GRAMMAR SUMMARY UNIT 1

Time phrases The continuous aspect

Grammar notes Grammar notes
Time phrases reflect the rule of use of many tenses. For Form
example, the rule of use for the simple past is that it’s used
to describe finished past states and actions—a time phrase Continuous tenses are formed with the auxiliary verb be
such as “two weeks ago” is clearly past and finished— and the present participle form of the main verb (the
thus it follows that this phrase is likely to be used with -ing form). So, for example, to form the past perfect
the simple past. Similarly, while implies duration (past continuous, be is in the past perfect form (past auxiliary
continuous), prior to implies something happening before had + past participle been) and is followed by the -ing
(past perfect), and currently implies something happening form of the main verb (in the example, intending).
now (present continuous). Explore how the meanings of Meaning
time phrases reflect your students’ understanding of the
rules of use of the tenses in this presentation. What connects the different continuous tenses is “aspect.”
Aspect is a grammatical category that expresses how an
action, event, or state, denoted by a verb, extends over
Time phrases time. In English, continuous aspect expresses duration,
temporariness, and incompleteness. For example, I’ve
Grammar notes (p. 11, Exercises 6–7) been working hard all day happens over a period of time
(duration), isn’t something that’s always true or repeated
After completing Exercises 6 and 7, ask students to (temporariness), and is still happening (incomplete).
categorize what they found out about time phrases Continuous tenses can only be used with active verbs
from doing the exercise. They should refer back to the (because the tense can’t be used to express a permanent
information in the box. Tell them to match the time state).
phrases to the tenses used:
(from Exercise 6)
1 Over the last 25 years = present perfect
2 for years = present perfect continuous
3 at the moment = present continuous
4 often = simple present
5 At the time = past continuous
6 ever = present perfect
7 Before that = past perfect
(from Exercise 7)
1 A How long = present perfect continuous
B two years ago = simple past; before that = past perfect
2 A yet = present perfect; last night = simple past
B every week = simple present; never = simple present
in the end = future

156
Exercises 2 More and more young people are staying in
education for longer.
1 Circle the correct time word or phrase(s) to a The situation described is changing.
complete the sentences. Sometimes two words or b The situation described hasn’t changed for a
phrases are correct. long time.
1 People often / at the time / sometimes like to read 3 I didn’t go to the movies because I was
on trains and buses on their way to work. studying.
2 My hometown has completely changed when / a I was studying at one particular time.
since / for I was a little girl. b I was studying every day.
3 He’s moving house next month / soon / recently. 4 They’ve been living in Russia for six years.
4 Henry bought a house when he was thirty-five. a They still live in Russia.
He’d been living with his parents up to then / b They don’t live in Russia any more.
already/ in the long term.
5 The two companies are currently / recently / 5 Jennifer will be working from home on
soon trying to negotiate a deal. Thursday afternoon.
a She does this every Thursday.
2 Complete the sentences with the correct tense of the b I’m just talking about Thursday this week.
verbs in parentheses. Use the time phrases to help.
5 Circle the correct words to complete the sentences.
1 So you’re learning Japanese! How long
have you been studying it? (you / study) 1 My sister is always / had always been borrowing
2 She will buy / is going to buy a new computer my clothes without asking me!
when the sales start in two days’ time. (buy) 2 More and more people were / are becoming
3 Finding a secure job has become vegetarians these days.
harder for young people in recent years. (become) 3 He hasn’t been / wasn’t attending his lessons for
4 The movie had already the last few months.
started when they arrived at 4 They had been / have been driving for hours
the theater. (start) when they decided to stop for a break.
5 I ’m driving at the moment so I’ll 5 A: Has Tina woken up yet?
have to call you back. (drive) B: No, she is still / has still been sleeping.

3 Complete the text with these words and phrases. 6 Complete the conversation with the correct form
of the verbs in parentheses. Use a continuous form
currently from now on in the long term when possible.
nowadays recently up till then
A: What’s all that noise? Is that the workmen?
B: Yes. They 1 are building (build) a new
My son is 1
currently doing a project
community center at the end of our road.
at school about changes in the last seventy years. have
A: How long 2 they
I couldn’t answer his questions, so I suggested that been doing it for? (do)
he ask his grandparents. 2  Up till then  , my
B: For six months. They said it would be finished
son had just been using the internet. Afterward I will
by now, but I think they 3
started to think about it more. 3 Nowadays  ,
still be working on it this time next
we get most of our information from the
year! (work)
internet, not from speaking to other people.
But we need something like that here.
4
Recently , I’ve been doing some
I4 ’ve been living (live) on this street for
DIY at home and I always search the internet for
ten years, but I only say hello to a few people
instructions. We don’t ask other people for advice as ’ve known
I 5  (know) since I first
much as we used to. 5 In the long term , I think
moved here.
we’ll lose a lot of knowledge if we carry on like
A: Well, more and more people
this. 6 From now on , I’m going to encourage 6 are moving (move) to big cities, so
my children to talk to their grandparents as much
you’re less likely to know your neighbors.
as possible. was walking
The other day I 7  (walk)
4 Read the sentences. Then circle the correct down my street and I saw a neighbor on his
explanation (a or b) for each one. way to work. I said hello, but he was in such a
rush that he just walked past me!
1 Joe’s always calling me to talk about his girlfriend.
a I enjoy his phone calls.
b I find his phone calls annoying.

Grammar Summary 157

 GRAMMAR SUMMARY UNIT 2
Perfect forms Simple past

Grammar notes Grammar notes (p.23, Exercise 8)

Form Note that native speakers often choose to use the simple
The different tenses of the perfect form are created by past rather than the past perfect when the context is so clear
using the auxiliary verb have in the appropriate form plus that you don’t need to show the action or event is “before”
the past participle of the main verb. another. As a result, in item 2 the speaker says had intended
(meaning the intention was “before” he got the job and
Meaning became a commissioner), but it’s also correct to use the
Timelines are a visual way of showing how we use perfect simple past, as the sentence order shows that the intention
forms to look back at an event that has a later impact happened first and getting the job happened after.
(“later” could be a time in the past, now, or a time in the
future depending on whether we are using past, present,
or future perfect). Note these examples:
Form of the passive

They felt it. Others felt it. Grammar notes

X X
PastNow
Form
Passives are formed with the auxiliary verb be and the past
… they had felt the tsunami coming long before others … participle form of the main verb (the -ed form in regular
verbs). So, for example, to form the past continuous
disappear? disappear? ten years from now passive, be is in the past continuous form (past auxiliary
was + present participle being) and is followed by the past
X X |
NowFuture participle or -ed form of the main verb.
In another ten years, this unique way of life … will
probably have disappeared from the sea completely. Meaning of the passive voice

Perfect forms Grammar notes

Meaning
Grammar notes (p. 23, Exercise 7) The passive voice is used when we want to focus attention
 1 Before 2004 shows that “hearing” of the Moken is a on the person or thing affected by the action. In this case,
“before past” event (a past event that has an impact we make the person or thing the subject of the sentence.
on a later time in the past). For example, we say, His hands were badly burned because
we want to emphasize his hands and what happened to
 2 The time phrase since then is often used with the
them. Also the agent, fire or heat, is obvious.
present perfect (a completed event or action that might
be repeated or continued and has a present connection).
3/4 The opening phrase of the sentence (are amazed) is
present, so the other tenses used here must also be
present: learn and have become (a completed event or
action that might be repeated or continued and has a
present connection).
5/6 two past events from a finished time—the ancestors
are now implied to be dead
 7 a repeated action happening now
 8 a completed event or action that might be repeated or
continued and has a present connection
 9 future prediction
10 a current situation
11 past event
12 The time reference in ten or twenty years’ time
indicates that will have changed happens in the future,
but before the time reference (a completed event or
action at a point in the future).

