends to involve cognitive processes, and the study of learning (social and cognitive)
in all the basic processes of integration. Coherent learning is associated with both cognitive and
cognitive functioning.
Various researchers have described learning in their own way.
"A change in a person's condition or strength that lasts for a period of time and is not limited to
growth processes." (Robert Gagne's Learning Stories)
“Learning is a permanent change in one's knowledge or behavior as a result of experience. This
definition has three elements: 1) the transition period is longer than the short term; 2) a place of
change in the content and structure of information in the student's memory or character; 3) The
cause of change is the student's environmental experience rather than fatigue, motivation, drugs,
physical condition or physical interventions.” (Encyclopedia of Educational Research, Richard E.
Mayer)
“Learning is the process of progressive behaviour adaptation.” – Skinner
“Learning is modification of behaviour.”– Gates
“The term learning is to signify both the development of intelligences and attribute of muscular
action.” - Ewere
“Learning is the process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of experience.”
- Kolb 1984
“Learning is a relativity endurance change in behaviour which is a function of prior behaviour
usually called practice. “–Mark
10.2 Characteristics of Learning

The Law of learning characteristics explains by W. R. MC have given below:
 Learning is a continuous process and modification of behaviour.

 Learning is continuous throughout life of person.
 Learning is persistent andinfluences into all characteristics of human life.
 Learning is process to involvessocially, emotionally & intellectually
 Learning depends on maturation and motivation.
 Learning is always concerned with goals.
 Learning is responsive to incentives.
 Learning is developmental.
 Yoakman and Simpson have defined nine characteristics of learning, are given below
 Learning is related to growth
 Learning is related to adjustment
 Learning is related purposeful
 Learning is related experience
 Learning is related intelligent
 Learning is related active
 Learning is related both individual and social
 Learning is related product of the environment
 Learning is also affecting the conduct of the learner
Learning is related growth

Unit 10: Learning
Learning is related growth; this growth implies both physical and mental development of the
learner. The individual grows through living and learning.
Learning is related adjustment

Learning is related to permits the individual to adjust himself/herself properly with the new
situations or environment. Everyday life person faces different types of problems and learning
provide a key role to solve the problems day to day life.
Learning is related purposeful

Learning is related to purposeful and goal oriented in our life. Individual learn only those activities
properly behind which he has some goal or purpose.
Learning is related experience

Learning is related to individual learns through experiences. Human life is complete of experiences.
All experiences provide new knowledge, understanding skills, and attitudes.
Learning is intelligent
An individual cannot learn things by only cramming without proper understanding. But his proper
attention, understanding is essential to learn things effectively.
Learning is active
Learning is an active process. Individual must be active and ready to learn, readiness is essential for
effective learning.
Learning is both individual and social

Individual can learn both individually and by participating social activities. Individual also learn
from his peer, friends, relatives, parents, and classmates, family as well as from religious places.
Learning is the product of environment

Individuals also learn lot of things from his environment, his society he lives.
Learning is related to affects the conduct of the Learner

Learning is related to affects the learner’s behaviour and manner. All learning processes involve
experience to change the mental structure of the learner.
10.3 Methods of Learning

Psychologists give various methods for learning which helps the pupil to learn things effectively
some of the common methods are as under.
 Whole to part method

 Whole vs part method
 The mediating method
 The recitation method
 Cramming
Whole to Part Method

This method says that the general nature of the learned material should be apprehended first, at the
level of the learner’s insight. This method is based on the Gestalt principal that learning proceeds
from the whole to its parts and not vice-versa.
Whole vs Part Method

This method says that learning can be both whole as well as parts. Sometimes the learner should
use whole method and some time he /she should use part methods. When the learner learns small
or short things heshould be learnt as a whole for example memorizing a poem. Here the material is
too long the part method should be used. The part method has proved most fruitful in non verbal
materials like skills; typewriting etc. The whole method is not valid here because there is no logical
unity or continuity in the material.

The Mediating Method

The mediating method is applicable to long vocabulary material, as well as to more logical wholes
proceeds from whole to part as before but allows the marking off more difficult or unfamiliar parts
for more intensive study.
The Recitation method

When time allows, this method is valuable for all kinds of material. It simply means checking upon
one’s self by being one’s own inquisitor, from time to time. It is also found that, recitation method
of study is batter for both immediate and delayed recall and both sense and non-sense material.
Cramming
Another method of learning is cramming. Cramming is the attempt to acquire control, usually for
the purpose of immediate reproduction, of a relatively large amount of material in comparatively
short time.
10.4 Theories of Learning

Learning theory is descriptions of the learning process. There are two basic concepts of concepts
such as classical andoperant theory, highlighted by stimulus-response (SR) relationships. The
concept of learning also describes the process of engagement. Some psychologists say that all forms
of learning cannot be described as simple forms of stimulus-Response relationships. Theories of
understanding provided the essential role of perception and understanding. Although man is a
social animal or a social creatur we also learn several behaviors in the social environment. The
theory of the social learning model also relates to the concept of learning.
10.4.1 Classical Conditioning
Conditioning CS is a learning procedure in which a biologically compelling stimulus (e.g. food)

paired previously neutral stimulus (e.g. a bell).
Pavlov was studying the reflex of salivation of the dog in the response to food. Reflex is related to
unlearned responses or automatic behavior. If you see a delicious food then automatic salivation
into mouth that is provoked by an explicit stimulus. For example, when food power is presented in
the front of a dog, however, the dog's mouth salivates automatically. The dog is not learning this
beahviour, it is a reflexive.
Pavlov's food classical conditioning is associated with the introduction of dog food and other
stimulants such as iron bells (neutral pressure). After giving some trials there, the bell preceded the
presentation of the food, and the dog began to spit when the bell rang. Classical condition to
describe other technical terms used.Details are given below-:
food Unconditioned stimulus(UCS)

Salivation elicited for food Unconditioned Response(UR)
Sound of bell Conditioned stimulus (CS)
Salivation to bell Conditioned Response (CR)

Unit 10: Learning
Classical Conditioning Before Conditioning Causes little or no reactions

“Bell”
Unconditioned stimulus Unconditioned

Response (UCR)
Dog food
Dog food salivation
During conditioning
conditioned stimulus
(CS) “Beel”
Unconditioned
+ Response (UCR)
salivation
Unconditioned stimulus
Dog food
Dog food
After conditioning
conditioned stimulus
conditioned response (CR)
Bell
salivation
Time
Basic Principles
(i) Acquisition: is definesthe periodthroughwhich is an organism is learning the association of
stimuli. acquisition is the primary process of conditioned response through repeated pairing of an
unconditioned stimulus to conditioned stimulus. Classical conditioning each trial presented of the
CS (Sound of bell) and the US (Food) is presented a number of trial and the interval between CS
and US should be short of the time.
(ii) Stimulus Substitution Through conditioning a connection a bond is shaped between the CS and
US and as outcome of this CS (bell) becomes equal to US (food) in provoking a response. We mean
thereby that an association between CS and US permits one to supernumerary CS for US in evoking
a response.
iii) Stimulus Generalization and Discrimination
Stimulus Generalization: is process for stimuli similar like CS (bell ring) to elicit the CR(Salivation).
When researcher have increase or decrease stimulus intensity which is relate neutral stimulus
subject will be response happen.
Stimulus Discrimination: stimulus Discrimination is the process to make one response to one
stimulus or certain stimuli but not to a response that is similar to a natural stimulus. Like example
two different tones (SCI) (bell) ---------- On one trial CS (1) ------------- paired with US (food) --------
-----------other trial CS (2) ------------without US (food). ---------- respond only to CS (I).

iv) Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery: In classical conditioning Repetition of the conditioned
stimulus (Bell) is presented alone without unconditioned stimulus repeatedly gradually reduces the
response. This is called Extinction. In classical conditioning reappearance of a debilitated response
that has been extinguished, does come after some time following extinction.
10.4.2 Operant Conditioning
The Operant conditioningis named because that person is "operates" in nature. Edward Thorndike,
who suggested the idea. Thorndike also describes to instrumental learning because the answer
"instrument" in earning a reward. Both the operant and classical state was also called S-R learning
because the stimulus (S) is paired with the response (R).
The most well-known experiment is BF Skinner who designed this device called the operant box,
sometimes called the skinner box. indicating that the answers are readable when followed by a
"satisfactory condition." Although the operating conditioning does not require the use of CS or
UCS, CS can be administrated but requires the use of a shaping and reinforcing method.
Shaping is a term given the first steps needed to make a topic engage in behavior that should be
rewarded. for example, a mouse will be rewarded for pressing a bar, it must first read:
• go to the bar next to the operator box
• touch the bar
• pressing the bar
usually, reward (food) initially provided at the end of each of these steps. At last, a reward is
providing only when bar is pressed. (With subjects who comprehend spoken orders, shaping can
here and there be cultivated verbally).
Reinforcement
In the operating condition, the term reinforcement is used. refers to anything that increases the
likelihood that a response will occur. Psychologist BF Skinner suggested this. Reinforcement is
indicated by the effect that occurs on the behavior, increasing and strengthening the response.
Reinforcement includes anything that strengthens and enhances character. Includes clear visual
rewards, times and circumstances. compliments, getting out of unwanted work, token rewards,
sweets, extra play time, and fun activities were examples of reinforcement in the classroom.
Primary Reinforcement
Basic reinforcement is also called unconditional reinforcement. It happens normally and does not
require learning to work. Essential reinforcers always have a flexible base because they help in type
enhancement. Genetic makeup and experience alike can play a role in the formation of the
functions of such a substance. For example, while one person may pursue a particular type of diet,
the other person may not like the food in any way.
Secondary Reinforcement
Secondary Reinforcement also called conditioned reinforcement. includes stimuli that have gotten
remunerating by being combined with another reinforcing stimulus. For example, when preparing
a canine, applause and treats may be utilized as primary reinforcers. The sound of a clicker can be
related with the applause and treats until the sound of the clicker itself starts to fill in as a
secondary reinforcer.
Types of reinforcement
positive reinforcement: includes magnifying certain things to increase the response. Eg, give a
chocolate or a sweet bar to a child after cleaning his or her room.
Negative reinforcement:means removing something to increase the response. Eg, such as canceling
questions when students put in all their homework. By removing the vengeance motivator, the
teacher hopes to develop the character he or she wants.
Schedules of reinforcement
Reinforcement periods are specific principles used to introduce (or eliminate) reinforcement (or
punishments) following the previously defined operant behavior. These levels are seen in relation

Unit 10: Learning
to the time and extent of the reaction required to introduce (or eliminate) the reinforcer (or
punisher). Different periods of consolidation produce specific effects of functional behavior.
Interval schedule
Interval schedules require a minimum amount of time that must elapse between continuous
reinforcement responses (for example 5 minutes). Responses made before this time are not valid.
Interval schedules can determine the length of time fixed between reinforcers (Fixed Interval
schedule) or time-frame flexibility between reinforcers (Variable Interval schedule).
Fixed Intervalschedule produces a faster response speed as the reinforcement hour approaches.
Student visits to the college library show a selective increase in level as the hour of direct
assessment approaches.
Variable Intervalthe schedule produces a constant response speed. The "redial" button press on the
phone is supported on a regular basis when you try to reach your parents and receive a "busy"
signal in the opposite position.
Ratio Schedule
The rating system requires a certain number of operant responses (e.g., 10 reactions) to deliver
subsequent reinforcement. The required number of responses can be adjusted from one reinforcer
to the next (Fixed Ratio Schedule) or may vary from one reinforcer to the next (Flexible Ratio
Schedule).
Fixed Ratio schedules support a high response speed until a reinforcer is detected, after which a
breathable visibility in response can be observed, especially at large sizes. Vendors who are paid on
a “commission” basis may work with the flu to get to the part of their business, after which they are
happy to receive deals for a few days.
Variable Ratio schedules support high response and consistency of response. The power of this
support period is explained by the card shark that suddenly inserts money and pulls the handle of
the "slot machine."
Punishment
Punishment was characterized as a result that follows an operant reaction that diminishes (or
endeavors to diminish) the probability of that reaction happening later on.
Positive punishment
While trying to diminish the likelihood that a conduct will happen later on operant reaction is
trailed by the introduction of an aversive boost. It is a positive punishment.
Negative Punishment
While trying to diminish the likelihood that a conduct will happen later on, an operant reaction is trailed by
the evacuation of an appetitive improvement. This is a negative punishment.
10.4.3 Observational learning

Observational learning is the way toward picking up noticing the conduct of others. The target conduct is
noticed, retained and afterward imitated. Otherwise called demonstrating and displaying, observational
learning is more normal in youngsters as they emulate the practices of grown-ups. While we at times
deliberately notice specialists to in order to learn new data, observationallearning is rarely meaningful.
Especially for young children. A child can discover how to scare or smoke cigarettes by looking at adults. They
learn constantly by seeing if the behavior is good.
Four processes of Observational learning
Albert Bandura (Canadian-American psychologist) was one of the psychologists who put the idea of
observational learning. Social Learning Theory, emphasizing the importance of observing and modeling
behaviors, attitudes and emotional responses to others were his ideas.
He found that as social animals and humans have a habit of learning by observation. children in families
imitate members of their families. Or newborns (three weeks old) begin to mimic the movements of the mouth
and expose the adults around them.

