MAPÚA UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF MECHANICAL AND MANUFACTURING ENGINEERING

ME136P-2/E01

ENGINEERING MATERIALS, PROCESSES AND TESTING

COMPILATION OF LABORATORY REPORTS AND LECTURE NOTES

SUBMITTED BY:

Talan, Jefferson R.

2016142228

SUBMITTED TO:

ENGR. JENNIFER VALDEZ

DATE

April 22, 2021

TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE PAGE i

ABSTRACT ii

OBJECTIVE ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS iii

THEORIES AND PRINCIPLES 1

DISCUSSION 2

LIST OF APPARATUS / SET-UP 4

CONCLUSION 5

REFERENCES 6

ii
 MAPÚA UNIVERSITY Grade = 85%

SCHOOL OF MECHANICAL AND MANUFACTURING ENGINEERING

ME136P-2/E01

ENGINEERING MATERIALS, PROCESSES AND TESTING

WRITTEN REPORT ON

PHYSICAL STUDY OF UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE

SUBMITTED BY:

Talan, Jefferson R.

2016142228

SUBMITTED TO:

ENGR. JENNIFER VALDEZ

DATE

March 10, 2021

 Universal Testing Machine

After the civil war in America, industrialization took place which heavily relied on iron
and steel on everyday use and invention of different machines. To create a safe way to
experiment with materials, universal testing machine was born.
There are various machines that was made to test the strength of materials but the most
notable is the “Little Giant” made by Engineer Tinius Olsen. His machine is the most notable
because it can test the material’s tensile, transverse, and compression strength that is all
compounded in his machine. During this time, material testing machines is present but can only
do one testing, like tensile strength. Other machine only does compressive strength which
consumes much time and resources to do.
The main objective of Universal Testing Machine (UTM) is to evaluate the strength of
material on different aspect like elasticity, elongation, tear, fracture, fatigue, etc. This machine
offers a controlled and stabilize force which would result in accurate and precise testing of
different materials. The test this machine can perform is wide which expose materials on wide
possibly realistic condition which can put a lot of stress on the material.
There are load cell located in the heart of the UTM. Load Cell detect the change in
electrical resistance when the material is deformed then convert this signal to digital form which
can be measure in units like Pound-force, kilogram-force, and Newton. It is like a gauge that
measure the force. There are also data collection software on modern UTMs which can be easily
use by novice users. During my high school days, we did an elongation test on a piece of metal
that we stretch using the UTM. The machine provided a plot which is force on y-axis and
distance on x-axis. The machine calculated these data which we form a conclusion for different
materials so we could compare and highlight their properties with other materials under that
certain stress. Different UTM also have different grip setup. The one we used in school has a jaw
grip in there are two jaws on opposite ends and hold the material with strong forces. There are
also uncommon like pin and jams, wedge grips, mount grips, and a lot more.

ii
 MAPÚA UNIVERSITY Grade = 95%

SCHOOL OF MECHANICAL AND MANUFACTURING ENGINEERING

ME136P-2/E01

ENGINEERING MATERIALS, PROCESSES AND TESTING

WRITTEN REPORT ON

TENSILE TEST OF REINFORCING STEEL BAR

SUBMITTED BY:

Talan, Jefferson R.

2016142228

SUBMITTED TO:

ENGR. JENNIFER VALDEZ

DATE

March 10, 2021

iii
 Tensile Test of Reinforcing Steel Bar
Metals have different properties depending on their molecular structure. This is why
different metals have different use depending on the application and which property would best
fit the job. Mechanical properties are often use for construction of buildings and other
infrastructure. This can be divided to other properties such as tensile strength, resilience,
modulus of elasticity, yield strength and a lot more. UTM machine can perform different test.
Based on results of the tests, we can learn about the properties of the metal and its behaviour
under stress.
There are two types of stress when doing the test. Nominal stress can be calculated based
on the initial cross-sectional area of the material. Strain can be determined by using the initial
length of the material before subjecting it to stress. There are grades of metal depending on their
properties. We have structural, intermediate, and hard which we can find after testing the metal
subject.
The first step is using a vernier caliper to measure the diameter of the steel specimen.
Next, use a ruler to measure the overall length of the specimen. Depending on the UTM, we can
activate or manually do the recording data and select the material on the software. After the setup
is done, we clamp the metal specimen to the two ends of the gripping jaws. There are some UTM
that have a more secured locking mechanism where a scroll wheel is rotated to secure the
preloaded metal specimen. There would be a graph generated on the computer that is controlling
the UTM machine and this can describe the forces and how much elongation happened on the
material.
Based on the graph, there are certain areas which are describe by the properties of the
material used. The continuous, almost linear rise of force part of the graph is called the elastic
deformation where little to no deformation occur. The rise of strain again but lower slope is
called uniform plastic deformation. This is when the metal specimen is starting to elongate, and a
very small necking can be seen. Necking means the decreasing part in which the cross-sectional
area is smaller compared to the diameter for the rest of the material. If the material cannot further
elongate anymore, necking would occur and the slightly after that, fracture which would break
the metal specimen in half.

iv
 MAPÚA UNIVERSITY Grade = 75%

SCHOOL OF MECHANICAL AND MANUFACTURING ENGINEERING

ME136P-2/E01

ENGINEERING MATERIALS, PROCESSES AND TESTING

WRITTEN REPORT ON

BEND TEST ON STEEL REBAR

SUBMITTED BY:

Talan, Jefferson R.

2016142228

SUBMITTED TO:

ENGR. JENNIFER VALDEZ

DATE

March 17, 2021

v
 Bend Test on Steel Rebar
Definition, History, Objective
It is common for steel that has reinforcement coat is subjected to bend test to have a
better understanding how it will behave when a perpendicular force is applied to certain point on
the steel. Reinforcement steel have ribs on them which can sometimes serve as the weak points
which can start any fractures. Because of such test, engineers can highlight characteristics like
metal ductility with respect to steel diameter and length, number of cracks if visible, etc. Even
though large force is applied on the metal, it does not reflect the material’s strength because
force is applied perpendicularly.
The type of bend test we saw on the video is “Guided-Bend Test” as Diponegro
University called it. The bar is set on a setup where a plunger would push the specimen down
and is supported by two huge pins. The huge pins would serve as a guide to hold the material in
place. The plunger is a sturdy material that would bend the steel specimen on the required angle,
which in our case is 90 degrees. There are two types of steel that is used; standard steel without
reinforcement and the same steel but with reinforcement which is a galvanized coating usually
called hotdip which a molten metal would adhere to the surface of the metal being galvanized.