158
Exercises 3 You must finish this report by the end of the day.
This report must be finished by the end of the
1 Correct the mistake in each sentence. day.
’ve been
1 I was a hairdresser since 2005. 4 The speaker will give the lecture in French.
didn’t go The lecture will be given in French.
2 He hasn’t been on vacation last year.
5 The other guests had eaten all the food by the
3 We don’t need to go to the station because her time we arrived.
train won’t be arrived yet. All the food had been eaten by the time we
have arrived.
had
4 I’ve been having this car for a long time.
forgotten 6 You need to pass the written theory test first.
5 She couldn’t pay as she’d forget her wallet. The written theory test needs to be passed first.
’ve been
6 I’m wearing glasses since I was a child. 5 Complete the conversation with the active or
passive form of the verbs in parentheses. Use get
2 Complete the sentences with the correct perfect where possible.
form of the verb in parentheses.
A: Did you see that documentary about
1 I’m really hungry! I haven’t eaten since knew
dangerous jobs? I never 1
this morning. (not eat)
(know) cutting down trees was so dangerous!
2 We didn’t want to watch the movie because we
Every year, a lot of loggers—they’re the people
had already seen it. (see)
who cut down trees—2 are killed
3 How long have you been working at this
(kill) by falling trees or by the equipment they
company? (you work)
are using.
4 I think by the year 2050, a lot of animals
B: I wonder if they 3 are told (tell)
will have become extinct. (become)
about the dangers before they start working.
5 I have known Ella for two years. (know)
A: Well, I expect they must know. But why does
3 Complete the text with the correct form of the anyone choose to do it if it’s so dangerous?!
verbs in parentheses. Sometimes you do NOT need B: Maybe they 4 like (like) working
a perfect form. outdoors and they 5 get paid (pay)
well. Which other jobs were mentioned?
I 1 have been living (live) on a boat for fifteen A: Fishermen! Especially the ones that fish for
years now, and I love it. Before moving to London, crabs. Apparently, crabs can only
I2 hadn’t lived (not live) on a boat before, 6 be caught (catch) during winter in
so when I first 3 told (tell) people places like Alaska. So the water is really cold
about my plan to live on the River Thames, they and people can die from hypothermia if they
thought I was crazy. When I arrived in London, 7 get hit (hit) by heavy equipment
I realized I 4 couldn’t (cannot) afford and fall into the water. They said that they
a normal apartment, so I decided to buy a boat, 8 earn (earn) a lot of money, but
and I 5 have been (be) here ever since. I’m happy working in an office!
The best thing about living like this is that you see
a different side to London—one that’s closer to 6 Rewrite the sentences using the passive to
nature. However, I don’t have much storage space emphasize the agent.
so I 6 haven’t been able to (not be able to) buy a lot
1 A teenager from our street broke into our car.
of things since I moved here. In fact, I’m hoping Our car was broken into by a teenager from our street .
that by the end of this year, I 7 will have saved
(save) enough money to buy a bigger boat. 2 Dr Taylor can’t see you today.
You can’t be seen by Dr Taylor today.
4 Rewrite the sentences using the passive.
3 Astronomers have discovered a new planet.
1 The president announced the tax increase. A new planet has been discovered by astronomers.
The tax increase was announced by the
president. 4 A fast food company is going to buy the old
movie theater.
2 The local council is building a new bridge. The old movie theater is going to be bought by a fast
A new bridge is being built by the local food company.
council.
5 Our actions are destroying the environment.
The environment is being destroyed by our actions.

Grammar Summary 159

 GRAMMAR SUMMARY UNIT 3
American and British English Ungradable adjectives

Grammar notes Grammar notes

Note that there is a difference between American and
Note that ungradable adjectives can’t generally use words
British English usage when it comes to using quite, pretty,
like really, extremely, and fairly.
and rather. Americans tend to say That’s pretty clear or I’m
pretty sure, generally avoiding quite sure (which sounds Ungradable absolute adjectives cannot be used with
very British). comparatives or superlatives—they are already absolute—
you can’t be more unique or more dead.
Americans also avoid rather (which sounds extremely
formal and British). So, you will hear It’s a pretty strange Which intensifying adverb is appropriate to use can
place (U.S. English), but It’s a rather strange place (British sometimes be a matter of collocation and usage. So,
English). absolutely stunning is fine, but utterly stunning is
incorrect, and totally stunning is an odd collocation, but
When American speakers say quite, they usually mean
one some native speakers will use. Utterly is often used
“very,” e.g., I’d definitely recommend her, her work is
when there is a negative connotation, utterly miserable
quite thorough. Speakers of British English sometimes
but not utterly wonderful, but this isn’t always the case—
use quite to mean “very,” but only before words with
utterly compelling is a common collocation, for example.
an extreme meaning: The whole experience was quite
Note that the following Vocabulary section looks at
amazing.
adverb + adjective collocations.

Fairly, quite, and pretty Intensifying adverbs

Grammar and pronunciation notes Grammar notes (p. 37, Exercise 9)
The qualifying adverbs fairly, quite, and pretty can be
If students have problems with this exercise, refer them
defined as meaning “to a fairly large degree.” So, It’s fairly
back to rules. They have to decide if an adjective is
warm means “not completely warm but warm to a large
gradable or not first (e.g., in 1, simple is gradable, so
extent.“
we use very). Then they have to decide if an adjective is
When the qualifier is stressed, the meaning changes extreme or absolute (e.g., in 5, ridiculous is extreme and
slightly. It’s fairly warm means, “it’s OK—not cold—but not unaffordable is absolute).
very warm either.“

What makes an adjective ungradable?

Grammar notes
What makes an adjective ungradable? The answer is that
it cannot vary in intensity because it’s an extreme (e.g.,
freezing, brilliant, awful), or an absolute (e.g., unique,
dead, right). Note that some gradable adjectives may seem
extreme to students (e.g., mean, generous, clumsy), but
English does not see them as such. Tell students to apply
rules and use common sense—words like impossible and
awful are clearly extreme, and are probably ungradable in
the students’ first language.
A useful test to see whether an adjective is gradable or
not is to ask these two questions (if the answer is yes, it’s
gradable):
Can we use very as an intensifier before it?
Can we make a comparative from it: [adjective]-er or more
[adjective]?