According to him there are four processes that influence observational learning:
(i) Attention
To learn, the viewer has to focus on something natural. They have to see model and behavior happen. The
level of thinking can change depending on the model's characteristics and weather - including the level of the
model's similarity, or the current viewer's attitude.
(ii) Retention
Simple attention isn't sufficient to get familiar with another behavior. An onlooker should likewise hold, or
recollect, the conduct sometime in the future. To build odds of maintenance, the onlooker should structure
the data in a memorable simple configuration. Possibly they utilize a mental helper. Or on the other hand
structure an everyday learning propensity. The conduct should be effectively recalled so the activity can be
performed with almost no exertion.
(iii) Reproduction
reproduction is the interaction where the eyewitness should have the option to actually play out the
behavior in reality. More difficult than one might expect. Regularly, creating another behavior requires long
periods of training to acquire the abilities.
(iv) Motivation
All learning requires some level of motivation. For observational learning, the onlooker should be roused to
create the ideal behavior. Once in a while this motivation is characteristic for the eyewitness. Different
occasions, inspiration can come as outer support – prizes and disciplines.
Bobo Doll Experiment
In this experiment showed that children imitate violent behavior by watching others. In this experiment the
children were shown a violent video in which the model would act violently on a doll you could not enjoy
(hitting, punching, kicking and verbally kicking the doll). There were three different conclusions:
 The model was punished for their behavior
 The model was rewarded for their behavior
 There were no results
After watching the model, the teens were given a Bobo doll, which is inseparable from the one in the video.
Their habits were noticed.
Analysts found that children would imitate aggressive behaviors when they saw a model accept a prize, or
when no results were achieved. On the other hand, the youth who saw that the model was brutally rejected
showed real violence on this doll.
10.5 Summary
1. Learning is a long-lasting change in behavior resulting from experience.
2. Ivan Pavlov was the first one to describe Classical conditioning which is a type of
associative learning which results with the association of two stimuli.
3. Unconditioned response is the naturally occurring response to an unconditioned stimulus;
whereas a conditioned response is the learned response which occurs due to a association
between conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus.
4. Operant conditioning is a type of learning in which behavior is controlled by the
consequences and B F Skinner was the one to devise operant learning.
5. A system of reinforcement and punishments is used in order to make any organism learn
a new behavior.
6. Skinner established schedules of reinforcement and punishment through various
experiments with rats well known as Skinner box experiments.

Unit 10: Learning
7. Albert Bandura conducted experiments to show that children can learn behavior by
watching the adult’s behavior, which led to the formation of the concept of observational
learning.
8. Observational learning is the process of learning to respond in a certain way by looking at
others or models.
10.5 Keywords
Learning, Behavior, Classical conditioning, Ivan Pavlov, Higher order conditioning, Shaping, BF
Skinner, Operant Conditioning, Consequences, Association, Reinforcement, Punishment,
Observational Learning, Social Learning, Imitation, Modeling

1. What is the difference between classical conditioning and operant conditioning?
2. What is learning? Explain
3. Briefly discuss about observational learning. Give example.
4. How many processes to influence observational learning?
5. Can u Describes classical conditioning in present situation?

1. Learning is best defined as a relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as a result of
experience.
True/False
2. Associative learning is related to------
a) Classical conditioning
b) Pavlovian conditioning
c) both
d)none of the above
3. Associative learning is related to--------
a) operant learning
b) social learning
c) observational learning
d) all of the above
4. Classical Conditioning learning theory has developed -------
a) Pavlov
b) Bandura
c) Skinner
d) all of the above
5. Operant conditioning learning theory is related----------.
a) Bandura
b) Pavlov
c) Skinner
d) all of the above
6. ______________is the process by which a person or animal learns an association between

two stimuli or events.

a) Associative learning
b) social learning
c) learning
d) none of the above
7. A stimulus that does not initially elicit a response in an organism is neutral stimulus.
True /False
8. In Watson and Rayner’s experiments, Little Albert was conditioned to fear a white rat,
and then he began to be afraid of other furry white objects. This demonstrates stimulus
generalization.
True/False
9. Extinction is related to the conditioned stimulus is presented repeatedly without being
paired with an unconditioned stimulus.
True/false
10. In Pavlov’s work with dogs, the psychic secretions were conditioned responses.
True/false
11. Primary reinforcer is related to
a) food
b) water
c) sex
d) all of the above
12. observational learning theory is also known---------
a) classical Conditioning
b) operant learning
c) modelling
d) all of the above
13. Who has conducted Bobo doll study?
a. Bandura
b. Skinner
c. Pavlov
d) all of the above
14. In Classical learning theory US is related to
a) Unintentional Stimulus
b) United states of America
c) unconditional stimulus
d) none of the above
15. Albert Bandura has proposed observational learning.
True/False
Answers-1.true 2.c 3.a 4. a 5. a 6. c 7. true 8. true 9. true 10. true 11. d 12. c 13. a 14. c 15. true

Unit 10: Learning
10.8 Suggested/Further readings
An Introduction to the History of Psychology byB.R Hergenhahn and Tracy Henley

published in 2013
Introduction to Psychology 10th Edition by James W. Kalat
Introduction to Psychology: Gateways to Mind and Behavior with Concept Maps and
Reviews by Dennis Coon and John O. Mitterer published in 2008
Psychology – 10th Edition byDavid G. Myers published in 2011
https://psu.pb.unizin.org/intropsych/chapter/chapter-7-learning/
https://www.psychology.org/resources/educational-psychology-theories/
https://www.online-psychology-degrees.org/psychology-learning-theories/
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/educationalpsychology/chapter/major-theories-
and-models-of-learning/

Unit 11: Memory
Unit 11: Memory

CONTENTS
Objectives
Introduction
11.1 Memory
11.2 Components of memory
11.3 Types of memory
11.3.1 Sensory memory
11.3.2 Short-term memory
11.3.3 Long-term memory
11.3.4 Difference between STM and LTM
11.4 Techniques to improve memory
11.5 Forgetting
11.6 Summary
11.7 Keywords
Objectives
 Learn the definition of memory and its types.

 Understand the process of memory
 Enumerate the characteristic features of memory
 Know about the techniques to improve memory.
 Understand the factors that are responsible for forgetting.
Introduction
We learn information day in and day out and some of us are even top-notch learners. Just imagine
what if we learn information but don’t have any way to store it for further use? Or simply said,
what if we learn but don’t have any memory of whatever we learn?
Let’s see, what our life will look like if we don’t have memory. I need someone to teach me how to
brush my teeth and how to get dressed every single time. I don’t know how to tie shoe laces or how
buttons or zippers work? Who should I ask for help because I don’t remember the faces of the
humans that are roaming in my house? Wait, house! What is that? Is it even mine? Everything is
getting so confusing. I think I should just go to bed. What is a bed??
So, you see how important memory is for our daily functioning? And with this little task I think all
of us can appreciate how amazing a capacity human brain has for memory. In this chapter, we will
try to explore the complete process of memory, what memory is and how does it processes and
stores information for further use.

11.1 Memory
Memory is the capacity of the human brain to learn and store information which is usable. All the
usable skills and knowledge is stored in memory and memory allows human beings to function
efficiently in daily life as well as helps in the functioning of all the other cognitive functions as well.
Memory is the cognitive process by which we encode and store information in order to recall it
whenever we want to use that information in future. Memory gives us the ability to learn and adapt
from our previous life experiences and also to build relationships with our fellow human beings. It
gives us power to recall previously learned facts, experiences, skills and habits.
The word memory comes from the Latin word “Memoria” and “Memor” which means mindful and
remembering respectively. In the field of psychology, memory is considered to be basis of all the
other cognitive processes like problem solving, logical thinking, imagination and decision making.
We in life remember millions of pieces of information from the most trivial of things to the most
vital information. Our idea of self-concept is dependent on memory and our representation of other
people also depends on our memory. Yet, as you will see, our memories are often incomplete,
biased and distorted. We are often surprised at how our memories for events differ vastly from
those of others who experiences the identical event. The specific nature of memory mechanisms
processes, and capacities varies from one species to another. This variability reflects the differing
environmental demands to which different species have had to adopt over the cause of evolution.
Birds can recall the location of the nest; Squirrels remember for months, where they stored food;
and antelope retain the association of the lion’s roar with danger each species is using memories to
adapt to its environment.
11.2 Components of Memory

Memory consists of three separate but interrelated components they are encoding, storage, and
retrieval. They are also called the stages of memory.
Encoding
Encoding is the first step for memory. In this stage, sensory information received from the
environment is converted into neural impulses which are then processed by the brain for storage.
Encoding is a process by which meaning is derived from the information and converted into a
language (neuronal signal) so that it can be placed in the brain.
Storage
The second stage of memory is storage; in storage the encoded information is stored so it can be
later use. Storage refers to the retention of encoded representations over time and corresponds to
some change in the nervous system that registers the event. Stored representations are referred to
as memories.
Retrieval
Retrieval is the process of retrieving the stored information to current working use. It is the third
stage of memory and very important because if a piece of information is not recalled then there is
no memory at all. Encoding and storage have no use if certain information cannot be recalled.
Retrieval often requires effort external effort to access the stored information and it is involved both
in the explicit and implicit memory systems.
Information Processing Model of Memory

The Information Processing Model of memory is given by Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin in
1968. This model is also known as multi-store model of memory. The basic tenets of this model is
that information received through our sense organs (Eyes, Nose, Ears, Skin, Tongue) from the
environment is passed through two temporary storage buffers (stores) before it can be placed into
more permanent storage and then retrieved for later use.

Unit 11: Memory
The obtained information from the environment is first placed into sensory store; here the sensory
information is immediately and initially recorded of sensory. In sensory store the visual
information can be stored approximately 1/4 of a second & auditory information up to 3 seconds.
When the information is successfully recognized or attended in sensory store than information is
transferred into the short-term memory (STM). In short-term memory information is stored up to
20 seconds, here information is rehearsed (repeated again & again). After that rehearsed
information is transferred from short-term memory into the long-term store. In long term memory
we can store unlimited information for long time (even some memories throughout life like school
days, marriage, death of loved one etc) and can be placed back into short-term memory in future
through retrieval process.
Strengths
1. This model was a pioneer in giving us an understanding to the memory in a simplistic manner.
2. The model gave the metaphor of information processor to the human brain and compared it
with computer which is somehow still valid.
3. The multi-store manner by which memory is explained is supported by research.
4. This model has been effective in helping us make predictions about memory and also to design
experiments to study memory.
Limitations
1. The interaction between different stores is not explained properly in this model.
2. The advance researches on LTM have shown us that LTM is not a single store but has many
levels or sub-stores.
11.3 Types of Memory

There are various types of memory which are broadly categorized in three stages or types.
1. Sensory memory
2. Short- term memory
3. Long- term memory

11.3.1 Sensory Memory

Sensory memory refers to the memory of the sensory system. The information received by our
sense organs is briefly stored in its original sensory form for a few seconds or less. Our sense organs
like eyes, ears, nose, tongue and skin receive information from the physical environment and all of
this information is very briefly stored in their sensory memory systems before moving onto the
short term memory.
The information received by the sense organs is physical in nature whereas our brain understands
only in the form of neuronal signals. The process of changing the physical information to the
neuronal signal is known as transduction. The special sensory receptors cells transduce the
information and during the process a memory is created. This memory is very short (less than few
seconds) and is known as sensory memory. Sensory memory is specific to the particular sensory
modality and very briefly continues the sensation after the stimulus ends.
Characteristics of Sensory Memory

 The first and foremost characteristic of sensory memory is, that is a record of the sensory
effects of the stimulus. It is simply the representation of the physical characteristics of the
stimulus.
 The capacity of the sensory memory is infinite.
 The storage of information in sensory memory is independent of attention.
 The information from a particular sense organ is stored in the sensory memory of that
particular sensory modality.Auditory information is only stored in the echoic memory, and
visual information are stored in iconic memory.
 The sensory memory is in high resolution and is detail oriented.
 Sensory memory is really brief and it is being continuously replaced by new memories once
the previous information decays. Information once lost from SM is gone for good and there is
no way to recover it.
Types of Sensory Memory

1. Visual sensory memory
2. Auditory sensory memories
3. Haptic Memory
Visual Sensory Memory

Visual sensory memory also known as iconic memory, in iconic memory information is received by
May last for only 20-400 milliseconds. The idea of iconic memory is somewhat controversial. Most
of the evidence for iconic memory is found in laboratory studies.
Auditory Sensory Memory

Auditory sensory memory is also known as echoic memory. In echoic memory information is
received by ears. From the physical environment like voice song, etc. an echo is a brief flurry of
activity in the auditory system. Echoic memory is the brief registration of sounds or echo’s in
memory. Auditory echoes are slightly longer than icons up to 4,000 milliseconds (4 seconds).
Haptic Memory
The type of sensory memory which stores information from the skin in the form of tactile
sensations is known as haptic memory. Experiencing pressure, itching, and pain throughout the
body follows various pathways, which comprises the somatosensory system, and is stored in haptic
memory
11.3.2 Short Term Memory

When we look up and try to tell someone about the sounds that we are hearing right now or the
things which we are able to see right now, we are using our short-term memory. Short term
memory is also known as working memory. Short-term memory or STM receives information from
the sensory memory and processes that information. STM is a very dynamic and rapidly working
system. It receives information both from the sensory memory as well from the long term memory
for real time processing of the information.
The concept of short term memory were originally introduced by William James and revived by
Waugh and Normen in 1965.