Procedure
Before proceeding with the experiment, measure the diameter of the steel to be subjected
to the experiment. Some experiment measure it thrice then calculate the mean value. Next is to
place the steel specimen on the Universal Testing Machine in a way that the ribs are in parallel
with the axis of the two pin support on both sides and is perpendicular to the plunger that would
send the force. When everything is prepared, start the process which the machine would apply a
constant and uniform force throughout the whole process. The steel would bend after some time
and we can discontinue the process once we achieve the desired angle of bent which is 90
degrees base on the online video. The force required to bend the steel specimen is directly
proportional to its diameter. The wider the diameter, more force is required to bend it to 90
degree.

Data Interpretation
The steel specimen showed on the video shows minimal cracks even with subjects that
has galvanize reinforcement on them. This means that reinforce coating serves little or no
purpose to help prevent crack formation when the metal is bend. Although, the bars are only
bend 90 degrees which other experiments validate that it can still perform bar re-bend. However,
anything larger than this angle would initiate cracks and re-bending it back would form other
cracks which could largely weaken the material. There is observation on the video that smaller
diameter steel bar exhibit lesser cracks compared to larger diameter steel specimen. This can
also be a deciding factor because bending and straightening large diameter steel is avoided on
most real-world application.

vi
 MAPÚA UNIVERSITY Grade = 80%

SCHOOL OF MECHANICAL AND MANUFACTURING ENGINEERING

ME136P-2/E01

ENGINEERING MATERIALS, PROCESSES AND TESTING

WRITTEN REPORT ON

SPECIFIC GRAVITY AND ABSORPTION OF AGGREGATES

SIEVE ANALYSIS OF COURSE AND FINE AGGREGATES

SUBMITTED BY:

Talan, Jefferson R.

2016142228

SUBMITTED TO:

ENGR. JENNIFER VALDEZ

DATE

March 24, 2021

vii
 Specific Gravity and Absorption of Aggregates

Objectives
Specific Gravity can be determined by comparing the ratio of weight of different states of
material like SSD versus OD state. This could give engineers and experimenters knowledge on
different properties of material at different state. This experiment used both fine sand particles
and course particles like gravel which have a minimum size of 4 millimeter.

Introduction
As the name suggest, Coarse Aggregate Specific Gravity Test is used for large particles
that can be as large as four millimeters. This test is used to determine the specific gravity of
mixture of large gravel to know its ratio to the equal given volume of water. This is just like the
test when the aggregate use is fine but there are just several more steps for the sand particles.
There are three sample types that was used for this experiment; Saturated Surface-dry, Oven-dry,
and submerge in water. Using these three states to get different properties, we could calculate
specific gravity, bulk specific gravity of each state and lastly, its absorption capability. All of
these properties is important to various fields to know how well it could fill voids by using
different materials like asphalt. High values of absorption indicate that the material use is not
durable enough depending on the standard used.

Apparatus Needed
1. 4.75 mm sieve
2. Weighing scale with underwater tare basket
3. 2 towels
4. Metal pan
5. Oven
6. Rubber bulb
7. Blow drier
8. Drier
9. Slump cone
10. Tamping bar
11. Pycnometer

Procedure
For the course particles, prepare an aggregate and let it settle for 24 hours before using
the mixture. This is to prepare the aggregate and make sure that particles are evenly distributed
along the bottom of the container. Using the 4.75 mm sieve, pour the aggregate into it to get rid
of particles smaller that the sieve can hold. This process also washes the aggregate. Dry the
mixture in the oven with a constant temperature of 110 degrees Celsius for 24 hours to make sure
that no water molecules would be left behind. After this, get the aggregate out of the oven and let
it rest to handling temperature. Next is to submerge the particles to water for about 24 hours. To

viii
get the sample to be in Saturated Surface-dry condition (SSD), put the aggregate in metal pan
and start using a dry towel to get as much water as you can. Let it roll on the towel for a couple
of times to remove water. We proceed to measure the mixture to get its mass during the SSD
condition. After this, we placed the sample on a metal basket and weigh it under water. Lightly
tap the basket when submerge to remove some air bubbles. Remove the sample from the basket
and spread it on a metal pan. Placed it on the oven to dry as much as possible which ensure that
no water molecules would be left. Let it dry for 1-3 hours and weigh it again. This would result
in the Oven-dry state mass.
For the finer material, we use a blow drier to remove some water molecules. Using the
slump cone, fill the cone until the tip and compact it a little using the plunger. Once the sand
cone is formed, tap the metal pan lightly. If the sand cone did not collapse from small taps, then
it is not yet on the SSD condition. Continue drying the material and repeat the process on the
cone slump. Once you tap the sand cone, it should easily collapse on one tap.

Data interpretation
Depending on the materials used for the particles, standards is different for course and
fine particles materials. Bulk specific gravity of the course gravel resulted in 2.62 and 2.62 using
the SSD values which is typical for field use. We could compare this value for the finer sand
particles which resulted in 2.58 and 2.62 using the SSD condition the sand. Finer particles have
higher value because finer particles means that there are more pores which the material can
absorb more water.
Finer particles also have higher absorption rates. The gravel aggregate resulted in
absorption rate of 0.59 while the sand particles resulted in 1.54. This property is important
because when not correctly done, the material could result in low durability mixture which could
easily hinder the overall strength of structure. But higher absorption rate could also be not ideal
because they are usually expensive to produce.