160
Exercises 3 I was utterly surprised to see Matt at the party
last night.very
1 Circle the correct option to complete the sentences. 4 I found the exam really difficult.
1 The food in that restaurant wasn’t very good / very
5 It’s absolutely important that you listen to the
was pretty good. I won’t be going there again. safety instructions.
2 There’s quite a / a quite long line in that store. a really
Let’s go somewhere else. 6 We’ve just watched an extremely amazing
3 This car is pretty / isn’t particularly cheap. movie!
completely
We should buy it. 7 You’re utterly right. We needed to turn left after
4 It was a fairly / fairly a difficult test. the traffic lights.
5 He’d had pretty a / a pretty tiring day so he
decided to go straight home. 5 Complete the sentences with these adjectives.
2 Read the sentences. Then circle the best cold exhausted freezing
explanation (a or b) for each one. stunning stylish tiny tired

1 It was freezing this morning but the weather’s 1 You should put a coat on. It’s absolutely
improving a little now. freezing outside.
a The weather is much better now. 2 Silvia’s extremely tired and wants to
b The weather is slightly better now. stay at home and rest.
2 Martina: I hate this kind of music. 3 That’s a very stylish necklace you’re
Isabella: Oh? I really like it. wearing. It looks great on you.
a Isabella only likes this kind of music a little. 4 Our hotel room is absolutely tiny ! I’m
b Isabella enjoys this kind of music. going to ask for a bigger one.
5 It was a very cold winter and most of
3 I don’t particularly enjoy this kind of food.
the plants died.
a I dislike this kind of food.
6 The views from the tower are quite stunning .
b I sometimes enjoy this kind of food.
You should take a camera when you go.
4 I kind of hoped that the party would be 7 I felt utterly exhausted yesterday after our
canceled because I’m so tired. long run.
a This was my wish.
b I only hoped this a little bit. 6 Circle the best options to complete the
conversation.
3 Complete the texts with the qualifiers given. A: How was your weekend?
Sometimes more than one answer is possible.
B: Not great. We were apartment hunting! It was
fairly not particularly pretty
1
very / absolutely frustrating because the real
estate agent made the apartments sound 2 really /
I grew up in the countryside in Poland. I suppose it very amazing but when we looked at them, they
was a 1 fairly / pretty nice place to grow up—there weren’t what we’d expected.
weren’t many people in the village but I had a A: Oh no! How many apartments did you look at?
2 fairly / pretty
big group of friends and we always B: Five. The first two were in a nice area but
played outdoors. But it was 3 not particulary exciting were 3 utterly / incredibly small! I just couldn’t
and I used to dream about living in a big city. live in them! Then we saw another apartment
downtown but it was on a 4 very / totally busy
not very pretty slightly road, and I didn’t like that. The fourth place
was in an 5 extremely / absolutely terrible state!
My hometown is a 4 pretty big place, We’d have to do a lot of work on it.
but it’s not huge. It’s very close to London but A: What about the fifth one?
this means the facilities are 5 slightly / pretty B: It was great—new and modern, in a great
limited because most people go to London for neighborhood. And it has a(n) 6 incredibly / very
entertainment and shopping. It’s 6 not very huge yard.
cheap to live there, because it’s so close to the city. A: But …
B: It was 7 completely / extremely expensive, so we
4 Correct the mistake in each sentence. Not all the can’t afford it.
sentences contain an error. Answers may vary.
absolutely
1 It’s very freezing outside today.
2 This room is incredibly small.

Grammar Summary 161

 GRAMMAR SUMMARY UNIT 4
The suffixes -able and -ible Past modals

Grammar notes Grammar notes

Note that the suffixes -able and -ible are similar; both Meaning
mean capable of or suitable for. However, we treat them 1 obligation versus necessity
differently. The most important difference is that -able is
a “living suffix,” meaning we can affix it to many verbs Often, we can interchange had to and needed to (e.g., I
without using a hyphen, and it can be used to make new went to bed at nine because I had to / needed to be up
words. However, -ible is not used to make new words—it early the next day). The choice depends on whether there
exists mainly in old words with a Latin root. is an obligation imposed on the speaker from outside
(e.g., When I worked in the warehouse, we had to clock
To form an -able word, treat the verb as you do when making in every morning.) or whether there was necessity—the
an -ing participle. For example, we make moving from move speaker needed or required something (e.g., We stopped
by dropping the e and adding -ing. So, to make an -able at the first ridge because we needed to rest.).
adjective from move, we drop the e and add -able: movable.
2 no obligation or no necessity
But when creating an -able word, make sure there is not
already an equivalent -ible word. For instance, convertible Similarly, we can interchange didn’t have to and didn’t
already exists, and so we don’t need to create a new verb need to (e.g., It was Sunday so we didn’t have to / need to
with -able. get up early.) but would choose didn’t have to if there was
clearly a lack of obligation from outside (e.g., Employees
didn’t have to wear a uniform on casual Fridays.).
Modal verbs 3 lack of necessity
To help show the difference between needn’t have and
Grammar notes didn’t need to, write the following sentences on the board
Form and ask students to explain the situations:
Modal verbs are followed by the infinitive without to. You needn’t have brought flowers, but thanks anyway.
Noun phrases are followed by that (which can be omitted) We didn’t need to buy a ticket because my uncle gave us
and a clause (subject + verb). free passes to the festival.
4 speculation
Meaning
To help show the difference between must, might, and
May, might, and could are used to say something is
can’t when speculating, write the following sentences on
possible; may well, might well, could well are used to say
the board and ask students to explain the situations:
something is more than possible; should is used here to
express an expectation. Jo must have left. Her coat’s gone.
Simon might have left with Jo, but I’m not sure.
Andy can’t have left. His car’s still outside.
We use must and can’t when there is an element of logical
deduction—we are almost certain because there is a
logical reason why.

Past modals

Grammar notes (p. 49, Exercise 9)

1 Both must and might are technically possible here.
However, it’s unlikely that the speaker would choose
might. We choose must because, logically, this is the
only explanation for not hearing someone leave.
2 The speaker is saying that the action happened—but it
wasn’t necessary.
3 The speaker says “I think” so they are unsure—that’s
why could is correct.
4 should have woken me—this was advisable
5 There was an outside obligation for me to do this.

162
Exercises 4 Circle the correct option to complete the sentences.
1 I was late to work this morning because I had to /
1 Circle the correct option to complete the sentences. must stop for gas.
1 We probably won’t / won’t probably / maybe won’t 2 They didn’t have to / weren’t allowed to pay to
know the results of the election till tomorrow. enter the museum because it was free.
2 In ten years, we couldn’t / may not / shouldn’t be 3 Thank you for the flowers! You didn’t have to buy /
using smartphones any more. weren’t allowed to buy me anything!
3 It’s likely / possible / probably that the heating 4 We didn’t have to / weren’t allowed to speak
system will have to be replaced soon. It’s during the exam.
broken down three times already this month. 5 She didn’t need to go / needn’t have gone to work
4 Philip and Ruth might / should / could be here so she spent the day relaxing in her garden.
at 8.00 p.m. They left at 7:30 p.m. and the trip
takes half an hour. 5 Complete the conversation with these modal forms.
5 There’s almost certainly / maybe / a good chance
could have couldn’t have might not have
that the flight will be delayed.
must have should have shouldn’t have
2 Rewrite the sentences so they have the same
meaning. Use the words in parentheses. A: I’m so tired! Some friends came for dinner
last night. I spent all day cooking, and then
1 It’s very probable that our train will be late they didn’t leave until 2 a.m.! It’s my fault—I
today. (chance) 1 shouldn’t have invited them to come
There’s a good chance that our train will be late today. during the week. It’s better to invite friends
2 In the future we might all be driving electric over on the weekend.
cars. (perhaps) B: Oh no! You 2 should have just got
Perhaps we will all be driving electric cars in the future. take-out!
A: Oh, I 3 couldn’t have done that! I promised
3 Space travel will probably be a lot cheaper in them a home-cooked meal. But you know, I’m
the future. (likely) It’s likely
sure I 4 must have spent an hour just
that space travel will be a lot cheaper in the future.
cutting up vegetables!
4 The government might raise interest rates this B: You should buy a food processor. I have
year. (possible) It’s possible that one that cuts up vegetables really quickly.
the government will raise interest rates this year. I 5 could have lent it to you!
A: It’s a good thing you didn’t. You
3 Complete the text with these words and phrases. 6 might not have ever gotten it back
from me!
almost certainly chances could
possible should unlikely 6 Complete the conversations with must, can(’t),
could(n’t), might, should(n’t), and ought and the
Air pollution causes millions of premature deaths correct form of these verbs. You don’t need to use
throughout the world every year, and this number all the modal forms.
will 1 almost certainly increase in the future. As
a result, we 2 should start to see more buy drive eat leave open see
interesting solutions for this problem. One idea to
deal with pollution is Daan Roosegaarde’s “Smog 1 Maia can’t have driven to work. Her car is still
Free Tower”—a tower that sucks in polluted air outside her house.
and blows out clean air. Roosegaarde believes that 2 I have a stomachache. I shouldn’t have eaten
in the future, towers like this 3 could so much food earlier!
be used to improve the air quality in polluted
cities. Roosegaarde says it’s 4 possible to 3 Oh no! We’ve missed our train. I told you we
build “Smog Free Towers” the size of buildings, should have left the house earlier!
for an even bigger impact. However, the towers 4 I thought I just saw Steve, but I
are 5 unlikely to solve the problem of air must have seen somebody who looks like
pollution completely; 6 chances are that him because Steve’s on vacation in Peru.
we will need to develop many innovative ideas to
keep pollution under control. 5 The bank should have opened by now. It’s
already 9:15 and it opens at 8:30.