Unit 11: Memory
Short term memory can be compared to the RAM of the computers. RAM provides a working space
for short processing and computations and then transfers it to the other parts of the memory
system. Similarly, STM works on the information that we are currently using. Either it can be from
the long term memory or it can be from the sensory memory which needs processing before being
stored in the long term memory. As the STM is very active and dynamic, it has a limited capacity. It
is also vulnerable to interruptions or interferences.
The time duration of sensory memory is no more than 18 seconds without rehearsal and upto 30
seconds with rehearsal. The capacity is also limited as in the amount of information that STM can
hold is 7+2 items. The capacity can be increased by the method of chunking. For example when we
remember a ten digit phone number (9875392056) a person can learn it more easily by dividing it
into 3 chunks (987, 539, 2056). This chunking is more effective than trying to learn 10 digits singly
and this is due to the limited capacity of STM.
As said earlier, STM is also known as working memory because it deals with what we are
doing/thinking at any given moment. In terms of Freud, STM is the conscious memory. STm
memory is created when we pay attention to the stimulus. It has been found that in short term
memory, the information is stored in the form of level of processing which are three.
Phonological processing
Phonological processing means that the information is in the STM is processed only on the basis of
the sound.
Visual processing
In short term memory some information is processed both at the phonological level as well as the
visual level or visual level alone.
Semantic processing
Semantic processing refers to the processing of information based on its meaning.
It is said that the more a particular information is processed at multiple levels stronger the memory
is.
Components of Working Memory

Short term memory is also referred to as working memory because it is the memorythat one is
currently using. For the better understanding of the working memory, Baddeley and Hitch
proposed a model of working memory which had the three components: the central executive,
phonological loop and the visuospatial sketchpad.
The Central Executive

The central executive gathers information from the phonological loop, the visuospatial sketchpad
and the long term memory. It is like a master which encodes the sensory memory and decides what
is important to be stored in the long term memory. Also, the central executive also retrieves
information from the long term memory as when needed.
The Phonological loop

The phonological loop processes auditory information and is used to learn anything related to
sounds like new vocabulary, solving math-problems, remembering instructions etc. the
phonological loop is active whenever we read, speak or repeat words. We usually notice an “inner
voice” that reads along whenever we read something or when we try to remember something that
is said to us.
The Visuospatial Sketchpad

The visuospatial sketchpad is the component of working memory that is used to process visual
information with the help of physical characteristics or the location of the object.The information is
processed directly with the help of perceptual processes or indirectly through a visual image. It also
helps in tracking the motion of the object which is in our visual field. The visuospatial sketchpad is
active while learning to solve puzzles, mazes etc.
Rehearsal
Rehearsal is the technique that is used to keep the information in the short term memory active for
long. Rehearsal is simple repeating the information over and over again in order to get it stored in

the memory. Rehearsal can be either overt or covert. With the help of rehearsal, the information can
be better stored in long term memory. It is used to create memory traces which have some
permanence.
Types of Rehearsal
1. Maintenance Rehearsal
2. Elaborative Rehearsal
Maintenance Rehearsal
Maintenance rehearsal is repeating the information over and over to keep it active in the working
memory so that we can keep working on the same information. Maintenance rehearsal cannot be
used to store information in the long term memory permanently. This rehearsal is temporary and
does not create a deeper level code.
Elaborative Rehearsal
Elaborative rehearsal refers to the repetition of the information in a more elaborative manner by
associating meaning with the information. The individual elaborates the information as much as
possible and tries to understand the meaning of information from every aspect possible. This kind
of rehearsal makes the information more meaningful. Because of the elaboration, the information is
integrated into the previously known information or forms meaningful association with other
memories making the information more memorable. This type of rehearsal is effective because it
involves thinking about the meaning of the information and connecting it to other information
already stored in memory. It is deeper than maintenance rehearsal.
11.3.3 Long term Memory

Long term memory (LTM) is the most stable part of the memory. The information stored in the long
term memory is relatively permanent and the capacity of the LTM is also infinite. The information
learnt by us in childhood is available for recall even after 50 years. It is seen that yes with passage of
time information can be lost or forgotten but still LTM is a system of memory which stores
information for a very long period of time and is also relatively enduring. LTM is the last store of
the multi store model proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin.
According to Mazur (2006) “long-term memory has also been called reference memory, because an
individual must refer to the information in long-term memory when performing almost any task”.
Whenever we are talking about memory in general, most of us are referring to the long term
memory as here we have information that has been previously learnt. In case of sensory and short
term memory, they are more related to the current information and working. Long term memory is
something every one of us relies on for our day-to-day functioning ass demonstrated in the very
introduction of this chapter. We remember people’s names, their faces our relationships, daily life
objects and how to use them, the words of our language all with the help of long term memory. As
we all know that we remember our life in a chronological order this depicts that long term memory
is stored in temporal sequence.
Long term memory is characterized by the stable and permanent changes in the neural connections
that are widely spread throughout the brain. The small area of brain known as hippocampus is the
important area of the brain which is responsible for making of the memories. The process of
making these neural connections is known as consolidation and the consolidation of information
requires time and proper functioning of the brain. Consolidation of memory can take up to 3
months after the initial learning of the information.
Different theories exist among psychologists about how knowledge reaches long-term memory.
The common view is that information enters short term memory and then transfers to long term
memory based on how it is processed.

Unit 11: Memory
Types of Long-term Memory

Explicit Memory
Explicit memory is that type of long term memory which includes past experiences that are
consciously brought to mind, recall recognition and test you’re taken in school rely on explicit
memory.
Declarative Memory
Declarative memory refers to cognitive information that can be brought to mind. Declarative
memory can involve words, concepts, visual images or both. It is the memory for specific facts and
personal experiences.
Episodic Memory
Episodic memory refers to one’s personal past experiences. It is the sub part of declarative memory
that records personal experiences that are linked with specific times and places. Episodic memory
stores facts, relating to information we have received or experience we have had. Such type of
memory consist information regarding one’s personal life for example what your first day of school
was like, what you did on your last vacation.
Semantic Memory
Semantic memory is the subpart of the declarative memory. The word semantic refers to the
meaning. So the semantic memory includes the impersonal knowledge about the world we are
living in. this includes our knowledge of our personal experiences ranging from the most trivial to
the most important. For example, we know the capitals of states and countries and rules of
basketball or cricket.
Implicit Memory
Implicit memory is a typr of memory which is using our memory and we are not even aware that
we are using information from our memory. It is a process by which we enhance our skills and
behaviors without the conscious awareness that we are learning something new.
Procedural Memory
Procedural memory is the part of implicit memory. It is our unconscious memory of our skills and
habits, specifically how to do things like use objects. Basically it is the ‘how to’ memory. It is the
memory for all our motor skills as well as our cognitive and perceptual skills. A procedural
memory in simple words is the memory of action. Our skills such as swimming, driving, dancing,
cycling all are a part of procedural memory.
Autobiographical Memory
Autobiographical memory is memory for the events of one’s life. The term "autobiographical
memory" refers to a person's memory of their own past. Autobiographical recollection is a positive
experience. One has no recollection of what has occurred. Rather, one recalls one's own
construction or reconstruction of events. In general, people's autobiographical memories are very
strong. They are, however, prone to distortions (as will be discussed later).They are more suitable

for various stages of life. Middle-aged adults often recall incidents from their childhood and early
adulthood more vividly than events from the recent past.
Flush Bulb Memories

Brown and Kulikin invented the word "Flush Bulb Memory" in 1977. Flush bulb memories are vivid
recollections of arousing or shocking incidents. They are often very comprehensive. In other words,
a flush bulb memory is a particularly vivid memory of a particularly emotional or dramatic past
event; these memories can also be linked to particularly vivid emotional events in one's life. Flash
bulb memories are like image frozen in a memory card tied to a particular place, dates, and times.
According to Robin 1985 Flush bulb memories are most often formed when an event is surprising
important or emotional.
Eye witness Memory

Eye witness memory can be defined as the memory which is related to any witnessed event. In
which an individual see any accident is happen and recalls it in his memory and later describes
how the accident occur. For example the flood of 2014 is the eye witness memory for many people
in Kashmir.
11.3.4 Difference between STM and LTM

Short-term Memory Long-term Memory
STM is called primary LTM is called
memory secondary memory
STM has limited STM has unlimited
capacity capacity
It is rapid memory It is slow memory
Frontal lobe is related Temporal lobe is
for STM related for LTM
Duration is less than 30 Duration is unlimited
seconds depending on the
other factors.
11.4 Techniques for Improving memory

Researchers found following fruitful techniques for improving human memory.
Proper attention
Proper attention plays a vital role in remembering process, without paying proper attention
towards the information received through sense organs from the environment we can't send it to
our short term memory. Maximum time's people forget things due to less or no attention towards
them.
Rehearsal
Rehearsal is a technique used for keeping information active. Memory rehearsal is a term for the
role of repetition in the retention of memories. The process of rehearsal consists of keeping items of
information in the center of attention. Rehearsal involves repeating information over and over in
order to get the information processed and stored as a memory.
Chunking
Chunking is the process through which the large material or information is stored in long term
memory by breaking it into many meaningful units called Chunks for example, to remember a 10
digit mobile number (9103133348) a person could chunk the digits into three groups like
9103,1333,48. This method of remembering mobile number is far more effective than attempting to
remember a sting of 10 digits. This is because we are able to chunk the information into meaningful
groups of numbers
Elaborative Processing

Unit 11: Memory
There is evidence that more elaborative processing results better memory. Elaborative processing
involves thinking of information that relates to and expands on the information that needs to be
remembered. For instance, you want remember the name of your class teacher who teach you math
in 10th, in elaborative process you recall your school days first than all related information will be
send back from long term memory to short term memory and you get the name of your class
teacher.
Mnemonics
The mnemonic devices are found to be good methods in helping people to remember material
quickly and easily. The mnemonic device is a method of organizing materials, through this device
the person consciously puts certain systems or order in the material he learns. He can use
meanings, rhythms and groupings as means of organizing the material.
Sleep
Studies have shown that the brain requires 7-8 hours of sleep per night. Sleep strengthens relevant
associations and weakens irrelevant associations, thus improving your access to memories.
11.5 Forgetting
The loss of knowledge from long-term memory is referred to as forgetting. We all forget stuff, such
as a loved one's birthday, someone's name, or where our car keys are kept. As you've seen, memory
is fickle, and forgetting can be aggravating and even humiliating. Why, then, do we forget? This
question has two straightforward responses. Either the memory is no longer available as in it has
disappeared or the information is still there in the memory but somehow due to any reason it is not
being available for recall. Based on these two things, various psychologists have given theories of
forgetting.
Trace decay theory of Forgetting

This theory is based on the fact that there is a trace of memory in the brain. It uses the process of
consolidation to explain forgetting. Memory consolidation creates a structural change in the brain
which means that if there is a memory there is something physical inside the brain corresponding
to it and we call it a memory trace. The trace decay theory of forgetting says that forgetting of
information occurs due to lapse of time and due to passing time the memory trace is automatically
decayed and hence lost. This theory has its focus on the limited duration as well as limited time of
the short term memory. This theory however pays no attention to how the information is learnt or
what events happened between learning that information and when we are trying to recall it. It
simply says that more the time passes the weaker the trace becomes and eventually decays.
Displacement theory
This particular theory tries to explain forgetting in the short term memory. Displacement theory
says that forgetting is simple; it is because the information is not available. According to this theory,
STM has limited capapcity and limited duration due to which as when new knowledge or
information keeps pouring in, it displaces the older one and take its place. The capacity of STM is
7+/- 2 items so it is a very small amount of information and also it is limited time just a few seconds
so, as the new information needs to come in it pushes the older one out. If the older information has
some rehearsal then it might get a chance to go in the long term memory otherwise it is displaced
and forgotten.
It is like a conveyor belt, as we keep putting on more boxes on the conveyor belt the older ones will
fall out.
Interference Theory
It was believed that what we had previously learned, as well as what we would learn in the future,
could disturb or interfere with memory. This theory proposes that during encoding, information in
long-term memory can become confused or mixed up with other information, causing memories to
be distorted or disrupted.According to the interference theory, forgetting happens as a result of
memories interfering and disrupting one another, or in other words, forgetting occurs as a result of
interference from other memories (Baddeley, 1999). Interference can lead to forgetting in one of two
ways:
1. Proactive interference: If you can't learn a new job because you've already learned one, it's called
proactive intervention (pro=forward). When what we already remember gets in the way of what
we're learning right now – when old memories get in the way of fresh memories.