Conclusion
Accuracy in all this calculation is important but there are times that it is not precise
because of certain external factors like type water used, calibration if weighing scales, etc. That
is why ratio is important and comparing it to standards used in this case is ASTM or American
Society for Testing and Materials. After the experiment, we could say that the objective is
satisfied by computing the values for bulk specific gravity using weighing scale at three different
states of the material such as SSD, OD, and submerge in water.
Comparison of different computed values to standards set is also done to know that the
experiment is within certain parameters which meet the ideal value for different properties. I
therefore conclude that experiment objective is met by carefully following the procedure done on
the experiment.

ix
 Sieve Analysis of Course and Fine Aggregates

Objective
1. To compute for fineness modulus of different particle size
2. To understand the sieve analysis and its application

Introduction
Sieve analysis is important especially for civil engineers as particle size can affect its
property when mixed with different material such as cement and gravel. It is also known as
gradation test because it uses different sieve sizes, and it can for a nest to which many sieves can
attach. This is important because different projects have different requirement and standards to
follow which material of different size is important to achieve through this process.
Apparatus Needed
1. Weighing scale
2. Oven
3. Nest of sieves
4. Mechanical sieve shaker
Procedure
To prepare the sample, get it from the source usually the site of work. The standard size
is dependent on the standard being followed, in this case is AASHTO T 248. Next it to dry the
sample using an oven that could supply a constant temperature of 110 degrees with a range of
error of 5 degrees Celsius.
First is weigh the sample material to be used to an accuracy of 0.1 grams or depending on
the requirement needed by the standard. Carefully put the material on the nest of sieve made by
arranging it in decreasing sieve size. For the large diameter particles like gravel, a rectangular
shaker is used and then placed in an industrial shaker where it would stay for about 5 minutes.
Depending on the standard to be followed, large particle should not more than 2.5 times the size
of the largest sieve. For finer aggregate, it should always be less than 4 gram/ square inch.
For the coarse aggregate, one can use a rubber mallet to remove any stuck debris on the
sieved but be careful not to damage the apparatus. Do not force when the gravel could not fit as it
could damage the wire mesh on the sieve. Weigh the collected particles on each sieve. This is
done for the finer material as well, but a small brush is used to remove any particles left.

x
Data Interpretation
There are many data we could use for sieve experiment. One of which is fineness
modulus, and it is done by computing the cumulative percentage of each sieve from coarse to
fine. T-27 is also done because of the standard of AASHTO. For each sieve, accumulated weight
is divided by the initial dry mass of the whole batch and is multiplied by a hundred percent to get
the percent retain. Another important indicator is percentage passing. A hundred percent minus
the percent retain would result into this.

Conclusion
This experiment is a success because the fineness modulus of the sample material is
determined for both coarse and fine aggregate. By doing this experiment, sieve analysis serves a
lot of purpose in determining properties of materials depending on their size which could
drastically change their property after combining with materials like binders. Many properties is
also discovered by studying this test like fineness modulus, percentage retain, and percentage
passing which is dependent on the material used and sieves apparatus to be used.

xi
 MAPÚA UNIVERSITY Grade = 70%

SCHOOL OF MECHANICAL AND MANUFACTURING ENGINEERING

ME136P-2/E01

ENGINEERING MATERIALS, PROCESSES AND TESTING

WRITTEN REPORT ON

Design of Concrete Mix in Philippine Peso

Worksheet Exercise 2.1

SUBMITTED BY:

Talan, Jefferson R.

2016142228

SUBMITTED TO:

ENGR. JENNIFER VALDEZ

DATE

March 29, 2021

xii
OBJECTIVES
1. Compute the total volume of sand, aggregate, cement, and water depending on volume
and ratio
2. Estimate the total cost in Philippine peso with manpower needed depending on location
in the country.

xiii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE i
ABSTRACT ii
OBJECTIVE ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS iii
THEORIES AND PRINCIPLES 1
DISCUSSION 2
LIST OF APPARATUS / SET-UP 4
CONCLUSION 4
RECOMMENDATION 5
REFERENCES 6

xiv
THEORIES AND PRINCIPLES
Ratio in cement combination is important for civil engineering. This could determine the
properties of the mixture once it solidified. According to the National Structural Code of the
Philippine of 2015, the minimum force that a cement structure must withstand for general
structure is 2500 pound per square inch. This means that the structure must withstand a minimum
of 2500 psi without breaking under testing. To assure this, ratio of mixture is important to put in
mind.
1:2:3:0.5
That is the ratio of mixture of cement that would ensure that the cement mixture could
withstand the minimum force required. This means that for every bag of cement, which is about
40 kg in weight, twice is the amount of sand, thrice is the amount of gravel, and ½ is the amount
of water needed. To ensure this, put it in a wooden box container with a dimension of 0.3 m by
0.3 m by 0.3 m to ensure proper measurement.
Volume of each component is important to know the amount of material needed for
structural parts.
V = length x width x height
To get the quantity of cement needed
volume × 36
quantity of cement =
3
To get the quantity of sand
volume
quantity of sand=
2
The quantity of gravel needed is just equal to the volume of a specific structure.
DISCUSSION
Cement mixture is important in construction engineering. This is the very material is used
in building most structure all over the globe. Therefore, it is important that the cement structure
built is strong enough to withstand strong forces in able for the structure to absorb external
factors and forces that can break its structural integrity.
 There are a lot of components to a structure that needs cement mixture. Some of which
are footing, connecting tie footing, columns, walls, slabs, etc. All this structure needs cement so
volume computation is done to determine the number of materials needed for the whole structure
depending on the design.
This is a screenshot from the video made by Engineer Jojo Pascua on one of his videos in
YouTube. Here, he shows how to compute the cement needed for a sample footing design that he
made. The volume of the footing is computed by multiplying the length, width, and height.
To get the quantity of cement needed, we use the volume computed for the footing and

multiply it by 36 and divided by 3. Sir Jojo Pascua multiplied the volume of footing to 12
because in his structural design, he needed 12 footing for the overall structure. This computation
would result in approximately 51 bags needed for the footing.
To determine the amount of sand needed, we simply divide the volume of footing in half.
The resulting number would have a unit of cubic meter. Quantity of gravel needed for this would
just be equal to the volume of each footing. These computations would result in the quantity of
cement, sand, aggregate and water needed for the footing alone.
The same process is done for every part of the structure which includes, columns, beam,
slab, and the walls which would all utilize cement for building.
According to the website of PayScale.com, the average salary of constructional engineer
is 600,000 Philippine Peso but of course, this is always dependent on the size and design you
want for your structure. On top of that, construction workers are also needed to provide
manpower on the actual building on the structure. Construction workers have an hourly rate of
61.97 pesos. Multiply that to 8 hours would result in Php. 495.67 which is based on Quezon City,
Metro Manila.
Usually on a small-scale structure, one mason and two helpers are needed. According to
the Department of Labor and Employment, mason’s monthly salary range is from Php. 8000-
10,000. Some can even go as high as Php. 13,000. Estimating their daily wage, is about 500
pesos which is again dependent on the location of the project. Average daily Mason wage here in
Bulacan is about 700 pesos. Adding the two helpers would result in about Php. 1691.34.
Remember that that result is only an estimation for small scale project. Some huge projects can

ii
with a land area of about 6000 square meters could result in labor alone about 150,000 Pesos on
a weekly basis.