Grammar Summary 163

 GRAMMAR SUMMARY UNIT 5
Emphatic structures

Grammar notes
Many emphatic structures involve cleft sentences. Cleft
means “divided or split.” Note how a simple subject-verb-
object sentence is split in emphatic structures. A visual
way of showing this is to write the sentence below on the
board:
______ I love ______ going for long walks.
Ask students to note the “split” and say how they can add
structures to make the sentence emphatic:
What I love is going for long walks.
The thing I love is going for long walks.
To use It’s students need to move the object or
complement so that it goes before the subject and verb:
It’s going for long walks that I love.
Note that we move the object or complement to give it
more prominence—to emphasize it.

Use of emphatic structures

Grammar notes
Note how emphatic structures can be used in the past as
well as present, using was and were instead of is and are.

Pronouns

Grammar notes
We use one, that, so, and the pronouns it, them, him, her,
etc. to avoid repetition.
Students tend to find it difficult to know when to use one.
One is used to refer to a single person or thing when there
are others of the same type. Compare these two sentences:
I’ll keep this TV, but I’d rather get a better one.
I’ll keep this TV, but I don’t think much of it.
One refers to “one of the same type” whereas it refers to
“the TV itself.”
That isn’t used in the place of a noun—it’s used to replace
a phrase, clause, or sentence. Similarly, so replaces whole
phrases after certain verbs: I hope so, I think so, I believe
so, I suppose so, etc. If we are replacing a negative phrase,
not or not so is used: I hope not, I suppose not, I don’t
think so, etc.

164
Exercises 4 Circle the correct (a–c) option to replace the
underlined parts of the sentences.
1 Rewrite the sentences to emphasize the underlined 1 Should we go to the restaurant by the water or
word or phrase.
the restaurant near the castle?
1 Francis called Ben last night. a that b the one c it
It was Francis who called Ben last night .
2 A: I had to wake up at 4 a.m. to get to the
2 I’d like more free time not money. airport on time.
It is more free time not money that I’d like . B: Waking up at 4 a.m. must have been hard!
a So b That c One
3 She doesn’t like the way her manager speaks
to her. 3 A: The suitcases you bought are too small!
It is the way her manager speaks to her that she doesn’t. like B: They were the biggest suitcases they had in
the store!
4 The hotel we stayed in was expensive but the
a ones b one c it
flights cost us the most.
The hotel we stayed in was expensive, but it 4 A: What time does the tourist office open?
was the flights that cost us the most . B: I think the tourist office opens at 9 a.m.
a one b that c it
5 The students find out their results in January.
It is in January that the students find out their results
. 5 A: Will there be a lot of people at the meeting?
B: I expect there will be a lot of people at the
2 Rewrite the sentences to emphasize the underlined meeting.
phrases. a it b so c ones
1 In winter I hate the cold weather.
The thing that I hate in winter is the cold weather .
5 Find six phrases in the email that can be deleted to
avoid repetition.
2 We forgot to lock our front door.
What we forgot was to lock our front door . Hi Alex
3 I loved being able to relax on a beach. Samira and I arrived on Koh Chang island a week
The thing that I loved was being able to relax on ago and it’s amazing! We’d thought about going to
a beach .
one of the busier islands but we decided not to go
4 The airline won’t refund our tickets. to one of the busier islands. And I’m glad, because
The thing that the airline won’t refund is our tickets .
it’s perfect here! On the day we arrived we’d
5 You’re now going to see a summary of the planned to go on a jungle hike but in the end we
research.
couldn’t go on a jungle hike because it was raining!
What you’re going to see is a summary of the research .
It’s been sunny and hot since then—I’ve just felt like
3 Rewrite the underlined parts of the sentences to relaxing on a beach and Sally has felt like relaxing
make them more emphatic, using a form of do.
on a beach, too! Tomorrow I’d like to go elephant
When it is not possible to add a form of do, circle
the word that needs to be stressed. trekking but Samira doesn’t want to go elephant
trekking. I think she’s a little scared! So instead
1 I thought the tourist office would be a bit more
helpful. I did think we’re going to visit a waterfall and go snorkeling
with a group of friends we’ve made. They’ve
2 These snakes will bite you if they get the
chance. These snakes will bite all been snorkeling before but I haven’t been
snorkeling before. I’m really looking forward to it!
3 She seemed to be ignoring everything the tour
guide was saying. She did seem to be ignoring Sally thinks we should stay longer on the island. I’d
like to stay longer on the island too, but there are
4 They have already paid for their meal.
They have already paid so many other places to see!

5 She works in a bank, doesn’t she? See you when we get back!
She does work
Renata

Grammar Summary 165

 GRAMMAR SUMMARY UNIT 6
Phrasal verbs Verb patterns

Grammar notes Grammar notes

A phrasal verb is an idiomatic phrase consisting of a verb There are some rules for verb patterns that you could
and another element, typically either an adverb, as in The revise with your students:
car broke down, or a preposition, for example, I came
1 We always use -ing after prepositions (and therefore
across some old photos. In three-part phrasal verbs, there
after phrasal verbs).
is verb + adverb + preposition (e.g., I look forward to
seeing you; Paul looks down on his colleagues.). 2 We tend to use -ing after verbs of liking and disliking
(enjoy, detest), and verbs of saying and thinking
1 Phrasal verbs can have meanings which seem logical
(imagine, deny, remember).
to students (e.g., We started out on our journey.), but
often they are completely idiomatic (e.g., We fell out.). 3 Make and let are unusual because they don’t have to
before the infinitive (She made/let me do it.).
2 Separability is dependent on whether the particle is an
adverb (in which case, it can be separated) or a preposition In the end, although there are some rules and tendencies,
(in which case, it can’t be separated). Realistically, however, patterns need to be learned through exposure and practice.
it’s easier for students to learn whether new phrasal verbs Note that some verbs are followed by more than one
are separable or not through usage. form. Sometimes this involves a change of meaning. For
Note that we can choose to separate around a noun example, the verb try can follow the pattern to + infinitive
(put off people or put people off), but we have to or the pattern + -ing, but with slightly different meanings.
separate when we use pronouns (put them off but not Look at these examples:
put off them). Mark tried to open the door. (i.e., he made an effort to
3 Phrasal verbs can be transitive (they take an object) or open it)
intransitive (they don’t). Note that as the same phrasal Mark tried opening the door. (i.e., he did an experiment
verbs may have a variety of meanings depending on or test to see if it would open)
context, a phrasal verb that is intransitive in one context
(e.g., We set off on a journey.) can be transitive in
another context (e.g., They set off a bomb.).