2. Retroactive interference: When you forget a previously learned task as a result of learning a
new task, this is known as retroactive intervention (retro=backward). In other words, later learning
interferes with earlier learning, causing old memories to be disrupted.
Proactive and retroactive Interference is thought to be more likely to occur where the memories are
similar, for example: confusing old and new telephone numbers.
Lack of Consolidation
Memory, according to this theory, is also based on biological processes. When we receive new
information, it takes time for adjustments to occur in the nervous system – the consolidation phase
– so that it can be properly documented. During this time, information is transferred from short-
term memory to long-term memory, which is more permanent.The brain is made up of a large
number of neurons that are linked together by synapses. Chemicals can be transferred from one
neuron to the next via synapses. Neurotransmitters are chemicals that can either inhibit or enhance
the performance of neurons. As a result, if there is a problem with the biological process of
consolidation, memory is not created, according to this theory.And we can feel like we have
forgotten something that just happened.
Retrieval Failure Theory

When information is stored in long-term memory but cannot be retrieved, it is referred to as
retrieval failure. Such data is said to be available (that is, it is still stored) but not usable (i.e. it
cannot be retrieved). The retrieval cues aren't present, so it can't be accessed.
We also store information about the situation when we store a new memory, which are known as
retrieval cues. These retrieval cues will stimulate the memory of the situation when we are in the
same situation again. Retrieval cues can be:
 External / Context - in the environment, e.g. smell, place etc.

 Internal / State- inside of us, e.g. physical, emotional, mood, drunk etc.
There is considerable evidence that information is more likely to be retrieved from long-term
memory if appropriate retrieval cues are present.
11.6 Summary
 Memory is a system or process that stores what we learn for future use.
 Memory has three basic components: encoding, storage and retrieval.
 Encoding is process of getting information in our memory system through automatic or
effortful processing.
 Storage is retention of that information and Retrieval is getting the information out of
storage.
 Sensory memory, short-term memory and long-term memory are the different types of
memory as told by Atkinson and Shiffrin.
 The stimuli that we pay attention to goes in the short-term memory and the information
we rehearse moves on into the long-term memory.
 Other models of memory are given by Baddeley and Hitch which says that there is a
feedback loop between short-term and long-term memory.
 Despite the precision of our brain in the functioning of the memory there are still times
that we forget a lot of information, a process that’s usually referred to as retrieval failure.
 There are many ways to combat this failure which includes mnemonics, rehearsals and
adequate sleep. These can also help in studying effectively.
11.7 Keywords
Absentmindedness, acoustic encoding, amnesia, anterograde amnesia, arousal theory, Atkinson-
Shiffrin model, automatic processing, chunking, declarative memory, effortful processing,
elaborative rehearsal, encoding, episodic memory, explicit memory, flashbulb memory, forgetting,
implicit memory, long-term memory (LTM), memory, memory-enhancing strategy, proactive
interference

Unit 11: Memory

1. Compare and contrast implicit and explicit memory.
2. According to the Atkinson-Shiffrin model, name and describe the three stages of memory.
3. Compare and contrast the two ways in which we encode information.
4. What might happen to your memory system if you sustained damage to your
hippocampus?
5. Compare and contrast the two types of interference.
6. Compare and contrast the two types of amnesia.

1. ________ is a memory store with a phonological loop, visiospatial sketchpad, episodic buffer, and
a central executive.
 sensory memory
 episodic memory
 working memory
 implicit memory
2. The storage capacity of long-term memory is ________.
 one or two bits of information

 seven bits, plus or minus two
 limited
 essentially limitless
3. The three functions of memory are ________.

 automatic processing, effortful processing, and storage
 encoding, processing, and storage
 automatic processing, effortful processing, and retrieval
 encoding, storage, and retrieval
4. This physical trace of memory is known as the ________.
 engram
 Lashley effect
 Deese-Roediger-McDermott Paradigm
 flashbulb memory effect
5. An exceptionally clear recollection of an important event is a (an) ________.
 engram
 arousal theory
 flashbulb memory
 equipotentiality hypothesis
6. ________ is when our recollections of the past are done in a self-enhancing manner.
 stereotypical bias
 egocentric bias
 hindsight bias
 enhancement bias
7. Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon is also known as ________.

 persistence
 misattribution
 transience
 blocking
8. The formulation of new memories is sometimes called ________, and the process of bringing up
old memories is called ________.
 construction; reconstruction
 reconstruction; construction
 production; reproduction
 reproduction; production
9. When you are learning how to play the piano, the statement “Every good boy does fine” can help
you remember the notes E, G, B, D, and F for the lines of the treble clef. This is an example of a (an)
________.
 jingle
 acronym
 acrostic
 acoustic
10. If you want to improve your short-term memory, you should spend time writing about
________.
 your best possible future self

 a traumatic life experience
 a trivial topic
 your grocery list
11. The self-referencing effect refers to ________.
 making the material you are trying to memorize personally meaningful to you
 making a phrase of all the first letters of the words you are trying to memorize
 making a word formed by the first letter of each of the words you are trying to memorize
 saying words you want to remember out loud to yourself
12. Memory aids that help organize information for encoding are ________.
 mnemonic devices
 memory-enhancing strategies
 elaborative rehearsal
 effortful processing

Atkinson, R., &Shiffrin, R. (1968). Human memory: A proposed system and its control
processes. In K Spence & J Spence (Eds.). The Psychology of Learning and Motivation:
Advances in Research and Theory (Vol. 2). New York: Academic Press.
Bransford, J. (1979). Human Cognition: Learning, Understanding, and Remembering.
Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
Galotti, K.M. (2008). Cognitive Psychology: Perception, Attention, and Memory. London:
Cengage.
Solso, R.L. (2006). Cognitive Psychology. New Delhi: Pearson Education

Unit 11: Memory
Cunia, E. (2005). Cognitive learning theory. Principles of Instruction and Learning: A

Web Quest. Retrieved April 2006, from http://suedstudent.syr.edu/
~ebarrett/ide621/cognitive.htm
http://www.well.com/user/smalin/miller.html

Unit 12:Thinking, Intelligence and Creativity
Unit 12: Thinking, Intelligence and Creativity
CONTENTS
Objectives
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Intelligence
12.2.1 Characteristics of intelligence
12.2.2 Measurement of intelligence
12.2.3 Concept of intelligence quotient
12.3 Thinking
1.3.1 Characteristics of thinking
1.3.2 Types of thinking
12.4 Creativity
1.4.1 Characteristics of creativity
1.4.2 Types of creativity
1.4.3 Aspects of creativity
12.5 Summary
12.6 Keywords
Objectives

• Describe intelligence and intelligence theories
• Understand how to measure intelligence
• Know about the characteristics of intelligence
• Understand the meaning of thinking and the characteristics of thinking
• Describe the types of thinking
• Define and describe creativity
• Describe the types of creativity
• Understand the stages of creative process.
12.1 Introduction
What is the best way to solve a problem? How does a person who has never seen or touched snow
in real life develop an understanding of the concept of snow? How do young children acquire the
ability to learn language with no formal instruction? Psychologists who study thinking explore
questions like these and are called cognitive psychologists.
Cognitive psychologists also study intelligence. What is intelligence, and how does it vary from
person to person? Are “street smarts” a kind of intelligence, and if so, how do they relate to other
types of intelligence? What does an IQ test really measure? These questions and more will be
explored in this chapter as you study thinking and intelligence. We will consider thinking and
briefly explore the development and use of language. We will also discuss problem solving and
creativity before ending with a discussion of how intelligence is measured and how our biology
and environments interact to affect intelligence. After finishing this chapter, you will have a greater
appreciation of the higher-level cognitive processes that contribute to our distinctiveness as a
species.
12.2 Intelligence
In general, intelligence is our capacity to in a purposeful way, to think in rational way, and also to
deal very effectively to environmental. Intelligence also involves reasoning, problem solving ability,

DPSY534: Cognitive Process
knowledge, memory and successful adaptation to one’s surroundings. Intelligence can be defined
as the ability of adjusting in a new environment. It is the ability to avail of experience.
Intelligence is the ability to see and adapt to novel situations rapidly and efficiently; the ability to
utilize abstract and effectively; the ability to group relations and to learn speedily.
Different psychologists gave definition of intelligence in different ways.
“Intelligence is the capacity to learn and adjust to relatively new and changing conditions.”- Wagnon 1937
“Intelligence is the capacity of an individual consciously tom adjust his thinking to new requirements. It is
general mental adaptability to new problems and conditions of life.”- Stern
“Intelligence is the aggregate or global capacity of an individual to act purposefully, to think rationally and
to deal effectively with his environment” - David Wechsler
“Intelligence is the ability to do abstract thinking.” - Termen 1921
“Intelligence is ability to adjust to environment.” – Colvin
“Intelligence is the power of making good responses from the point of view of truth and fact.” – Thorndike
“Intelligence is the judge well, to understand properly to reason well, these are the essential springs of
intelligence.” – Binet
“Intelligence comprises the mental abilities necessary for adaptation to, as well as shaping and selection of,
any environmental context.”- Sternberg
“Intelligence is the ability or skill to solve problems or to fashion products which are valued within one or
more cultural settings.”– Gardner
“Intelligence is like electricity which is easy to be measured but difficult to be defined” -Jenson
12.2.1 Characteristics of Intelligence
Following points highlights the characteristics of intelligence.
1. Intelligence is an innate natural power.
2. Intelligence helps the individual in learning things and making adjustment.
3. Intelligence is a product of heredity and environment.
4. Intelligence is not a skill which is acquired through practice.
5. Intelligence is the ability of abstract thinking.
6. Intelligence is not a memory. An intelligent person may have dull memory and vice-versa
7. Heredity exercises a good deal of influence on intelligence.
8. It helps to understand and deal with people, objects, and symbols
12.2.2 Measurement of intelligence

In psychology, we measure concepts by using different psychological tests/scales. Firstly,
it is very important for a test or scale to reliable i.e., consistent, secondly, should be valid,
means should measure what it supposed to measure. There are variety of tests available
to measure intelligence. The intelligence test is of two types, one is individual tests and
other is group test. And the first individual intelligence test was constructed by Binet and
Simon called Binet-Simon Scale. The first group tests were Army Alpha and Army Beta
test. Individual test can be administered only on one individual at a time and group test
can be administered to number for people.
Further intelligence test can be classified on the basis of nature of items in the test. Verbal
and Performance tests. In verbal test, also known as paper-pencil test, here written
language is used to give instructions and also some language is required on the side of
subject. It means, this only can be performed on those who are literate. In case of
performance test, although in this some instructions in language have been used, but here
the job of the subject is to perform a task. instead to read or write. The advantage of
performance over verbal tests are they can be applied in child case as well as those who
are illiterate.