LIST OF APPARATUS / SET-UP

1. Aggregate (20 mm) 24.8 kg
2. Aggregate (10 mm) 24.2 kg
3. Sand 30.2 kg
4. Cement 20 kg (OPC grade)
5. Concrete mixer
6. Foundation design

CONCLUSION
For this exercise, we were able to compute the total amount of required materials needed
to form each structure like footing, beam, etc. This is done through volume method by
computing the total volume of a certain structure and relating it to the necessary formulas for
each component such as sand, aggregate, cement, and water.
Estimation for the total cost of labor for the cement addition in a structure is also
computed which is dependent on the location. This is because city rates and provincial rates
differs which can almost always more expensive in cities. However, this does not other supplies
such as metal rods, plywood, and other important materials in building a sound structure. This
exercise is great for visualizing the number of materials needed to form a structure. Moreover,
this could open our eyes in the cost of building the structure based on the amount of cement
mixture needed.

RECOMMENDATION
This exercise is great, but I think it could be improved if the discussion on the lessons and
videos is deeper which could strengthen our understanding construction materials such as cement
which could be simple in ordinary person’s perspective but complicated once we dealt with it
such as the ratio of materials needed which could vary from different standards.

iii
 MAPÚA UNIVERSITY Grade = 65%

SCHOOL OF MECHANICAL AND MANUFACTURING ENGINEERING

ME136P-2/E01

ENGINEERING MATERIALS, PROCESSES AND TESTING

WRITTEN REPORT ON

ROCKWELL HARDNESS TEST

Worksheet Exercise 2.2

SUBMITTED BY:

Talan, Jefferson R.

2016142228

SUBMITTED TO:

ENGR. JENNIFER VALDEZ

DATE

April 05, 2021

iv
OBJECTIVES
1. To determine the importance of Rockwell Hardness test
2. To understand its principles and application on metals

v
TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE PAGE i

ABSTRACT ii

OBJECTIVE ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS iii

THEORIES AND PRINCIPLES 1

DISCUSSION 3

LIST OF APPARATUS / SET-UP 4

CONCLUSION 5

REFERENCES 6

vi
THEORIES AND PRINCIPLES
Rockwell Hardness Test is a general test to determine the hardness of material which is
done through application of force through a penetrator. Hardness alone cannot determine the
overall performance of a steel, but it is correlated to important properties such as resistance to
wear, property under pressure.
Figure 1: Rockwell Test Scale
This test would use a hard point such as a spherical metal ball or pointed diamond tip

depending on the test scale use and the type of material one use for the testing. Depending on the
scale used, the tip is also dependent on this. A guide on the experiment machine is usually placed
for ease of use. On scale A, it is usually used for mild steel but not soft under strong pressure.
Scale B would accommodate soft steels in which aluminum is a good example. Scale C is for
hard metals or hardened metal which usually underwent process such as heat treatment to
strengthen the material but makes is brittle, so another heat treatment is performed to relieve the
stress inside the metal subject. This would lower the hardness of the material but would increase
its flexibility which could improve its performance when sudden force is applied which would
remove the possibility of the metal shattering like a glass. There are a lot more scale that we can
utilize but it is usually performed by industries that is specific for them. One such example is the
scale of W,X,Y which test materials with high carbon content such as alloys use in production of
bearing or with plasma coatings.
Comparing to other hardness test, Rockwell Test is easy to replicate and is sometimes
more accurate because material preparation before testing is not usually needed. Making sure the
apparatus and sample material is free from debris is enough for the experiment to proceed.
 Figure 2: Rockwell Hardness Test Illustration
In part A, this is the position when the apparatus applied the minor load. Next, position B
is done by summing the minor and major load reach by the indenter. Lastly, position C is the
maximum indent the apparatus makes on the material. In part D, it is the distance that would tell
the Rockwell Hardness number. It is the difference of reference line done by the preload and
maximum distance reached by the indenter under major load.

DISCUSSION
Hardness is important in all fields because it determine the quality of the material, even
possible the metal composition based on its qualities. Different fields require different
metallurgy process to acquire their desired hardness. For example, kitchen knives have different
Rockwell hardness based on their intended use. Western knives usually use steel that is around
64 Rockwell hardness. That is a mild steel and because of this, the knife is usually versatile
which prevent chipping of cutting edge since it more flexible compare to knives which have a
higher Rockwell number. Japanese knives usually have this because it is influence by the way
they prepare their foods and often, they use soft foods which makes sense why they would use a
metal which has a Rockwell number of ranges of 70 which would make their preparation easier.
Hardness of a material can also be use in quality checking on many industries. This test
ca determines if the process create the material properly and meet parameters and standards.

ii
 Figure 3: Test Scale with indenter Figure 4: Superficial Test Scale
Rockwell Test have two varying tests. Regular Rockwell Test is usually common, and it
measure the difference of minor load as the reference line and major load which is the maximum
distance reached by the indenter under maximum load. This accommodates scales A, B, C, F, M,
and R.
Superficial Rockwell is usually done for thin sheet of metal and is done with lighter load.
For example, it is easier to determine the Rockwell number of stainless metal sheet with the use
of superficial Rockwell test because deformation could be easily achieved when the use of
regular Rockwell Hardness test is done.
Typical application of Rockwell Hardness Test is for quality control of heat-treated
metals which could have a direct relationship to other properties such as resistance to wear. This
could also be done where welding evaluation is important as the heat produce by the welding
process could affect the area where heat traveled. Heat shielding could be done to minimize its
effect. Determination of grade for hard plastics could also be done under this test. Lastly,
Rockwell Hardness Test could be use for failure analysis of metals under load much like UTM
machines.
There are minimum requirements for a material to be done on the Rockwell Hardness
Test. The material should be free from coatings such as paint as this could conflict the accuracy
of the data while testing. Larger object than 6 inches in diameter could also be placed on the
machine. Depending on the scale use, minimum size for cylindrical object is 1/8 inch in diameter
and 0.006-inch thickness for metal sheets.