166
Exercises 5 Complete the second sentences so they mean the
same as the first sentences. Use the correct form of
1 Correct the mistake in each sentence. the verbs in parentheses.
1 Please pay back me the money you owe as soon 1 Stefan doesn’t play tennis any more because of
as you can. his injury. (stop)
Stefan has stopped playing tennis because of his
2 At 8:34 a.m., took the plane off.
injury.
3 He’s been looking his phone for all morning but
2 He said, “I won’t be late for the meeting.”
he hasn’t found it yet.
(promise)
4 If you’re not watching the TV, can you turn off He promised not to be late for the
it please? meeting.
5 His teacher won’t put up his bad behavior with 3 I don’t want to put you off from doing the race,
any longer. but it’s very demanding. (discourage)
I don’t want to discourage you from doing the race ,
6 They let in Adam on the plans for the surprise
but it’s very demanding.
birthday party.
4 They said they really wanted us to decide by
2 Circle the correct option to complete the sentences. the end of the week. (urge)
Sometimes both options are correct. They urged us to decide by the end of
1 His cousin is an expert on cars so he the week.
turned to him / turned him to for advice. 5 Julia allowed me to borrow her racing bike
2 They arranged the meeting for tomorrow but while she was away. (let)
now they’ve decided to put it off / put off it. Julia let me borrow her racing bike while she
3 She takes after her father / takes her father after. was away.
4 I told them to come over / come over our house at
around 9 p.m. 6 Are you sad now that you don’t live by the
5 You should throw away these old clothes / water? (miss)
throw these old clothes away if you never wear them. Do you miss living by the water?
6 I hadn’t seen Michele for years but I 6 Complete the conversation with these words and
ran into her / ran her into yesterday at the store. the correct form of the verbs in parentheses. Add
7 Can you fill this form out / fill out this form now? an object if necessary.
3 Match the phrasal verbs in Exercise 2 with these
ask decide help make
meanings (a–g).
start stop think about
a be similar to an older relative 3
b complete 7 A: Guess what? I’ve 1 decided to run (run)
c delay (postpone) 2 a marathon!
d meet somebody by chance 6 B: Wow! Where are you going to do it?
e put into the trash (dispose of) 5 A: In Berlin. It’s in September but I’ve
f visit somebody in their home 4 2 started training (train) already. I even
g ask for support or help 1 have a personal trainer. She
3 makes me exercise (exercise) really hard
4 Circle the correct verb form to complete the for an hour every day!
sentences. B: I’m not exercising at all these days.
1 I told him to wait / wait for me outside the gym. A: I thought you went to the gym every morning.
2 He tried ringing / to ring the doorbell but B: No, I’ve 4 stopped going (go). It just
no one answered. wasn’t 5 helping me to get (get) fit.
3 The world champion has failed to finish / A: You should come and train with me! I often
finishing the race. go running outdoors with my trainer. I could
4 We need to hurry up! I’m worried about miss /
6
  ask her to work (work) with you, too.
missing our train. B: Thanks, that’d be great.
5 Rita made me wake / to wake up early to go for A: Have you ever 7 thought about running (run) a
a run. marathon?
6 I remember to watch / watching this cartoon B: I think I should start exercising again regularly
when I was a child. I used to love it! before thinking about races!

Grammar Summary 167

 GRAMMAR SUMMARY UNIT 7
Passive reporting verbs Nominalization

Grammar notes Grammar notes

Form Note the prepositions that follow the nouns (creation of,
ability to, talent for, etc.). Encourage students to make a
We use a form of the auxiliary verb be + the past participle note of these dependent prepositions when they record
of the main verb. So, for example, was/were + past examples of nominalization in their notebooks.
participle for past passives.
Note that sometimes there can be more than one possible
Meaning and use noun that can be formed (e.g., creation and creativity) and
Note that the tense of the underlined passive reporting that these will usually carry a very different meaning.
verb doesn’t always match the time of the event reported:
In sentence 1 in the grammar box, the reporting verb is in
the simple present (is said), but the event which is being
reported is the number of images uploaded in a specific
year (a past event).
In sentence 2, the reporting verb is in the present perfect
(has been observed) and the event is in the simple present
(the selfie is now).
In sentence 3, the reporting verb is in the simple present
(are believed), but it isn’t clear what the event being
reported is (presumably, it’s “Other applications account
for a far greater proportion of selfie traffic.”).
In sentence 4, the reporting verb is in the simple present
(is thought) and the event is in the present perfect (the
age has risen).
In sentence 5, the reporting verb is in the simple past
(were reported) and the event is in the simple present (the
amount of time people are spending on each selfie).

168
Exercises 3 Complete the sentences with the correct
nominalization of the underlined word or phrase.
1 Read the pairs of sentences. Then circle the correct 1 I was disappointed with the bad service.
option to complete the second sentence.
My disappointment was due to the bad service.
1 Most weather reports yesterday said it would
2 The company has decided to expand the
be very hot today, but it was actually quite cool.
business. This was good news.
The weather is / was expected to be hot today,
The company’s decision to expand the
but it was actually quite cool.
business was good news.
2 Some newspapers are suggesting that the new
3 The earthquake destroyed many buildings.
smartphone will only cost $240.
The earthquake led to the destruction of
It is / is being suggested that the new
many buildings.
smartphone will only cost $240.
4 It was obvious that he was suitable for the job.
3 They told us to evacuate the building. suitability
His for the job was obvious.
We were / are told to evacuate the building.
5 We need to make more people aware of the
4 Many people believed that the company’s
impact of car fumes on air quality.
employees would receive compensation. awareness
We need to raise of the impact
It is / was believed that the company’s
of car fumes on air quality.
employees would receive compensation.
6 People have been shocked by how the airline
5 People know that there are only a few thousand
has treated its passengers.
giant pandas left in the world.
People have been shocked by the airline’s
There are / were known to be only a few
treatment of its passengers.
thousand giant pandas left in the world.
7 People should be warned about how dangerous
2 Rewrite the sentences with passive reporting verbs using a phone is while driving.
using both possible patterns. Use the underlined People should be warned about the
verb as the passive reporting verb. dangers of using a phone while driving.
1 People say that the director is working on a new
4 Match the sentences (1–6 and a–f) to make sentence
movie.
pairs. Then complete the sentences (a–f) with these
The director is said to be working on
words. There are three extra words.
a new movie.
It is said that the director is working on a new movie. ability definition disinterest validity hobbies
2 We know that regular exercise is important. location person truthfulness fear
It is known that regular exercise is important.
Regular exercise is known to be 1 I’m trying to find out what this word means. f
important. 2 The audience didn’t seem very interested in the
presentation. a
3 The police claimed that the suspect was 3 Tom was scared of flying. e
carrying a gun. 4 Cathy liked playing tennis and golf. b
The suspect was claimed to have been carrying a gun. 5 Police still don’t know who robbed the bank.
It was claimed that the suspect was carrying a gun. d
4 We expect the guests will have arrived by 6 The instructions described where we needed
12 p.m. to go. c
The guests are expected to have arrived a Their disinterest was also obvious to the
by 12 p.m. speaker.
It is expected that the guests will have arrived by b But she only had time for these hobbies on
12 p.m. weekends.
5 For a long time, people thought that bad smells c The location of the conference was
caused diseases. downtown.
For a long time, bad smells d They believe the person they are looking
were thought to cause diseases. for lives locally.
It was thought that bad smells caused diseases. e His fear stopped him from going
abroad.
f Unfortunately, the online dictionary doesn’t
give a clear definition .