Other classification is Speed and Power test- In speed test there is always a time limit to
complete the test for example 20 or 25 minutes will be given to complete it. And in power
test, the difficulty level of items/statements increases as the item number increases.
Few important intelligence tests are-
Stanford-Binet Scale, Wechsler Scales, Kaufman Scales, Raven’s Progressive Matrices,
Goodenough Draw-a-Man test. And some Indian Intelligence Test are- General Mental
Ability test by R P Shrivastava and K Saxena, Group test of P Ahuja, Verbal Intelligence
scale of R K Ojha and Ray Chaudhary etc.
12.2.3 The concept of the intelligence quotient
This concept was first introduced in the year 1916 by Terman. The IQ he defined
as a ratio of the mental age to the real age or we can say chronological age. And
multiply by 100. So, the formula is MA/CA X 100. If Radha, of a mental age of 7 and
her chronological age of 10, has an IQ of 7 divided by 10, multiplied by 100, which comes
out 70. This means, Radha’s mental age is 70 per cent of her chronological age.
12.3 Thinking
Thinking is a process like perceiving and remembering. It is because of thinking that a being called
a rational being and this is a special gift provided to man by nature. Thinking is a productive
process that assist us to procedure a novel representation of an object or of any event by altering
presented information. It comprises a number of cerebral activities, like concluding,
conceptualizing, reasoning, envisaging, judgement, problem solving, and artistic thinking.
Thinking is the utmost comprehensive of the three essentials of the thought process and is
considered by generality rather than omission. It is considered as a highest cognitive functioning
and the examination of thinking process is a very part of the branch cognitive psychology. Thinking
is overt higher level of mental activity instead by problem solving as soon as the solution of the
problem is arrived.
It is cognitive process that involves some changes of knowledge in one’s cognitive system. All
thinking is based on personal experiences and knowledge. it is an active process. It encompasses
events that range from day dreaming to problem solving.
“Thinking is the process that enables us to find symbolic representations of problems by using symbolic
representation of stimuli and events.” Silver (1978)
“Thinking is the mental representation of image symbolic concepts rules and other meditational units.” –
Kant H. (1976)
12.3.1 Characteristics of Thinking
1. Thinking is the highly mental complex process
2. Thinking is the symbolic process.
3. Thinking involves memory, emotion, motivation language, learning, mental manipulation
(arrangement and rearrangement) of symbols, images and past experiences.
4. Thinking also includes organization and evaluation of information, judgement, compression,
reasoning or cognitive process.
5. Thinking is a polymorphous process.
6. Thinking is a problem solving process.
7. Thinking is an overt behaviour.
8. Thinking is goal directed.
9. Thinking is an active process.
10. Thinking is based on one’s personal experiences and behaviour.
12.3.2 Types of Thinking

There are mainly two types of thinking (1) Autistic thinking and (2) Realistic thinking.
Autistic Thinking
Autistic thinking is that type of thinking which is highly private and may use symbols with very
personal meanings, dreams are the examples of autistic thinking
Realistic thinking

Realistic thinking is that type of thinking which is related to realize to solve problems relating
society. Environment political setup, it also includes mathematical solution. Realistic thinking have
following types: (1) convergent thinking (2) divergent thinking (3) creative thinking and (4)
evaluative thinking (5) critical thinking.
Convergent Thinking
J.P. Guilford coined the term “convergent thinking”. In simple terms, Convergent thinking is from
general to specific. Humans are efficient in convergent thinking we collect information or gain
knowledge related to the particular event or thing and then we conclude and come to the one
solution. For example, mathematical problems where there is only one formula to solve it.
Divergent Thinking
Divergent thinking is the opposite to convergent thinking, here we go from specific to general. This
is related to creativity. People who are creative they go for divergent thinking, like giving
numerous ways to solve a particular problem.
Creative Thinking
Creative thinking is also known as inductive thinking. Creative thinking gives us novel ideas to
deal with the situation or to solve a particular problem. One form of thinking which gives is very
new and useful ideas.
Creative thinking is said to be processed in five stages (1) preparation (2) incubation (3)
illumination (4) evaluation and (5) revision. Creative people are usually intelligent, talent and
strongly motivated to solve the problems that interest them.
Evaluative Thinking
Evaluative thinking is that type of thinking in which an individual made the conclusion about
many things by using both positive and negative aspects of that thing.
Critical Thinking
Critical thinking measures the value and rationality of something in existence. It contains exact,
insistent, impartial analysis. Creative thinking generally refers to higher thinking that questions
assumptions.
The term critical thinking was introduced by John Dewey in early 1900’s. The word “Critical” is
derived from the ancient word ”Kriterion” means standards.
12.4 Creativity
Creativity is a kind of thinking that involves in solving a solution with a novel and useful method
or idea. It gives us unique way to do things or to solve issues. It is one of the highest traits of
humans. It helps us in utilizing all human resources, and makes us competent enough and skilled.
It comprises the group of ideas, substitutions, and options (Smith 1998). Creativity research helps in
finding the individual differences in cognitions, personalities, problem solving skills, decision styles
etc. Guilford had defined the term creativity in two criteria: one is originality or novelty, and
another is appropriateness.
Creativity is linked to goal directed intelligent which is rare, new and mostly useful. Few examples
of creativity are The Mona Lisa painting, Thermo dynamics Law, motion Law, Relativity theory etc.
“Creativity is the capacity of a person to produce compositions, products or ideas which are essentially new or
novel and previously unknown to the producer.” - Drevdahl
“Without creativity man is not able to make full use of information and resources available locked up in old
habits, structures, patterns and concepts and perceptions?” - Akinboye (2002)
12.4.1 Characteristics of Creativity
1. It is the production of novel ideas.
2. It is the reconstruction of old ideas
3. It is related to insight.
4. It is active involvement in searching the alternatives.
5. It gives is some special ways to deal with Information.
12.4.2 Types of Creativity

Little-c Creativity
Little-c creativity is everyday creativity. This type of creativity is found in everyday activities.
Big-c creativity
Big-c creativity is also known as eminent creativity. This type of creativity is found on interpersonal
and historical judgements of novelty, appropriateness and lasting impact.
12.4.3 Aspects of Creativity
Guilford (1986) considered creative thinking as involving divergent thinking, which emphasises
fluency, flexibility, originality, and elaboration. A little explanation of the same is given below:
Fluency:
Fluency means amount of appropriate ideas coming up to deal with things.
Flexibility
Creative people are very flexible. They don’t carry rigidity in their concepts, ideas, solutions but
having variety of them to be used.
Originality
It is the originality not the copied one’s. Creative person has many ideas and are novel or original
Elaboration
The amount of added thoughts; validates the person’s ability to develop and detailed their ideas.
Resistance to Premature Closure
Creativity makes ap person resistant to premature closure. This is the degree of psychological
flexibility. They keep their mind very open.
Stages of Creativity
Graham Wallas (1926) suggested the stages of creative thinking.
Preparation
The vary first stage is preparation, here a person tries to collect all the facts available to the issue or
problem, which are essential to solve the issue. This stage to learn about the problem as much as we
can. Understanding is essential.
Incubation
When there is no solution and it involves variety of complexities. Here functional fixedness or
mental set plays an hinderance in solving the issue. And due to over processing, person starts
feeling fatigue and stops thinking about the issue or distract himself from the issue. But the
unconscious part is working or involved in creative process during this stage.
Illumination
In the third stage, and suddenly the subject gets the novel way or idea to deal with the issue. Here
the thinker gets the insight and get the best ways or solutions. This generally happens when we
distract or stops thinking about the problem and later suddenly got the answer or solution of it.
Verification
The last is verification stage, where we check the solution. Sometimes, few modifications occurred
at this stage. An individual here apply the solution finally and get the result.
Summary
Intelligence, thinking and creativity all are the most fundamental and complex characteristics of the
cognition. It helps us in dealing with life events effectively. These makes us separate from animals.
12.4.4 Keywords
Analytical intelligence, convergent thinking, creativity, creative intelligence, divergent thinking,
Multiple Intelligences Theory, triarchic theory of intelligence


• Do you think emotional intelligence has any role to play in your personal life?
• Describe a situation where you think practical intelligence might be needed.
• Describe situations or events in which divergent thinking is being used
• Explain the multiple intelligences theory.

1. Howard Gardner has given______ number of Multiple Intelligences
2. The components of Traichic Theory are
• Componential, Sequential, Contextual
• Componential, Experiential, Contextual
• Contextual, Experiential, Sequential
• Contextual, Streamential, Experiential
3. _______intelligence is accumulation of knowledge, facts, and skills that are acquired throughout
life
4. How many mental abilities did Thurstone suggest constituted intelligence?
• 7
• 2
• 8
• 6
5. Deviation I.Q. is a concept given by Wechsler. True/False
6. ______________is the process of thinking that explores multiple possible solutions in order to
generate creative ideas.
7. _____________makes broad generalizations from specific cases or observations.
8. A type of mental activity in which focus is directed inward and the thinking is subjective (as
opposed to objective) is known as
• Inductive Thinking
• Autistic Thinking
• Convergent Thinking
• Deductive Thinking
9- Emphasizing what comes to mind first or most readily/quickly is known as _________
• Critical Thinking
• Intuitive Thinking
• Confirmation Bias
10- Tendency to think about things only in respect of their usual functions
• Fixation
• Mental Set
• Functional Fixedness
• Confirmation Bias
11- What is correct sequence of stages in Wallas model of creativity?
• Preparation Incubation Illumination Verification
• Preparation Illumination Incubation Verification
• Preparation Verification Incubation Illumination
• Preparation Incubation Verification Illumination
12- _____________stage is characterized by taking step back from the problem and allowing the
mind to wander to let it contemplate and work the problem through.
13- Which of the following is not a dimension of Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking
• Originality
• Flexibility

• Fluency
• Extension
14- Which of the following is not a related to creativity
• Intelligence
• Academic Achievement
• Recalling information
• All of the above
15- Divergent Thinking is thinking associated with Creativity. True/False

Abraham, A., and Windmann, S. (2007). Creative cognition: the diverse operations and the
prospect of applying a cognitive neuroscience perspective. Methods 42, 38–48. doi:
10.1016/j.ymeth.2006.12.007
Anderson, J. R. (1983). The Architecture of Cognition Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
Press
Barsalou, L. W. (1992). Cognitive Psychology: An Overview for Cognitive Scientists Hillsdale,
NJ: LEA.
Boden, M. A. (1990). The Creative Mind: Myths and Mechanisms London: Abacus.
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-psychology/chapter/step-3-memory-
retrieval/
https://www.simplypsychology.org/forgetting.html
https://practicalpie.com/theories-of-forgetting/

Unit 13: Emotion and Motivation

CONTENTS
Objectives
Introduction
13.1 Introduction to Motivation
13.2 Nature of Motivation
13.3 Types of Motivation
13.4 Motivational Perspectives
13.5 Motivational Conflicts
13.6 Introduction to Emotion
13.7 Components of emotions
13.8 Characteristics of emotions
13.9 Classification of emotions
13.10 Summary
Objectives
 understand the nature of human motivation,

 describe the nature of some important motives,
 describe the nature of emotional expression,
 understand the relationship between culture and emotion
 Know how to manage your own emotions.
Introduction
Sunita, a young lady from a mostly secret town, places in 10-12 hours of difficult work each day to
overcome the different designing selection tests. Hemant, a truly tested kid, needs to participate in
an endeavours and prepares himself widely in a mountaineering organization. Aman sets aside
cash from his grant so he can purchase a present for his mom. These are only a couple models,
which show the job inspiration plays in human conduct. Every one of these practices is brought
about by a fundamental intention. Conduct is objective driven. Objective looking for conduct will in
general continue until the objective is accomplished. For accomplishing their objectives individuals
design and attempt various exercises. How is Sunita going to feel if after all the difficult work she
has placed in, she doesn't succeed or Aman's grant cash gets taken? Sunita, maybe, will be
miserable and Aman furious. This part will assist you with understanding the essential ideas of
inspiration and feeling, and related advancements in these two regions. You will likewise become
more acquainted with the ideas of disappointment and struggle. The fundamental feelings, their
natural bases, plain articulations, social impacts, their relationship with inspiration, and a few
strategies to assist you with dealing with your feelings better will likewise be managed.

13.1 Introduction to Motivation

The expression "motivation" is gotten from the Latin "Moveers" which signifies
"to move". It is that space of mental science that reviews the variables that
empower, or stimulate, behavior. In particular, it is The expression "Motivation"
springs from the Latin "Movers" which recommends "to move". it's that space of
psychology that reviews the elements that energize, or animate behavior. In
particular, it's worried about how behavior is started, coordinated, and
maintained. In straightforward words, inspiration is that the way toward exciting
developments inside the living being.
Motivation is that the need or want which coordinates our conduct. the
possibility of inspiration emerges from the natural interaction of homeostasis
which recommends that the body consistently keeps a decent or a proceeding
with interior state. At whatever point this equilibrium is intruded on, a particular
need emerges and along these lines the individual is inspired to act in a specific
way to deal with homeostasis.
Additionally, Motivation might be a psycholoical process driven by needs. it's a

dynamic and purposive interaction intended to be the drive behind all our
practices. Inspiration is, in this way, instrumental during a conduct interaction.
Recognizable proof of persuasive properties of human conduct must be
completely gotten a handle on to serve life forms better and on appropriate
contemplations. Inspiration is that the interior cycles that can't be
straightforwardly seen inside the circumstance yet which are genuine, by the by,
and which serve to actuate, control, and keep up individuals' activity. issues with
inspiration are spread through the different degrees of investigation of brain
research. for instance, the ideas of remuneration and support and consequently
the physiological instruments are vital to speculations of inspiration.
13.2 Nature of Motivation

The idea of Motivation is regularly seen from the ensuing focuses concluded
from various meanings of Motivation.
1. The idea of Motivation centers around clarifying what "moves" conduct.
2. A large portion of our ordinary clarification of behavior is given regarding

motives.
3. Intentions likewise help in making forecasts about conduct
4. Thought processes are the general expresses that empower us to frame

forecasts about conduct in numerous different circumstances.