LIST OF APPARATUS / SET-UP

7. Rockwell Hardness Tester
CONCLUSION
Rockwell is important in fields and industries that use any type of metal which usually
undergo different metallurgy process to transform the metal to certain standards. Because of its
versatility, it can perform many things like quality control, weld evaluation, quality
determination and many more. This is done because different fields would need to accommodate
different metal hardness depending on its intended use. Fabricators use this simple test to
determine many qualities that can sometime be correlated to metal hardness such as its properties
in long term use such as wear resistance and plastic deformation under load. However, different
test can be done for this properties and Rockwell Hardness Test is not a basis to assume
properties without proper testing.

iii
 MAPÚA UNIVERSITY Grade = 75%

SCHOOL OF MECHANICAL AND MANUFACTURING ENGINEERING

ME136P-2/E01

ENGINEERING MATERIALS, PROCESSES AND TESTING

WRITTEN REPORT ON

TENSILE TEST OF WELDED JOINTS

Worksheet Exercise 2.3

SUBMITTED BY:

Talan, Jefferson R.

2016142228

SUBMITTED TO:

ENGR. JENNIFER VALDEZ

DATE

April 19, 2021

iv
OBJECTIVES
3. To understand the effect of welding material on tensile test.
4. To compare solid metal and welded joint on tensile test

v
TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE PAGE i

ABSTRACT ii

OBJECTIVE ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS iii

THEORIES AND PRINCIPLES 1

DISCUSSION 3

LIST OF APPARATUS / SET-UP 4

CONCLUSION 5

REFERENCES 6

vi
THEORIES AND PRINCIPLES
Weld tensile test is done on a welded specimen that is used as a filler to fill a gap in
between two large slabs of metal. The welder is given a space that is filled with welding and then
cut to be shape as a specimen depending on the standard that is used. Lathe machine can do this
by turning the rectangular welding block and shape by the operator. The strength of the specimen
depends on several factors like welder’s technique and performance, quality of the weld, and
build of the weld along each section.
Tensile test is usually done on universal testing machine and is an important process to
understand the capability, limits, and properties of a sample material under extreme tension.
Universal testing machine pull both ends of the sample to create tension that is strong enough to
rupture the metal in half.
Figure 1: Rockwell Test Scale
This graph shows an example of relation between strain and the stress applied by the
UTM. Young’s Modulus can be observed for the first part of the rise in slope and it happens

before the elastic limit.

By doing this test, we could understand the sample material even more. Ultimate tensile
strength is one of these and this is the maximum stress that the sample material can take before
breaking. This is usually the peak of the graph.
Hooke’s Law can also be tackled on this test as its formula of stress over stain. The bottom part
of the formula is a constant that pertains to the Young’s Modulus as describe earlier. This is why
pre-test and post-test measurements is important to determine the elongation achieved during the
duration of test.
 σ
=E
ϵ
Modulus of elasticity is also part of the UTM and this is the part where the metal specimen acts
as a plastic as it nears the rupture point. We could see that this is the part where most elongation
occurs.

DISCUSSION

Figure 2: Weld in gap

This is an example of weld between two metal slabs. However, the one used in the
demonstration uses a thicker slab and its gap is wider to accommodate the shape of the sample
material when placed on the lathe. Here, the welder used the space in between to form the weld
by continuously burning and melting the metal welding rod to fill the gap.
Welder’s experience is important in this process because the quality of the weld depends
on the skill level of the welder and this could also affect the data in tensile strength. The
demonstrator on the video uses two slabs of A36 mild steel and this is the metal on both side
where the filler would be placed. The joint is filled with pure welding material which is the rod.
Then, this sample would be cut to separate it from the two metal slabs. One should end up with a
rectangular shape metal that would then be placed on the lathe machine. Depending on the
standards used, measurements can be different for different sample. The one used in the video is
AWS standards which have a measurement of 0.5 by 5 inches.
The tensile test is the next process to do which would result in three numbers. First is the
output or the maximum tensile stress the sample material can handle before breaking in half.
Yield strength happens when the sample starts to lengthen due to immense forces pulling the two
sides. Lastly, the change in length which is define by a dent on the metal before starting the test.
This could then be measured by a caliper after the tensile test is done. This tensile test has a bit
extra steps because the worker place an extensometer on the sample metal before starting the test
to measure the elongation of material being tested.

ii
LIST OF APPARATUS / SET-UP
1. Welded sample material (Lathed into standard)
2. UTM
3. Extensometer
4. Caliper
5. Hammer
6. Metal punch

CONCLUSION
In comparison of welded material to a metal sample that is lathe immediately, the welded
material is usually stronger and can elongate more which means that it can behave more in a
plastic way under the yield strength test. This is achieved because the welder made sure that the
patterns in his welding process is adequate to cover each layer of weld leaving no air gaps in
between that could affect the tensile strength of the sample material.
Overall, the learnings obtain from this process to further understand the tensile test and
its importance on engineering field. Knowing the different types of strength of material can
widen our knowledge on properties of different materials which can guide us in proper material
selection when working on different projects.

iii
 MAPÚA UNIVERSITY Grade = 70%
SCHOOL OF MECHANICAL AND MANUFACTURING ENGINEERING

ME136P-2/E01

ENGINEERING MATERIALS, PROCESSES AND TESTING

WRITTEN REPORT ON

CHARPY IMPACT TESTING

Worksheet Exercise 2.4

SUBMITTED BY:

Talan, Jefferson R.