Grammar Summary 169

 GRAMMAR SUMMARY UNIT 8
Only and simply So and such ... that

Grammar notes Grammar notes (p. 97, Exercise 10)

Students may find differentiating between the meanings In item 2 above, it’s possible to say such little experience.
of “only” and “simply” confusing. Note that the meaning We use so to concentrate on the noun (i.e., my experience
of simply, here, is in the sense of being neither more nor is small), but we can choose to use such here to concentrate
less important than what is mentioned. So, in the sentence on and emphasize the adjective little.
Tastes are simply a question of habit, the speaker is saying This doesn’t work with few, much, or many—we can’t say
that tastes are a question of habit—and no more than such few or such many. Note, in item 5, how we switch
that. Note that the meaning of “only,” here, is in the sense from much or many to a lot of in order to use such.
of being to the exclusion of others or other things. Thus,
speaking just to them means speaking to them and to
nobody else.
If your students all speak the same first language, ask
them to translate some of the example sentences and note
how just in English may cover the meaning of a variety of
words in their first language.

Purpose and result

Grammar notes
Students at this level often continue to make errors with
this area of language, partly because the rules are a bit
confusing, and partly because their first language may use
similar phrases differently. Here are some areas to watch
out for:
1 Confusing to and for. Typical error: I’m studying every
day for improve my English. We use to + the infinitive
of the verb to express a motive or reason (e.g., We went
to Warwick to see the castle.) and for + noun to express
a motive or reason (e.g., Let’s go for a drink.). We use
for + -ing to express function (e.g., It’s a big bucket for
holding water.). We can’t use this structure to express
motive or reason (e.g., these sentences are wrong: I’m
studying every day for improving my English; We went
to Warwick for seeing the castle.).
2 Confusing so and such. Typical error: He is so friendly
guy. In many languages, the same word is used for so
and such. Find out if this is the case in your students’
language(s). So + adjective and such + a/an + (adjective)
+ noun is a straightforward rule, but students have to
practice these structures in order to remember them.
3 Confusing so much/little and so many/few. Remind
students of countability (so many things) and
uncountability (so much stuff).
4 Note that in order to, so as to, and in order that are
forms we tend to use formally or in writing.

170
Exercises 4 This site is very useful when you need to find
information about historical events. (for)
1 Circle the correct meaning of just in each sentence. This site is very useful for finding
information about historical events.
1 I’m just finishing making dinner.
a right at the moment b recently 5 She wants to move so that she doesn’t live so far
from her workplace. (order to)
2 This sounds just like an old Rolling Stones song. She wants to move in order to not live so far
a a little b exactly from her workplace.
3 This test was just too difficult for the students.
a simply b exactly 4 Complete the sentences with so or such.
4 They’ve just bought a new car. 1 It was so cold outside that we decided to
a right at the moment b recently stay in.
2 The band has become so famous that they
5 She’s eaten just a sandwich today so she’s really can’t go anywhere without security.
hungry. 3 There was such good music at the festival that
a only b recently we’ve decided to go again next year.
6 He arrived just after 6 p.m. 4 I’ve got so much work to do that I think I’ll
a exactly b a little have to work over the weekend too.
5 The service was so poor that Esme
2 Complete the sentences so they have the same complained to the restaurant owner.
meaning as the first sentences. Use just.
5 Complete the conversation with these phrases
1 My new laptop cost $400—that’s not a lot. and an appropriate word or phrase for showing
My new laptop cost just $400. purpose or result.
2 I’ve heard a great song. I heard it a few minutes
I fall asleep
ago.
I just heard a great song. it’s been hard to find time to study
I don’t fail it
3 He has a bag that looks exactly the same as
improve our IT skills
mine.
I find it difficult to concentrate
He has a bag that looks just like mine.
persuade him to do that
4 My manager is dealing with another client at
the moment. She’ll call you back. A: You seem a little stressed today. Are you OK?
My manager is just dealing with another client . B: Yes. It’s just that I have a final test for my IT
She’ll call you back. course in a few days’ time! I really need to
5 You need to arrive on time at the station—that’s study 1 so I don’t fail it .
all you need to do. A: Oh, why are you taking an IT course?
You just need to arrive on time at the station. B: Our manager wants all of us to take a course
2 to improve our IT skills . I’ve learned
3 Complete the sentences using the word or words in a lot but I have 3 so little free time
parentheses so they have the same meaning as the it’s been hard to find time to study .
first sentences. A: Maybe you should ask your manager to give
you some time off work for the course.
1 I called the doctor’s office because I wanted to
B: Actually, we had a meeting
book an appointment. (order) 4 to persuade him to do that
but he said it wasn’t
I called the doctor’s office in order to book
possible.
an appointment.
A: What about the evenings after work?
2 We left home early because we didn’t want to B: Yeah, I do have time then. But I’m 5 so
be late for the show. (so) tired I find it difficult to concentrate on what I’m
We left home early so that we wouldn’t be late doing.
for the show. A: I read recently that you should listen to classical
music while studying.
3 He paid for express postage because he wanted
B: Interesting! I’ll try it tonight. I’ll just have
it to arrive on time. (order that)
in order that it to be careful not to relax 6 so much
He paid for express postage
would I fall asleep !
arrive on time.

Grammar Summary 171

 GRAMMAR SUMMARY UNIT 9
Linking words Linking words

Grammar notes Grammar notes (p. 107, Exercise 8)

Note that some of these linking words are more formal In 1, note that the structure is slightly more complex:
or more likely to be seen in written rather than spoken despite + noun + -ing: Despite war breaking out …
English than others. This is particularly true of linking In 3, note the various ways of expressing the sentence with
word + noun / noun phrase or linking word + new owing to. We can use the fact that + clause with many
sentence constructions. linking words that are followed by -ing: Despite the fact
The linking word subsequently expresses the meaning of that he had no money,; In addition to the fact that he was
“this is what happened next as a result of what happened penniless, etc.
before,” so you could put it in the c) group as well as the
d) group of words in Exercise 6 on page 107.
Note the phrase soon after. A number of words can
Present and perfect participle clauses
be used to indicate a short or long period “after” a
certain event, e.g., not long after, shortly after, just Grammar notes
after, immediately after, a while after, a long time after, The perfect participle indicates a completed action. You
well after. form the perfect participle by putting the present participle
having in front of the past participle. The subject needs to
be the same in both clauses and the participle is used in the
Linking words clause which is the secondary action.