5. Motivation is one of the determinants of conduct.
6. Senses, drives, necessities, objectives, and motivators go under the wide bunch
of Motivation.
13.3 Types of Motives
There are two kinds of motive and two kinds of There are two sorts of
motivation. the 2 sorts of motives are biological and psychosocial motives.
1. Biological Motives: The biological or physiological approach to know
motivation is that the very first plan to understand the motivation. This approach
has its base from the homeostasis and therefore the concept of adaptation that
organisms need to maintain the body’s needs which are internal physiological
imbalances. These physiological imbalances produce drives that successively
stimulate the behavior of the organism. This approach relies on the concept of
instinct. Instincts are the inborn patterns of behavior that don't require learning
and are biological in nature.
The major biological motives are hunger, thirst, sleep, sex, parental care, etc.
2. Psychosocial Motives: Social motives are usually learned or acquired from
social groups, family, community, neighborhood, friends, and relatives, etc.
Psychosocial motives are certain complex sorts of motives that result from the
interaction of the individual with his/her social surroundings also as our
collective unconscious.
Major psychosocial motives are: the necessity for affiliation, need for power, need
for achievement, curiosity, and exploration, etc.
The two sorts of motivation that are there are:
1. Intrinsic motivation: Intrinsic motivation comes from within and is typically
autonomous. once you are intrinsically motivated the behavior or activity that's
being done gives the individual internal satisfaction and private joy. The goal of
the behavior is to achieve, mastery, competence, and purposiveness.
1. 2. Extrinsic motivation: Extrinsic motivation comes from the external
expectation of some reward or reinforcement. The goal is concentrated on an
external outcome like fame, money, reward, or external reinforcement. Basically,
the motivation behind the behavior arises from external factors, not the interior
psychological needs.
. the 2 kinds of thought processes are organic and psychosocial intentions.
1. Natural Motives: The organic or physiological way to deal with realize

inspiration is that the absolute first intend to comprehend the inspiration. This
methodology has its base from the homeostasis and subsequently the idea of
variation that living beings need to keep up the body's requirements which are
inner physiological uneven characters. These physiological irregular
characteristics produce drives that progressively animate the conduct of the life
form. This methodology depends on the idea of intuition. Impulses are the
characteristic examples of conduct that don't need learning and are organic in
nature.

The major organic intentions are hunger, thirst, rest, sex, parental consideration,
and so on
2. Psychosocial Motives: Social thought processes are typically taken in or

procured from gatherings of people, family, local area, neighborhood,
companions, and family members, and so on Psychosocial intentions are sure
intricate kinds of thought processes that outcome from the collaboration of the
person with his/her social environmental factors additionally as our aggregate
oblivious. Major psychosocial intentions are: the need for alliance, need for
power, need for accomplishment, interest, and investigation, and so on
The two kinds of inspiration that are there are:
1. Natural inspiration: Intrinsic inspiration comes from the inside and is regularly
self-ruling. when you are characteristically spurred the conduct or action that is
being done gives the individual inward fulfillment and private bliss. The
objective of the conduct is to accomplish, authority, ability, and purposiveness.
2. Extraneous inspiration: Extrinsic inspiration comes from the outside

assumption for some award or support. The objective is focused on an outside
result like distinction, cash, award, or outer support. Essentially, the inspiration
driving the conduct emerges from outer elements, not the inside mental
necessities.
13.4 Perspectives on Motivation
There are various perspectives to elucidate the rationale for behavior aka
motivation. Each perspective on its own won't be ready to fully explain all
human behavior, but together they will explain tons about human behavior.
Instinct hypothesis
As indicated by the Instinct hypothesis, all human conduct is motivation by

Instinct. Instinct are the biological patterns of behavior examples of conduct that
don't need learning. for example, newborn children have an inborn reflex that
assists them with chasing down an areola and get sustenance, while birds have a
natural had the opportunity to relocate before winter. Both of those practices
happen normally and consequently. they are doing not had the opportunity to be
figured out how to be shown.
In any case, saying that every single one of the human conduct is predicated on
impulse will be misrepresenting in light of the fact that it's difficult to process the
very certainty that two populace are quarreling about ensuing government
because of a natural sense. Therapists get that while the populace is organically
modified, singular encounters likewise assume a significant part in why the
conduct is shown. Thus, more hypotheses of inspiration came into placeDrive-
decrease hypothesis

Clark Hull gave a substitution viewpoint to considering feeling by saying that the
decrease of drives is that the essential power behind inspiration is. The drives
emerge on account of requirements. Body based his concept of drive-decrease on
the idea of Homeostasis during which a necessity is made which gives ascend to
a drive to act. The drive is that the condition of strain or excitement which is
brought about by natural or physiological necessities. A drive makes a
horrendous express, a strain that must be diminished.
To decrease this condition of strain, people, and creatures chase down

approaches to fulfill these natural requirements. We get a beverage once we are
parched. We eat once we are eager. We happen the indoor regulator once we are
cold." He recommended human and creature practices that decrease such drives
would then rehash." Thus a persuasive cycle is madeHierarchy of requirements
hypothesis
Chain of importance of requirements hypothesis
The pecking order of requirements hypothesis was given by Abraham Maslow

inside the 1940s. He expressed that people are spurred to understand certain
requirements and a couple of necessities are points of reference to other people.
He caused a pyramidal model to clarify his perspective. reliable with this model,
our most rudimentary need is for actual endurance and this is regularly the sum
one inspiration for the populace to attempt to any conduct. When the
physiological necessities are gotten we move further together the pyramid. This
pyramid is appeared in the figure beneath .

Physiological needs: These are the biological things that humans need for
utmost basic survival which are air, water, food, sex, sleep, etc. If these
needs are not met, the human body cannot function in an optimal state
and thus Maslow considered them to be of prime importance.
2. Safety needs: Once the essential physiological requirements are met,
wellbeing and security take significance. Wellbeing and security needs are
satisfied by society, apparel, cover, clinical consideration, monetary
security, property, and so on
3. Love and Belongingness needs: Love and belongingness are given

significance after the physiological and wellbeing needs. This need
includes the sensation of belongingness and society and is made
unmistakable by the need of relational connections in various everyday
issues and person is inspired towards something very similar.
4. Esteem needs: Esteem needs are at the fourth level in Maslow's

pyramid and they are separated into two classifications; regard for
oneself and the craving for regard from others. Accordingly respect,
accomplishment, autonomy, authority, status, notoriety, distinction
these are required by individuals are then persuaded to act in a
manner to satisfy these necessities.
5. Self-realization needs: Self-completion is the most significant level in

the chain of importance of requirements model and alludes to the need
of the individual to accomplish genuine potential, self-satisfaction, self-
awareness, and that's just the beginning
13.5 .Motivational conflicts
Sometimes the urge to try to do something worthy or good or
pleasurable is opposed by the very fact that it involves pain or
inconvenience or diligence. Then the organism conflicts with two
opposite motives.
The simplest three are these:
1. Approach/avoidance conflicts. The organic entity is pulled in and
repulsed by components of a comparable circumstance. Attempt to
entice a semi-tame squirrel with a nut, and you'll likely notice some
instability. You are a potential hunter, however the nut might be an
attractive food, along these lines the squirrel has a
methodology/aversion struggle.
2.

2. Approach/approach conflicts . The organic entity is compelled to

choose between two attractive results that are totally unrelated (for
example just one can be picked). In this methodology, there are two
uplifting objectives that have equivalent strength of fascination,
however an individual can pick just each in turn. Sitting in front of a
presentation of product, when you can just bear to shop, for a certain
something, you'll end up connected during a relocation movement like
scratching your head.
3.Avoidance/avoidance conflicts. The creature is compelled to choose

between two diverse unwanted results. It includes picking "the lesser
of two shades of malice." Animals got between a chimney and a
waterway should pick which to confront. They are probably going to
bring up indications of misery, bouncing around, pawing the base , or
expressing until they dive into the stream.
13.6Introduction to Emotion
The term “Emotion” springs from the Latin word “Emotes” which
suggests “to move”, “to move” or “to put in motion”. In Psychology, the
word “Emotion” is employed to explain a state of pleasure within the
organism.
13.5 Components of Emotions

Psychologists generally agree that emotions consist of three
components: they are (1) subjective experience (2) physical change and
(3) cognitive appraisals.
1. The subjective experiences are that psychologists and laypeople alike
refer to when they ask “How are you feeling”?
2. The physical change includes increased heart rate, skin temperature,
or brain activation, to be an integral part of what makes an emotion.
3. The third component, cognitive appraisals involve people’s belief
and understanding about why they feel the way they feel.
Emotion is a state portrayed by physiological excitement, change in look,
motions, stances, and abstract sentiments. The feeling addresses an emotional
inclination tone. Feelings will be sentiments that typically impact the conduct of
both physiological and intellectual components. Abstract assessment,
physiological cycles, and psychological convictions are feelings.

Emotion penetrate human existence as individuals become hopelessly enamored,

make progress, and appreciate companionships, yet they likewise underline
agonizing scenes that may might as well rather than neglect. Here and there our
feelings can overpower us, for example, when we become focused by requests on
our time.
Emotion are a major piece of human encounters. They caution of peril, make
connections among individuals, and pass on bliss to life. In any case, they can
likewise cause issues; individuals who feel excessively restless might be too
hesitant to even consider meeting new individuals or even to take off from the
house. Feelings are incredible spurring powers all through the range of human
existence, influencing goals activities, and contemplations of a private . Feelings
signify a condition moved, spurred, or excited here and there. A feeling includes
sentiments, driving forces, and physiological responses.
"A Emotion is a complex mental express that includes three unmistakable parts:
an emotional encounter, a physiological reaction, and a social or expressive
reaction"- Hockenbury&Hockenbury
"Emotion might be an intricate framework, described by the cooperation between

neurohormonal segments, expressive conduct and exact (experiential)."- Izard
(1991)
"Emotion is that the emotional part of the natural interaction. They give energy to
the tasks of the impulses and empower the person to accomplish the end."- Mc
Dougall
"Emotion" is that the worked up condition of the person, as addressed by a

combination of things ." - Webster's Dictionary 1963
"Emotion" is an intense aggravation of the organic entity, as a whole mental in

beginning including conduct, cognizant experience, and instinctive working." -
P.T Young
"Emotion is an influenced condition of the organic entity" – Titchener
"Emotionis a type of energy activation."- Carr

13.6 Characteristics of Emotions

According to Drever, an emotion has five important characteristics and it is
through these characteristics that an experience is designated as an emotional
experience. These characteristics areas
An emotional experience has an affective relationship to an object or idea.
2. An emotional experience is accompanied by organic resonance i.e. certain
organic change takes place when an individual is in a state of emotion.
3. During an emotional experience there is some sort of pleasure-pain feelings.
4. Every emotional reaction tends to be violent and has a good deal of impulsive
force behind it.
5. During the emotional experience the behavior is more or less limited and
cannot be varied.
encounter has an emotional relationship to an article or thought.
2. A emotional experience is joined by natural reverberation for example certain

natural change happens when an individual is in a condition of feeling.
3. During aemotional experience there is a type of delight torment sentiments.
4. Each emotinal response will in general be savage and has a decent

arrangement of incautious power behind it.
5. During the enthusiastic experience the conduct is pretty much restricted and
can't be fluctuated.
13.7 Classification of Emotions
Classification of Emotions
Robert Plutchick has classified emotions into two basic group’s i.e. primary and
secondary emotions.Classification of Emotions
Primary Emotions
Primary emotions are the quick feelings that an individual felt in light of some
random circumstance.Primary emotions are felt first and mirror a person's actual
sentiments with respect to the circumstance. Primary emotions s are significant in
light of the fact that they give us the data about our present circumstances and
prepare us or roused to act somehow or another. Some essential feelings are
expectation, acknowledgment, outrage, disdain, dread, bliss, pity, shock, and so
on
Secondary Emotion
Secondary emotions are those feelings thatprimary emotions trail. These feelings
at times confound an individual's view of how you really feel about a

circumstance. Secondary emotions have significant segments of insight. Their

degree of energy (low to high) and their worth are resolved (wonderful to
unsavory). Secondary emotions can a ton of unnecessary trouble in one's life.
They generally result from your primary emotions through mindfulness or
oblivious worth decisions These feelings are regularly maladaptive in light of the
fact that they notice the reality of a circumstance and make it outlandish for you
to appropriately experience and work through your primary emotions all things
considered.
Summary
 The process of persistent behavior that is aimed at certaindriving
forces is called motivation.
• There are two kinds of motivation, biological and psycho-social.
• Innate causes of biological incitement, such as the hormones,
neurotransmitters, structures of the brain (hypothalamus and limbs),
etc. The physiological motivation examples are hunger, thirst, and
sex...
 Psychosocial motivation explains mainly reasons resulting from the
individual's interaction with his or her social environment. The
need for affiliation, the need for achievement, curiosity, and
research are examples of psychosocial reasons.
1. Explain the concept of motivation.
2. What are the biological foundations of thirst and hunger?
3. How do the requirements for achievement, affiliation, and power
influence the behavior of adolescents? Explain with examples.
4. what's the essential idea behind Maslow’s hierarchy of needs? Explain
with suitable examples.
5.Does an emotional experience precede physiological excitement or
follow it? Explanation. Explanation.
6. Is it important to consciously interpret and label emotions to elucidate
them? Discuss giving suitable examples.
7.How does culture affect emotional expression?
. Why are negative emotions important to manage? Suggest how
negative emotions can be managed.