2016142228

SUBMITTED TO:

ENGR. JENNIFER VALDEZ

DATE

April 22, 2021

iv
OBJECTIVES
5. To gain knowledge about Charpy test on metals.
6. To understand the influence of temperature on metal.
7. To understand the ductile to brittle transition curve.

v
TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE PAGE i

ABSTRACT ii

OBJECTIVE ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS iii

THEORIES AND PRINCIPLES 1

DISCUSSION 2

LIST OF APPARATUS / SET-UP 4

CONCLUSION 5

REFERENCES 6

vi
THEORIES AND PRINCIPLES
Charpy impact test involves a heavy hammer that would put huge strain on the metal
sample which has a notch in its surface. The measured force is read on the upper part of the
machine which is usually in joule in metric and pound-feet square in English system.
Figure 1: Standard Charpy impact test subject
This measurement is based on the specification requirements for ASTM E23 and ISO 148 which

is tested on ranges of temperature both cooled and heated.

At the resting position of the hammer before test, its height relative to the ground is
measured which would equate to potential energy depending on the height and weight of the
hammer.
Potential Energy = ( mass )( gravity )( height )
As the object start to move, the energy is then converted to kinetic energy which is divided into
two because not all energy is kinetic energy when it slams with the sample material.
1
Kinetic Energy = ( mass ) ( velocity )2
2
Impact energy is the energy which is absorbed by the sample material before fracturing in two.
Impact Energy = ( mass )( gravity )( height 2−height 1 )

DISCUSSION
Charpy Impact Test is developed before the start of the World War II in America to
provide engineers working in the military to give a sense of how “tough” a material is when met
with high strain such as an impact from a ballistic like a hammer. Americans used this as a basis
to strengthen the metals they used in the war. A heat-treated metal in reduced to a 10-millimeter-
thick rectangular block which has a length of 55 millimeter which has a notch of about 2 mm
deep to guide the fracture where the fracture should begin. Thousands of sample material is
tested using this impact test which the metal undergo different strengthening process and
compare the result with one another. One example is when the metal is quenched, the metal is
under a high stress from the inside. It is so hard that the material can shatter like a glass when a
force is applied to the notched.
To set the apparatus, the subject material is placed on the anvil which is supported on
both ends. Before initiating the test, the height of the hammer relative to the ground is measured

1
and both potential and kinetic energy can be calculated upon impact of the hammer to the
material.
Different metal temperature can also be used to understand how a metal would transition
from brittle to ductile. As an example, above, quenched metal is hard but very brittle because the
metal molecules inside is under a high stress which could cause them to shatter when met with
adequate force. If we observed the grain structure of the fracture face, we could see that the cut is

smooth which have a crystalline-like structure. When we place it on the Charpy impact test, the
resulting force is low because the sample material would shatter instantly. The result is different
when the material is ductile. This means that stronger force is required to break the metal in half
which makes their properties the ideal metal to use in constructing things. The face where the
fracture happen is not clean unlike the brittle material and shows a fibrous-like appearance
because the metal is not under high stress which makes the metallic bond between atoms at this
state is strong.
Figure 2: Brittle to Ductile Transition Graph
This is an example of brittle to ductile transition graph which correlates impact energy to
temperature of metal upon testing. During the linear elastic part, the metal is being stretched but
is not obvious to the naked eye because the elongation is small. After that, the elastic plastic
region is where most of the elongation happens. Here we can visibly see that the metal is pulled
apart and nearing the fracture point. Before it fractures, we would start to see the neck of the
metal. This would continue for a period until the single piece breaks into two bodies which is
then measured for elongation. The UTM also computes for the graph and different forces like the
yield force.

2
LIST OF APPARATUS / SET-UP
7. Charpy pendulum impact device
8. Aluminum 6061
9. 1018 HR steel

CONCLUSION
In comparison of welded material to a metal sample that is lathe immediately, the welded
material is usually stronger and can elongate more which means that it can behave more in a
plastic way under the yield strength test. This is achieved because the welder made sure that the
patterns in his welding process is adequate to cover each layer of weld leaving no air gaps in
between that could affect the tensile strength of the sample material.
Overall, the learnings obtain from this process to further understand the tensile test and
its importance on engineering field. Knowing the different types of strength of material can
widen our knowledge on properties of different materials which can guide us in proper material
selection when working on different projects.

3
4
LECTURE NOTES
Introduction to Material Science and Engineering Atomic Structure and Inter-atomic
bonding The Structure of Crystalline Solids
Material science is the study of understanding different material and its effect on structural
composition and its effects on how things are manufactured and created. There are thousand of
material and each of them do have variations that serve various purpose which can make them
applicable to certain purpose.
Everything has atomic structure whether it be solid, liquid, fluid, or plasma. Atomic bonds exist
between atoms to create structure of different kinds.
Ionic bond happens when there is transfer of electrons from one object to another. Usually,
metals lose electrons to be positive and nonmetals absorb electrons to become positively
charged.
Instead of transferring electrons, covalent bond happens when there is sharing of electrons
between atoms. There are three types, namely single bond, double bond, and triple bond.
Metallic bonds only exist on metal which is why they are usually strongly bonded.
There are different crystalline structure, and it is the reason why certain materials have their
shape such as table salt.
Ionic crystal happens when there is alternate formation of cation and anion may it be
monoatomic or polyatomic.
Metallic crystalline is often describe as sea of electrons because electrons are dispersed on the
surface which is why metals are often good conductors of electricity especially copper and silver.
Molecular Crystalline is held by weak intermolecular forces between atoms. With this, there are
many types of intermolecular forces such as hydrogen bond and is usually weak.
Imperfections in Solids
Imperfection in solids happen when the rate of its formation is unusually fast or slow. Defects
happen through this such as lack or additional atoms, or misplaced atom within the crystal itself.
Point defect happens when the ideal arrangement of atoms is distorted causing it to be placed
somewhere it is not supposed to.
Line defect happens when a row or column of atoms is misplaced and did not followed the ideal
structural arrangement. Unlike the point defect, here, many atoms are misplaced.
Surface defects happen when the crystalline forms in different orientation caused by natural
factors such as wear and tear of natural material.
Volume defect happens when several atoms is lacking on the surface of the crystalline structure
and is usually called as voids.