Grammar notes (p. 107, Exercise 7)

Note that in sentence 3, some students may be tempted to
complete the gap with the word since. If this is suggested,
use this opportunity to explore the different meanings
and usage of since. If students attempt to use since in
this sentence, it’s because they are trying to use it as an
adverb of time, rather than a linking word. Point out that
in any case, since cannot be used as an adverb of time here
because it would require the use of the present perfect
rather than the simple past.

172
Exercises 4 Rewrite the sentence pairs as a single sentence. Use
participle clauses with the -ing form in the first phrase.
1 Circle the correct linking word to complete the Make deletions or any other changes necessary.
sentences.
1 She wasn’t very interested in the movie. As a
1 The food in the restaurant was excellent. In result, she left early.
addition to / What’s more / Yet, the waiters were Not being very interested in the movie, she left early.
very friendly.
2 Yet / Despite / Although your website claims
2 I forgot my friend’s birthday. This made her
products are delivered within five days, I still
very angry.
have not received my order after two weeks. Forgetting my friend's birthday made her very angry.
3 She was born in Greece, but subsequently /
following / after she moved to Australia.
4 The speaker is ill. We as well as / nevertheless / 3 They didn’t want to spend too much money.
consequently have to cancel the talk. Because of this, they went on vacation nearby.
5 Since / Because of / So you failed the exam, you Not wanting to spend too much money, they went on
will have to repeat the course next year. vacation nearby.

2 Complete the text with these words. 4 I looked around the room. When I did this, I
noticed an old school friend in the corner.
despite however nevertheless Looking around the room, I noticed an old school
since while friend in the corner.
5 He walked into the house with his shoes on.
The story of how I met my husband is pretty funny. Consequently, he left dirt all over the floor.
One day 1 while I was at work, I received an Walking into the house with his shoes on, he left dirt
email with a music file attached. I didn’t know why I all over the floor.
had received it. 2 Nevertheless  , I listened to the music
and I thought it was amazing, so I replied to the 5 Complete the sentences with these phrases.
sender. We started to email each other and one day he
suggested meeting, 3 despite living hundreds compared comparing having compared
of kilometers apart. I wasn’t sure at first, and some of given giving
my friends told me not to meet him 4 since
I didn’t really know him. 5 However , I agreed. 1 There is less traffic in the city
When we met, it was love at first sight. compared to five years ago.
2 Given that we don’t have much
3 Join the two phrases with these linking words. time, we should only visit one museum.
3 Comparing the students’ grades, we can
even though however in spite of see that some had studied more than others.
moreover on account of 4 Having compared all the prices earlier, we
knew which store had the best deals.
1 most people expected Martinez to become 5 There was a baby crying on the train the whole
president / Sanchez won easily trip, giving me a headache.
Even though most people expected Martinez to
become president, Sanchez won easily. 6 Complete the text with participle clauses using
2 our offices are closed on Monday / the holiday these verbs.
Our offices are closed on Monday on account of the
assume consider hack look steal use
holiday.
3 many motorists went out on the roads / the 1 Considering that the number of traditional
police’s warning to stay at home bank robberies has fallen in recent years, you
Many motorists went out on the roads in spite of the may think banks are improving security. But in
police’s warning to stay at home. reality, 2 looking at the facts, it seems that
thieves are using different methods. For example,
4 the hotel is very conveniently located / it is
in 2013, criminals carried out the biggest ever
very good value for money hacking into ATMs to steal
cybercrime, 3
The hotel is very conveniently located; moreover, it is
very good value for money. millions of dollars. 4 Using the computers
of a credit card company, the thieves created fake
5 I don’t normally like classical music / I really bank cards and used these cards to take cash out of
enjoyed the concert hundreds of ATMs, 5 stealing over $45 million.
I don’t normally like classical music; however, I 6
Assuming that cybercrime will continue to
really enjoyed the concert. increase, banking security won’t get any easier.
Grammar Summary 173
 GRAMMAR SUMMARY UNIT 10
Adverbs and adverbial phrases Negative adverbials and inversion

Grammar notes Grammar notes

Note how adverbs of manner, probability, degree, Seldom, rarely, and hardly ever are frequency adverbs—
frequency, viewpoint, or comment follow different form they express the idea of “almost never.”
and use rules. For example, adverbs of frequency usually Barely, scarcely (pronounced /ˈskɛrsli/), and hardly are
go before verbs, adverbs of degree usually go before adverbs of degree—they express the idea of “almost not.”
adjectives, and adverbs of manner usually go after verbs.
Inverted negative adverbials are often tested in English
Comment and viewpoint adverbs qualify the whole exams, so they are worth practicing with students. It’s
sentence or clause. They can go at the start, before helpful to contrast inverted and non-inverted sentences
the main verb or (less commonly) at the end. Here are (e.g., As soon as we had left … and No sooner had we
examples with the adverb clearly: left … and It doesn’t only help with … and Not only
Clearly, he doesn’t know what he is doing. does it help with …). Ask students to note the way the
He clearly doesn’t know what he is doing. negative adverbial moves to the start of the sentence
(thus emphasizing it), and label the way the form after the
He doesn’t know what he is doing, clearly.
adverbial uses auxiliaries and looks like the question form.
Point out adjectives which can’t be formed into an adverb
by adding -ly (fast, hard, late, early, adverbs of frequency
and degree) and irregular adverbs (well). Also point out
adjectives that can’t be turned into adverbs. These include
adjectives that already end in -ly (friendly, lovely, likely,
daily) and many adjectives that have a past participle form.
We need to use a phrase to make these words adverbial: in
a complicated way, in an organized fashion, in a friendly
way, on a daily basis, etc.

174
Exercises 5 Circle the correct options to complete the
sentences.
1 Put the words in the correct order to make 1 Occasionally does he play / he plays video games
sentences.
with his friends.
1 buys / birthday / my / a present/ he / rarely / 2 Rarely arrive the buses / do the buses arrive on
for time here.
He rarely buys a present for my birthday. 3 Only if does it stop / it stops raining can we /
we can go out.
2 podcasts / loves / she / listening to /
4 Only after we had complained / had we complained
absolutely
She absolutely loves listening to podcasts. several times did our neighbors turn off /
our neighbors turned off their loud music.
3 was / the job / offered / luckily / I 5 Not once have they / they have called me.
Luckily, I was offered the job.
6 Complete the text with these phrases.
4 should / in my opinion / the meeting /
postpone / we no doubt not only only after
In my opinion, we should postpone the meeting. only by rarely under no circumstances
5 my email / won’t / she / respond to / probably
She probably won’t respond to my email. New research is showing that 1 not only
does watching too much TV affect children’s brain
6 go / didn’t / well / my / very / driving test development, but it also reduces how much time
My driving test didn’t go very well. they spend playing, interacting with others, and
reading. 2 Only by doing these types
2 Find examples of the following types of adverbs in of activities are children able to develop essential
the sentences in Exercise 1.
skills which watching TV can’t provide, argue
1 an adverb of manner well many experts. 3 Rarely do parents
2 an adverb of probability probably think about the long-term effects of their children
3 a degree adverb absolutely sitting in front of a screen. Experts have the
4 a frequency adverb rarely following advice for parents: 4 Only after
5 a viewpoint adverb in my opinion your child has finished their homework and
6 a comment adverb luckily had time to play should you let them watch TV.
Research has also shown that electronic screens
3 Correct the mistake in each sentence. can affect sleep. Sleep is essential for a child’s
development so 5 under no circumstances should
1 Always he drinks a coffee in the morning.
children spend time looking at screens in the hour
2 We arrived lately to the party. before bedtime. 6 No doubt many busy
3 I will help you if I certainly can. parents will not be happy to hear this.
4 He told me that his job isn’t very well going.
7 Complete the sentences using these prompts.
5 She fast drove to get to work on time.
little / she / know / did
4 Complete the conversation with these adverbs. no sooner / she / had
always fortunately late no way / we / can / afford
probably quickly really not until / we / will
rarely / we / have
A: I’m 1 really glad I have a cat as a pet.
My alarm clock didn’t go off this morning. 1 No way can we afford to buy a house at the
But 2 fortunately my cat woke me up instead! moment. They’re too expensive!
B: She was 3 probably hungry! 2 Not until the government improves public
A: Yes! We 4 always have breakfast at the transportation will we sell our car.
same time. 3 Little did she know what would happen to her
B: Did you get to work 5 late ? that evening.
A: I had to get ready very 6 quickly , but I 4 No sooner had she arrived at the hotel than
arrived at the office on time—thanks to my cat! she had to leave again.
5 Rarely have we seen so much snow.