1- Motivation is the result of a person-situational interaction(T/F)
2-Energy, direction, and achievement are the three key elements in defining motivation (T/F)
3- High levels of effort don’t necessarily lead to favorable job performance unless the effort is
channeled in a direction that benefits the organization (T/F)

4- McGregor's theories X and Y are probably the best-known theory of motivation. (T/F)
5- Maslow argued that before the next level is activated, every level in the hierarchy of needs must
be considered satisfied. (T/F)
6- Based on McClelland’s three-need theory, high achievers perform best when the odds are against
them. (T/F)
7- _____________refers to the process by which a person’s effortsare energized, directed, and
sustained toward attaining a goal.
8- What level of need is based on the desire for food, drink, and sexual satisfaction------------
9- The -------------plays a central role in producing emotions.
10- The thalamus plays a key emotional role(T/F)
11- A state characterized by physiological arousal, changes in facial expression, gestures, posture,
and subjective feelings is called ------------
12- Basic motives such as hunger and thirst is called --------------
13- Overall level of activation in the body and nervous system of a person or animal is called ---------
--------
14- ------------------------is social behavior whose objective is to harm someone, either physically or
verbally
15- The desire to excel or meet some internalized standard of excellence is called
d ------------------------
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Unit 14: Indian Perspective
Objectives
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Conceptof consciousness,
14.3 Mind & Body relation
Summary
Key Notes
Self-Assessment
Review Questions
Further Readings
Objectives
 Understand about history of Indian psychology
 Importance of Vedas and Upnishad in the development of Indian psychology
 Vedanta influence on psychology
 Role of consciousness through Indian thought
Introduction
Indian psychology is a way to deal with brain science dependent on the Indian ethos, the
trademark soul of the Indian human advancement. One could likewise say that it is a brain science
established in the consciousness based Indian perspective.
It might assist with explaining that with "yoga", we don't mean the darshana (the philosophical
school) of a similar name. We additionally don't restrict its importance to any of the many specific
schools of yoga, as hatha yoga or raja yoga. We take "yoga" in its most extensive sense, wherein it
shows all precise endeavors to turn out to be deliberately one with the Divine, in its detached,
otherworldly viewpoint, yet in addition in its show, dynamic presence. Additionally with an
invigorating otherworldliness we mean an otherworldliness that acknowledges the world and
human instinct as a field for the Divine to show, as a "work in progress", as a reality that should be
risen above to be changed.
At the end of the day, we feel that Indian, awareness based ways to deal with brain research can
make a critical, and desperately required commitment to our worldwide human progress. To help
this turn of events, the Indian Psychology Institute has been set up with the particular goal of
helping with the presentation of ideas, speculations and practices from Indian Psychology into
scholastics and the expert act of brain science.
14.1 Introduction to Vedantic Psychology

Indian Psychology, at that point, is an arrangement of psychology that is established in old style
Indian idea and is suggested in various strategies pervasive in the subcontinent for psycho-
otherworldly improvement like the different types of yoga. Indeed, Indian idea is so rich, complex,
and differed that an assortment of translations and a few models are conceivable. In any case, we
think the accompanying summed up model is a fitting one in the first place.
Indian psychology includes the investigation of the individual. The individual is considered as a
composite of body, psyche, and awareness. Body alludes to the sensory system, the faculties, and

related designs associated with the cerebrum. The psyche is the speculative intellectual instrument
identified with the body toward one side and awareness at the other. Cognizance is imagined to be
unchangeably unmistakable from body and psyche. It establishes the nonphysical part of the
individual. Body, brain, and cognizance are reasonably particular, but at the same time are
commonly unchangeable in the human setting. Awareness is subjectively unique in relation to the
body and the brain with which it very well might be related. Therefore, however it is related with a
psyche at a given time, it doesn't collaborate with it. The body and the psyche, in contrast to
awareness, are physical; and they can interface with one another and are impacted by one another.
Notwithstanding, a brain can't be decreased into its actual constituents and a body can't be changed
into a psyche despite the fact that they impact each other inside an individual. They work in an
unexpected way. From this viewpoint, the body is imagined as gross matter that grants crumbling.
However, mind being an unpretentious type of issue isn't compelled by spatiotemporal factors in a
similar way as the gross body does. The body deteriorates hopelessly at death. The psyche, be that
as it may, can possibly endure materially demise (Rao 2014b).
As a composite of body, brain, and consciousness, the individual capacities at three distinct levels.
Applied to knowing, for instance, the individual is equipped for preparing data sensorially through
the instrumentalities of the body. This might be known as the degree of perception. The second
degree of comprehension is encouraged by the working of the brain. The third level is trans
cognitive acknowledgment of truth.
Although the history of Indian psychology goes back to millennia, its modern phase —or
revival, if you will—began only recently. Of the many psychologists who had realized the
painful neglect of the indigenous tradition, about 150 came together at a conference in
Pondicherry in 2002 and unanimously proclaimed the Manifesto of Indian Psychology.
While acknowledging truth, the psyche partakes in cognizance accordingly, generally, if not totally,
liberated from substantial cycles and their impact. The ideas of śravaṇa (in a real sense hearing, yet
can be likened with perception when all is said in done), manana (thinking/understanding), and
nididhyāsana (thoughtful acknowledgment) generally compare to the three degrees of knowing. At
the degree of śravaṇa and manana, perceptions and comprehension, there is an essential
qualification among subject and item and thought and activity. Knowing and being are separated.
One may realize that something is false, yet may follow up on it and the other way around.
Notwithstanding, in reflective acknowledgment, a state accomplished by nididhyāsana, the
qualification among subject and article vanishes; and there is combination of thought and activity;
and knowing and being mix into one another so one becomes/does what he knows to be valid. This
is exemplified in the Upanisadic proclamation "to realize Brahman is to be Brahman."
Brain is the instrument of cognizance and shows mindfulness in different structures on account of
its relationship with awareness. It is additionally the seat of feelings and volition. In its
collaboration with the body, the brain encounters a wide range of feelings and participates in
various types of activity. In this manner the brain is the instrument of our comprehensions,
expressions of warmth, and volitions. In acknowledgment of this reality, the individual, alluded to
as jīva in Sanskrit, is usually considered as a knower (jñātā), enjoyer/victim (bhoktā), and specialist
(kartā). While thinking, feeling, and doing are ordinary modes in everyday living, they are one-
sided or mutilated by an assortment of variables and, hence, they don't genuinely mirror the
genuine situation. Different methods of conquering the constraints of these modes have been
created. Fruitful act of such ways drives an individual to understand her actual self (ātman)
through the experience of cognizance thusly and to have undistorted truth, perfect joy, and
uncorrupted volition. An individual who consequently achieves self-acknowledgment arrives at the
most dynamic and magnificent structure and acknowledges awareness accordingly, which is
alluded to as Brahman in the Upanisads, purusa in Sāmkhya arrangement of Indian way of
thinking. In ordinary exercises the personality appreciates and wants. Knowing gets docile to
fulfilling the actual hungers and substantial produced mental longings. The individual has
changing pictures of oneself. Nonetheless, Brahman or Ātman is something that infests the
individual just as the universe on the loose. In prudence of this, there shows solidarity in the
variety we find in the universe and congruity in the changing range of occasions in one's day to day
existence. The solidarity of the individual, regardless of her continually changing mental states and
real conditions, is an element of the presence/impression of Ātman (awareness accordingly).
Here a qualification should be made between consciousnesses as-such recognized as Brahman,
ātman, or puruṣa, and mindfulness. Awareness as-such is perpetual and unspeakable. It is
uncertain and inadequate, and as such it takes no structures. From a critical perspective it isn't

localizable. With regards to psychological movement, its job is close to reflect/brighten the
structure the brain takes in its connection with the world through the tactile entryways.
Mindfulness is the aftereffect of awareness enlightening the structures the brain takes. Hence,
cognizance is engaged with one's insight, warm gestures, and volitions to the degree that the
individual's perspectives are brightened by the impression of awareness. The individual whose
psyche acts through the substantial mechanical assembly might be viewed as adapted in light of the
fact that her idea, enthusiasm, and activity are one-sided and contorted by the states of the body.
Just an unconditioned individual can have the genuine impressions of cognizance accordingly. The
objective of the individual is to arrive at a particularly unconditioned state (Rao 2010).
Once more, as a composite of body, psyche, and awareness, the individual might be concentrated
from a physiological point of view to figure out how real cycles impact one's conduct and being,
and what mental states mean for real cycles. An individual can likewise be concentrated from the
viewpoint of the brain to figure out how the psyche capacities and how its capacities are impacted
and how they might be controlled to upgrade human possibilities and advance wellbeing. Further,
human working can be concentrated from the viewpoint of cognizance to comprehend and
acknowledge nonphysical assets of human working accessible as a result of the relationship of the
psyche with awareness. In this way an individual can be learned at various levels. Two such
degrees of most extreme interest in brain research are the psychophysical level and the psycho-
otherworldly level. The last is the level where the brain partakes in awareness thusly and the
individual has self-acknowledgment.
The term Indian psychology was purportedly first used by Sri Aurobindo, well
known Yogi and freedom fighter of modern India, in 1910 in one of his writings
on education.
The regard for the "internal" in Indian idea has prompted an accentuation on cognizance and its
supremacy. The supremacy is declared either as an overall single reality as in Advaita monism or as
an unchangeable part of reality free of the physical as in Sāmkhya-Yoga. Regardless, the
supposition that isn't caused by objective contention alone dependent on powerful assumptions or
the authority of the Vedas. They are gotten from their separate epistemological positions, which are
themselves grounded in mental suppositions and are viewed as phenomenologically given realities.
As its continued looking for truth, the Indian practice turning internal endeavors to distinguish the
components that will in general contort and distort our overall comprehension of our general
surroundings. It tries to investigate techniques and systems to control them. Further, it attempts to
create strategies that uncover truth in its unblemished and stainless condition, to detail
philosophical speculations, and to recommend practices of direct predictable with reality so
uncovered. In such a plan, the initial step is to see how we typically procure data and the potential
constraints and flaws of such data. The starting point at that point is intellectual science as precise
epistemology.
Such handling is known to be one-sided in view of the constraints natural in the preparing
instruments and furthermore as a result of the way wherein the preparing individual is arranged,
whose presuppositions, perspectives, and inspirations oblige and predisposition her discernments.
The preparing instruments themselves decide somewhat the structure, the nature, and the
substance of perceptions. The manner in which bats see the world is not quite the same as the
manner in which we do. People can't deal with low hear-able signs as a canine or deer can. In the
event that we were arranged distinctively with various types of tangible engine contraptions we
would almost certainly work diversely and our insight into the world would be diverse
fundamentally.
In the event that the center is outward, one's view of the world comprises in the manner it is
addressed to us. The portrayals are accepted to be genuine seeing that they are believed to relate to
the outer articles and occasions, a correspondence verified by between subject
arrangement/approval.
In the event that the center is internal, however, one will in general view genuine reality as no other
than mindfulness itself. A few scholars in the West who buy in to this view declare that our insights
comprise reality.
In the Indian practice, in any event, when the truth is compared with mindfulness, mindfulness
isn't restricted to authentic discernment. Or maybe, mindfulness is viewed as comprising of

immediate and unmediated attention to the real world. Such nonrepresentational mindfulness from
a critical perspective is reality itself. People, it is accepted, can understand reality in itself as
awareness accordingly. There is then the chance of nonsensory wellspring of information, which by
its very nature is accepted to be liberated from the bends and flaws that assail sensorially prepared
data. Surely, this is a view shared by numerous Indian masterminds, free of their mystical
presuppositions. It is accepted that by following determined systems and developing certain
propensities for mind, it is feasible to accomplish a condition of mindfulness such is life itself. A
particularly understanding underscores a lot of Hindu and Buddhistic idea. Jainism puts even a
more explicit accentuation on extrasensory wellsprings of mindfulness.
A definitive objective of human advancement is freedom or mokhṣa, independence from existential
limitations. The tangible servitude of the psyche is accepted to be the main single source that
screens genuine reality from us. Hence, the freedom of the brain from that subjugation is a
fundamental condition for genuine opportunity and mokhsa.
For the person who acknowledges reality in its actual structure, the tactile information we have of
the world shows up as only a hallucination, as a fantasy shows up on waking.
Independence from such a hallucination is an important condition for understanding reality in
one's being. The objective is to accomplish wonderful information, since amazing information
makes one great. Wonderful knowing in the last investigation includes acknowledgment of one's
own acting naturally, acknowledgment. The strength of such a declaration isn't gotten simply from
objective contention. Or maybe, it is grounded in the conviction that it is feasible to discover such
people, in actuality. Acknowledging cognizance as-such is viewed as an experimental reality
experienced abstractly just as shared by the individuals who go through vital preparing and
practice (sādhanā), following the endorsed discipline.
Yoga is considered all around by all Indian masterminds to be a helpful strategy for freeing the
psyche from its existential state of tactile servitude with the goal that it can get to cognizance as-
such for acknowledgment of the essential fact of the matter.
14.2 Consciousness in Indian Psychology