5
Mechanical properties of Metals. Dislocation and Strengthening Mechanisms
Metals are versatile material because it can be used to many industries and its application is
endless because there is a balance of strength and malleability with different types of metal.
Some of its mechanical properties are elongation, plastic deformation, hardness, malleability,
fatigue, etc.
Different processes are done to alter these properties such as quenching, tempering, to get the
qualities applicable for the job at hand.
A great example is quenching a knife. Quenching dramatically increases the strength of metal
but makes it very rigid and brittle. Even a small force could shatter the blade into pieces. That is
why tempering is done to reduce the inner force of the metal and allows for small flexibility to
prevent it from breaking in half. Grain Boundary strengthening is the example of this where the
grain size of the metal is decreased to handle stronger force compared to large-grain metal.
Plasticity is the property evident when the metal is under extreme forces such as tensional force.
A metal would act like a plastic when it is pulled apart and this can be seen before the material
break in two like the tensile test on UTM. Because of this property, 3d printing using metal is
achievable using modern technology.
Another example of metal property is toughness. This is highlighted on the Charpy Impact test
where a rectangular block of sample material is tested for its toughness by resisting strong
potential and kinetic force from a hammer which would travel from a pre-determined height.
Several metal strengthening processes is done to metals to increase its strength and other
properties. One such example is steel which is combination of different materials to increase its
strength and flexibility. At high temperature, it is also malleable depending on its composition of
different other metals such as vanadium and carbon content which collectively strengthen the
steel or billet as machinist often calls it.
Specific Gravity and Absorption of Aggregates
Aggregates are often used in construction sites to strengthen the foundation and overall structural
integrity of a platform whether it is small or huge. Some call it gravels, and it separated through
use of multiple sieves to get the required range of diameter.
Gravels can also be from huge rocks that is broken into smaller pieces for general use.
There are two types of aggregate. Or it may also be dependent on the standards used to get the
specification. For us, coarse aggregates have a minimum diametric size of 4.75 mm so it would
not pass the sieve of level 4. Fine aggregates are smaller and can pass through smaller sieves.
To get the course and fine aggregates, sieve analysis is done using equipment such as weighing
scale, oven, nest of sieves and mechanical sieve shaker which is optional.
An example of standards is AASHTO T 248

6
Phase Transformations in Metals Applications and Processing of Metal Alloys
Metals do have alloys which is created by combination of different materials and other metals to
form a stronger metal that satisfies the job at hand depending on the application on engineering
field. There are three classifications on material: metal, ceramic, and polymers.
For metals, there are two classifications: ferrous and non-ferrous. Ferrous metals is usually rich
in iron and is the most abundant type of metals on the planet’s surface and it is easy to extract
and transform unlike non-ferrous metals. However, they are usually weak and can easily degrade
especially when exposed to extreme weather conditions like rain and heat. Some examples are
steel which includes both low carbon and high carbon, stainless, low alloy steel, cast iron and a
lot more.
Non-ferrous metals are usually stronger than ferrous metals and can be formed easily because of
their malleability properties. Most non-ferrous metals are combination of different metals and
these are usually called alloys. Examples of these are aluminum, Magnesium, copper, bronze and
other refractory metals like tungsten and molybdenum.
For all metals, there are different basic manufacturing processes involve coming at the object as
we know it.
Casting is pouring a molten metal, usually superheated, and placed in a mold so the metal would
retain the shape of the object it is copying. Forming is when we use force to shape the metal
usually a hand hammer or hydraulic hammer which could generate tons of force to easily move
materials on the metal.
Modern machining use CNC which are computer-guided machine to precisely remove material
on the surface of the material. It is precise because it can remove 1mm of material which make
them applicable on jobs that requires small percent errors like the piston in formula 1 cars.
Moreover, there are various joining techniques and technology today. The most common is
welding because it is strong with minimal cost depending on the machine used. Riveting can also
be done but is weak, so it is use on weaker materials such as aluminum.
Forming of metals is also done to get the desired shape and dimensions of metal. Some of these
are forging, rolling, drawing, and extrusion. All techniques expand, shorten, slim down, and
strengthen the metal being form.
Thermal Processing methods can be done to change the grain size of metal. Annealing is done by
heating the metal and slowly letting the metal cool down. In this way, the metal is hardened, and
smaller grain pattern is achieved. However, it does not make the metal strong enough so
quenching and tempering is done before it. Quenching and tempering is heating the metal so hot
that it would glow reddish orange due to extreme temperature and then rapidly cooled by oil
which have a high smoking point. Sometimes, water is use but is not advisable for industrial use
because water cools the metal so fast that it makes it brittle.

7
Structures and Properties of Ceramics Applications of Ceramics
Ceramics are very common in our everyday life because it can be transformed into almost
anything. Ceramic by properties is brittle and can resist high temperatures that other metals
would melt at that condition. The most common form is made from clay and baked on a large
oven to allow it to dry and hardened.
Today, there are two types of ceramics. Traditional ceramic is usually made from clay or
different materials that can be found beneath the ground which includes water as the emulsifier
to let the ingredient bind to one another.
Engineered ceramics are combination of different metal alloys like aluminum and silicon
carbide. One great example for this is ceramic brake pads of high-performance vehicles which
requires high temperatures to perform in the optimal level. It last longer than it rubbers
counterpart but is not ideal for everyday use because it squeaks a lot when it clamps with the
wheel rotor.
The ceramic’s characteristics is also dependent on the forces that binds the atoms together. Some
have ionic and some have covalent bond to hold the materials together. Because of this, ceramic
have a high hardness and is less affected by change in temperature but is brittle unless strengthen
by additives.
The glass we use everyday is also a type of ceramic which is formed by melting glass to be
malleable. Cutting disc for angle grinder is also a type of ceramic and it can cut into metals but
removing small part of the metal which creates a lot of friction and then heat. Cement is also a
type of ceramics which is why it is used to create infrastructure because it can carry heavy loads
without deforming.
Polymer Structures Characteristics, Applications and Processing of Polymers
Most polymers are man-made, and it is made from materials that are repeating chains of
molecules. Each of these molecules have a bond between them and it is the determinant to its
properties. Examples are different types of plastics, rubber, and some epoxy.
In a polymer, there can be many monomers combine to for a single polymer. The process of
combining monomers to form a polymer is called polymerization.
Polymer is very useful in engineering industry because, first, it is resistant to chemicals. For this
reason, plastic is the cheap and ideal polymer when storing chemical especially those with high
PH level such as muriatic acid. It is also both thermal and electrical insulator which can
sometimes be seen on battery packaging to protect the battery from discharging. Polymers are
also having a good weight to strength ratio meaning they can be strong depending on the
polymerization that occurred during the formation of material.
Some plastics can be reusable by melting the components and putting it in molds that would be
the basis of shape and volume.