The word awareness begins from the Latin word "Consciousness" which means “Knowing”, “privy
to”. In the Western custom, when brain research started as a science in the later piece of nineteenth
century, it was characterized as the study of Consciousness; even today characterizing awareness is
a difficult undertaking.
Square (1995b) notices, Consciousness "indicates various ideas and signifies various marvels" (p.
227).
Jonkisz(2012) recognizes five types of awareness. He assigns them as orders of awareness. They are
in his words sensorimotor Consciousness, perceptual awareness, meta-perceptual cognizance,
hesitance, and meta-self
Rao (1998, 2001, 2002, 2011b) scientific classification of awareness first partitions Consciousness into
two primary classifications supernatural and value-based.
In the supernatural space, Consciousness is absolute subjectivity past the duality of subject and
object and with practically zero qualification among knowing and being. It is a condition of
Consciousness all things considered, an encounter of unadulterated awareness
Value-based awareness is cognizance as reflected in the psyche, where clear qualifications among
subject and object and between knowing, feeling, and being are made
Supernatural Consciousness is as it was transpersonal. It shows
• In the experience of unadulterated conditions of Consciousness,
• Mystic mindfulness and higher Samadhi states, and
• In the instances of abnormal clairvoyant occasions.
Value-based awareness is of two sorts
(1) underneath the edge of mindfulness In the beneath classification, we have
– (i) the oblivious in the Freudian and Jungian sense,
– (ii) the subconscious as in subconscious discernment and implied memory, and

– (iii) periphery mindfulness

(2) over the edge. In this class alludes to central mindfulness, which is again of two sorts—subject
Consciousness and item awareness.
In the Vedic ontology, from which Sri Aurobindo determined his idea of Consciousness,
Consciousness isn't just seen as individualized mindfulness. It is the actual embodiment of
everything in presence and as such not just the wellspring of individuation and the self-
appreciation, yet additionally a developmental energy:
Consciousness isn't just force of attention to self and things, it is or has likewise a dynamic and
inventive energy. It can decide its own responses or swear off responses; it can reply to powers, yet
make or put out from itself powers. Consciousness is Chit yet additionally Chit Shakti, mindfulness
yet in addition cognizant power.— Sri Aurobindo 1991, p. 234
Find the consciousness in different perspective of Vedic literature.
Each of the three parts of consciousness – its enormous nature, its energy angle, and its capacity to
separate itself into changing structures and degrees – join to deliver the cycles of involution and
advancement of awareness that have given to our reality its specific character
Awareness is something crucial, the basic thing in presence – it is the energy, the movement, the
development of consciousness that makes the universe and all that is in it – the world as well as the
microcosm is only awareness masterminding itself.
In the Vedāntic framework the crucial the truth is portrayed as a solidarity (Saccidānanda)
comprising of presence (Sat), awareness (Cit) and enjoyment (Ānanda).
Since the resolute solidarity of Saccidānanda is viewed as the fundamental idea of everything in
presence, it follows that in this metaphysics nothing can exist that isn't cognizant or that misses
savor the experience of its own reality. Nor is awareness conceivable without savor the experience
of its own reality, nor can there be please that isn't cognizant.
An intriguing part of the planes of awareness is that they are viewed as relating to focuses of
cognizance in the (inconspicuous) body, called chakras in Sanskrit. That various areas in the body
would be identified with various kinds of cognizance isn't a thought that has emerged distinctly in
the Indian custom.
14.3 Mind and Body Relation

This topic is an attempt to find out mind body relationship from Indian Perspective. All the schools
of Indian philosophy have considered this issue from very ancient period. Indian thinkers do not
equate self and mind. In Indian Writings the word mind is used in the sense of manas or
antahkarna (internal organ) and not in the sense of atman (self).
Ayurveda Explains More about the Tridoshic Body Type!
The word manas is used in many place in the Vedic texts. It has been used in the sense of
measuring. It is an organ of research; it symbolizes the rational faculty in man. Mind is concerned
with sankalpa. This word has appeared only in late passage of Rigveda.
Upnishad Thought on Mind and Body

Radhakrishnan Says, “ TheUpnishad refuse to identify the self with the body, or the series of
mental status or the presentation continuum or the stream of consciousness”
Kathaupnishad refers to the body as the chariot, the senses are the horses which draw the chariot,
the mind is to the rein which control the horses and the intellect to the charioteer . it declares that
the atman, the self, is the master of chariot and is looked upon as the enjoyer when he is united
with the body, the senses and the mind.
NyayaVaiseshika Thought on Mind and Body

According to this thought mind and self are dravyas, which denoted as substances, like other five
elements of body. NyayaVaiseshikamanas are the integral part of body as an organ, which is the

instrument of cognition in another substance. Knowledge arises when there is a conjunction

between the self, the mind, the sense organs and the object. When the mind is not operating
cognition is not arises.
Samkhya yoga dualism Thought on Mind and Body

Samkhya yoga dualism Thought makes a distinction between purusha, the pure self, free from all
attributes and the prakriti which is neither material nor mental. The purusha, the pure
consciousness is neither bound nor librated. It is only a psycho physical organism, the evolute
ofprakriti, that is bound and that is to be liberated. Purusha is ever free. The evolution of prakriti
and the consequent results like mind, life and body arise when by the mere presence of purusha,
the equibilirum of three gunas (Satva, Rajas and Tamas) of the prakriti is upset.
14.4 Summary
In ancient times glimpses of psychological thoughts are found in rigveda and upnishads. In Vedic
psychology, Vedanta and Yoga Sutra also contribute a lot. In Vedanta mind has been explained and
emphasizes upon transformation and modification of mind. The doctrine of Koshas in
TaittriyaUpnishad shows a very insightful analysis of self as being physical, vital, mental,
intellectual and blissful. According to Geeta and other thinkers personality also depends on
Triguna and Tridosa. The different Indian ways of thinking like Nyāya, Vaiśeṣika, Sāṃkhyā, Yoga,
Mīmāṁsā, Vedānta, Buddhism, Jainism, Sūfi, and so forth are a depository of extremely rich
examination of mental cycles of brain body cooperation. They offer system for controlling brain,
consideration, memory, feeling and approaches to accomplish self-acknowledgment. They
incorporate the entire range of human existence, and draw out an orderly investigation of various
parts of the real world. The content of the Upaniṣads, Brāhamaṇās, Āranyakās, Mahākāvyas and
Purāṇas alongside society writing from various pieces of India offer a collection of intelligence and
experiences. To put it plainly, the Indian perspective and its suppositions and techniques about
human reality do can possibly contribute fundamentally, not exclusively to the world's repository
of information yet additionally to the space of training and applications for settling individual,
social and instructive issues.
Indian Psychology discovers its underlying foundations in Indian way of thinking, with its faith in
the huge potential inalienable in the individual. It has the "expertise" to raise the consciousness of a
person which is a point of convergence from any viewpoint for human prosperity. The Indian ways
of thinking give significant hypothetical experiences into the human condition. They likewise give
commonsense techniques to discover love, delight and harmony, which they guarantee are inside
the person. These characteristics are viewed as parts of one's actual self, of unadulterated
consciousness. In Indian idea, an individual is certainly not a different section, however on a more
profound level, is unified with all.
14.5 Key Words

Atharva Veda, Upnishad, BhagwadGeeta, PanchKosha, Triguna, Tridosha, Nyāya, Vaiśeṣika,
Sāṃkhyā, Yoga, Mīmāṁsā, Vedānta
14.6 Review Question

Psychology from Indian Vedic literature: Myth or Fact.
Indian traditions are based on theories of Psychology.
Role of Consciousness according to Vedic Literature.
Role of Vedanta to understand mind and body relation.
Identify the Indian origins of Psychology.
14.7 Self Assessment Question

Q1 We find in the ___________, a distinction made between two aspects of the mind—manas and
citta.
Sama Veda
Rig Veda
Atharva Veda

Yazur Veda
Q2 The Katha Upnishad liken the human quest to the
Warrior
Chariot
Reins
Horses
Q3 Pondicherry manifesto of Indian Psychology comes in year of
1879
1905
1947
2001
Q4 According to the Upaniṣhads, mind cannot be treated as consciousness, as the consciousness or
self exists even without the mind
Mundaka Upanishad
Chandogya Upanishad
Garbhopanishad
Maitrayaniya Upanishad
Q5 According to PanchaKoshas theory, mentioned in the Taittiriya Upanishad which one is the
bliss sheath.
AnanadamayaKosha
AnnamayaKosha
ManomayaKosha
PranamayaKosha
Q6 Eight fold division of Prakriti Described by
Nyaya system
Western Philosophy
PranamayaKosha
SrimadBhagwad Gita
Q7 "Speak the truth. Practice virtue (dharma)" Statement from
Mundaka Upanishad
Chandogya Upanishad
TaittiriyaUpnishad
Maitrayaniya Upanishad
Q8 According to Indian Psychology ‘moksha’ or ‘nirvana’ isdirectly related with
Karma
Dharma
Consciousness
None of them
Q9 Which one is not a part of research method in Indian Psychology?
Observation
Content analysis

Case Study
Contrast Analysis
Q10 Pratyaksh and Praman is the concept of
Observation and truth testing
Introspection and truth testing
Observation and Karma
Introspection and Reality
FOUNDATIONS AND APPLICATIONS OF INDIAN PSYCHOLOGY by MATTHIJS

CORNELISSEN, GIRISHWAR MISRA AND SUNEET VARMA, PEARSON
PSYCHOLOGY IN THE INDIAN TRADITION by RAO, K. RAMAKRISHNA,
PARANJPE, ANAND C, SPRINGER
PERSPECTIVES ON INDIGENOUS PSYCHOLOGY by GIRISHWAR MISRA, AJIT K.
MOHANTY, CONCEPT PUBLISHING
https://ipi.org.in/second/whatisip.php
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3215408/
https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007%2F978-1-4614-5583-7_150

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What are the different schools of thought in psychology?

What are the different schools of thought in psychology?

What are the different units covered in the course?

What are the different units covered in the course?

Course D P S Y 5 4 9 Course Title THEORIES AND SYSTEMS OF

Unit1: Emergence of Psychology

1.2.4 Gestalt psychology

1.1 Introduction to Psychology

LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY 1

Psychology is not the science of Soul

1.2 PHILOSOPHICAL ROOTS OF PSYCHOLOGY

2 LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY

LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY 3

4 LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY

In 1951, Maslow took a position as chairman of the psychology department at the

Cognitive Psychology is far advanced than other areas of Psychology

1.3 History of Psychology

LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY 5

6 LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY

A History of Psychology ,A Global Perspective SECOND EDITION Eric

LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY 7

1.5 Keywords: Psychology, History, psychoanalysis, Structuralism, Functionalism

8 LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY

1.7 Review Questions

1.8 Further Readings

LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY 9

Unit: 2 Experimental Psychology 1

LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY

2.1 Beginning of Experimental psychology

Did you know Experimental Psychology brought scientific validation in the

2.2 Methods of experimental Psychology

Create an experimental design incorporating manipulation of variables

2.2.2 Correlational Research

2.2.3 Naturalistic Observation

2.2.4 Experimental Psychologists work

Myers, C. S. (1909). A text-book of experimental psychology. Longmans, Green and

LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY

Discuss Dr. Albert Bandura conducted Bobo Doll Experiment

2.5 Self-assessment questions

13- Another term for reinforcement is:

14 -What are the two types of research data?

LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY

1 T 2 Nervous System 3 Neuron 4 Darwin 5 True 6 Gustav Theodor Fechner 7 awareness,

2.6 Review Questions

2.3 Further Readings

LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY 7

Unit 3: Experimental Psychology II

Objectives / Expected Learning Outcomes

LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY 1

2 LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY

Method of Constant Stimuli

3.2 Development of Neuropsychology

LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY 3

3.3 Theory of Evolution

4 LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY

Psychology, Psychophysics, stimulus, Absolute threshold, Just noticeable threshold,

1-The field of psychophysics was pioneered by _____.

A. the absolute threshold

5. The another name of difference threshold is