8
Polymers are useful in CAD software because plastic can be melted at low temperature which
allows the operator to machine the software drawing into reality by 3d printing. Polymers are
evident with our everyday making it a harmful substance to our environment when mishandled.
Application of polymers is endless through the industry because of their versatility. It can be
transformed into any material using the three basic processing methods. To make the polymer
achieve a shape, heating is needed for the first phase which soften the polymer and act as a
liquid. Shaping is the next step when it is place on a mold which the polymer would copy. The
final step is cooling which the polymer would solidify and retain its shape through solidification.
Composites
Composites is combination of different things to produce another material. In engineering
background, composites can be form by combining material to do specialize job. For example,
combination of different metals to create a stronger, more ductile material to handle stronger
impact force. By doing so, we retain the base material but also strengthen in through
combination of other metal.
One example is ceramic matrix composite. Unlike the normal ceramic we know, this is also
fracture resistance which is very common with ceramics because it is brittle. Reinforce concrete
is another composite which is a standard material to use on construction sites because it is strong
and can handle huge loads and allows for some flexibility because of the reinforcing bars inside
the cement. There are a lot more like engineered wood, plywood, wood-plastic composite, etc.
The main advantages to these are light weight without the heavy weight. It is also usually
corrosion resistance unlike standard steel used in weaker structures. Combination of different
materials is endless and usually created to perform task for primary use. This is because different
standards and application is different for different engineering practice and problems to be
solved. There are also disadvantages like the cost of manufacturing because new technology and
machineries is needed to bind the materials together. Analysis for this new material is also
difficult because former analysis does not entirely cover the material properties.
Corrosion and Degradation of Materials
Corrosion happens to metals during oxidation process and thus result in the formation of rust that
eats through the metal and then degrade its structural integrity. An example of this is corrosion of
zinc in acid oxidation. Two process occur during this: oxidation reaction and reduction reaction.
There are many forms of corrosion that happens. Stress corrosion happens at cracks where stress
can form and serve as a weak point. Uniform corrosion happens when there is oxidation on a
uniform surface. Pitting happens on the downward propagation of small pits and holes. Crevice
happens between two pieces of metal which is often welded together. Galvanic corrosion occurs
when two metals of different kind corrode at different rate. Intergranular is corrosion on grain
boundaries of metals where a phase exists.
There are several ways we can prevent this. First is application of self-protecting metals which
forms a thin layer which is the product through combination on oxygen atom which slows the

9
corrosion itself. Addition of inhibitors is the most common which is application of paints to
separate the material from external oxygen thereby protecting the material inside. Galvanization
is also a viable option which is addition of sacrificial material to coat the metal. It is like paint,
but galvanization use zinc to coat the metal which is stronger and would last longer than paint.
Materials selection and Design Consideration Economic, Environmental
Material selection is very important to engineering field and according to Banks et al, it is the
foundation of all engineering applications and design. This is important because no matter how
feasible the design is, if material selection is wrong, we cannot fully extract the potential of our
design may it be structural and design. In real work scenarios, investors need engineers to meet
standard parameters while minimizing cost to make it profitable without sacrificing structural
strength and compromise safety of people.
Design consideration is not a standard that engineers use like a blueprint. Design consideration
are parameters and information found by other engineers from former similar problems and must
be ponder over while in the process. A good design is futile if does not do its intended job or fail
after some time due to external factors.
This course is important because it teaches engineers the principal processes needed to transform
many materials that are present in the workforce. Certain protocols and techniques must be
learned during this phase because it can be handy when working on the field. Without these,
work can be dangerous and economically disastrous staining our professional capabilities.
Material selection and design consideration is important when working on a design.
When these things are all put in mind, engineers could start to choose the proper materials that
can satisfy the parameter of their intended use. After this, choosing the proper manufacturing
process is needed to transform the material to objects that can be use on field. There are many
processes and modern technology invites innovations to make it efficient and cost effective.
Social Issues in Material Science and Engineering
There are many societal issues in material science and engineering. Some of which are product
cost, environmental impact of the product, and recycling options.
First, economic consideration is important to lure probable investors in the company and make
profit in doing so. Product must be appealing to the market which can translate to profit of the
company and jobs to people working on the project.
Material engineers must minimize the overall production cost of materials without sacrificing its
quality by making an appropriate component design, acquiring materials that has the right
properties and learning many manufacturing techniques which could speed up the process of
production.
Labor factors of the workers must not be forgotten as they are the people who would make the
project possible and would be hands-on on different stages of the project.
Therefore, the three r’s is important for material design; reduce, reuse, and recycle.

10
Recycling materials thrown in landfill is important because it allows us to minimize the waste of
materials we use. However, there are some issues when doing so. Materials that needed recycling
must be disassembled to recover the materials used for the component. After this, it needs to be
collected and transported to plants that could process them to raw materials again.
However, not all materials can be recycled. For example, material that are susceptible to
corrosion is hard to use because it needs further processing to be able to use like removal of rust
which could affect the material when it is not treated. Toxic metals is another difficult material to
recycle because it is not readily handled without proper gear and can be hazardous to both human
and wildlife health. Glass, a type of ceramics, is broken and molten to be use again which sound
easy but can also produce toxic gases to our atmosphere.
Depending on the type, polymers can be melted again and transformed into pellets which
companies could use to produce many product components. Some are not recyclable, so it is
incinerated to become substitute to fossil fuel.
One of the most difficult material to transform is composite because it is made of several
materials that requires more step in breaking down and collecting raw materials that some
companies find it expensive, so they just throw it on landfills. Materials on composite must be
segregated properly and equipment such as shredders can be costly.
Scientist and engineers are working hand-in-hand to create materials that can be naturally
degraded with the use of engineered bacteria to do the breaking for them. Materials can also be
readily made with biodegradable materials to lessen its harmful effect on the planet.

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