Grammar Summary 175

 GRAMMAR SUMMARY UNIT 11
Unreal past forms Conditionals and inversion

Grammar notes Grammar notes

would rather / would just as soon Form
Note that would is often abbreviated to ‘d, and both First conditional:
forms are followed by a clause with the verb in the past if + present, will/might/may + infinitive without to
form (the past form is used, but it’s referring to a present
or future hypothetical). Second conditional:
if + past, would/could + infinitive without to
We can also use would rather / sooner / prefer to +
infinitive when we say that we prefer one thing to Third (past) conditional:
another thing (e.g., I’d rather go out than stay in.). if + past perfect, would/could/might + have + past
participle
wish / if only
These forms also apply the “one tense back” rule because Inverted conditionals:
they are hypothetical—so, the past refers to a present auxiliary + subject + main verb, would
or future hypothetical and the past perfect refers to a or should + subject + present, will + infinitive without to
hypothetical situation in the past (here, a regret that
something happened or didn’t happen). Meaning
supposing First conditionals are used to refer to “real” situations—
Strictly speaking, supposing should be followed by a past that is, situations the speaker thinks may actually happen
form to express a hypothetical. However, in common in the present or future.
usage, native speakers often revert to present forms to Second conditionals refer to “unreal” hypothetical
convey a sense of immediacy (especially when they see situations, that is, situations the speaker thinks can’t
the hypothetical as possible): Supposing you lose your job, happen because they are impossible or very unlikely.
what will you do? (compare with: Supposing you lost your Third conditionals refer to a hypothetical situation in the
job, what would you do?). past—these are often regrets or criticism of things that
did or didn’t happen.
Unreal past forms In second and third conditionals, we can use a more
formal structure (if it wasn’t / weren’t / hadn’t been for
Grammar notes (p. 131, Exercise 7) + noun) to mean “if this thing or situation didn’t exist or
hadn’t existed.”
Note (in item 4, “were lying / was lying”) that were is
the subjunctive past form used after I, he, she, and it in
hypothetical sentences. Many consider it the most correct Inverting conditional forms
form. However, in modern usage, If I was … or I wish he
was … is now common and acceptable. Grammar notes
Inverting conditional forms involves locating the correct
auxiliary verb then inverting it with the subject. You may
need to help students locate the auxiliary.
We use Had with third conditionals—identifying the had is
straightforward as it’s used in the original sentence
(e.g., If I had known ➞ Had I known …).
We use Were … to … with second conditionals (e.g., If I
lived … ➞ Were I to live …).
With first conditionals, use Should, particularly when a
modal is already used (e.g., If I should win … ➞ Should I
win …).
Note that this kind of transformation exercise is regularly
featured in exams—it may be useful to practice such
transformations if your students plan to take these exams.

176
Exercises 4 Correct the mistake in each sentence.
had
1 I would call you more often if I have time.
1 Circle the correct forms to complete the sentences.
2 If they’ll continue being so rude, we’re going to
1 She’d rather I didn’t / don’t come to the meeting.
ask them to leave.
2 I wish I have / had time to take up a new hobby. ’d
3 I’d rather not went / not go to the movies 3 If she bought fewer things, she’ll be able to save
tonight. more money.
4 He wishes he had been / was more careful the wouldn’t
4 He won’t have got so wet yesterday if he’d
day he crashed his car.
taken an umbrella.
5 I think it’s time you move / moved out of your were/was
parents’ house. 5 I’d eat organic food if it would be cheaper.
6 What if you could / can visit any country in the
world? Where would you go? 5 Complete the conversation with the correct form of
7 A: I don’t feel like going to the movies. the verbs in parentheses.
B: That’s fine—I’d just as soon watched / watch a A: I bought these great mugs on sale yesterday! If
movie at home. you 1 put (put) hot water in them, they
2 change (change) color!
2 Complete the second sentences so they mean the B: Do we need more mugs?
same as the first. Use the words in parentheses.
A: Um … no, not really. I 3 wouldn’t have bought
1 I think you should go home. You’ve been here (not buy) them if they 4 weren’t (not be) on
all day. (time) sale.
It (high) time you went home . You’ve been B: Hmm. And what else did you get?
here a all day. A: These black pants. They’re a little tight. But I’m
2 He’d like to earn more money. (wish) sure if I 5 lost (lose) some weight, they
He wishes he earned more money. 6 would fit (fit) me perfectly!
3 Anna wants me to help her but I’d prefer her to B: But you already have four pairs of black pants!
ask someone else. (soon) You shouldn’t buy things if you
Anna wants me to help her but I 7 don’t need (not need) them.
’d just as soon she asked someone else. A: You’re right. I’m normally so careful with money.
4 I should have stayed in touch with my school B: Are you sure? If you 8 were (be) that
friends. (only) careful with your money, then you
If only I’d stayed in touch with my school 9 wouldn’t have bought
(not buy) all that stuff
friends. yesterday. How about going out for some lunch
5 I’d like my colleagues to knock before entering now?
my office. (wish) A: Sorry, I can’t really afford it.
I wish my colleagues would knock before entering B: You see? If you 10 hadn’t spent (not spend) so
my office. much money yesterday, you 11 would be able to
(be able to) come for lunch!
3 Complete the email with what if, wish, it’s time,
would rather, or if only and the correct forms of the 6 Complete the sentences with an appropriate
words in parentheses. inverted form of these verbs.
Hi Helena be know not arrive sell treat
How are you? We have exams at the moment and
I’m really anxious. Sometimes I 1 wish I hadn’t decided 1 Should anything be missing
(I / not decide) to come to college! And my from your order, please contact us immediately.
roommates are so loud and messy. I really 2 Had we known it would take you
2 wish they didn’t make
(they / not make) so long to complete the work, we would not
so much noise at night. I think next year I have hired you.
3 would rather live (live) alone. My stress has been 3 Had the company treated their
affecting my studies so I think 4 it’s time I speak employees better, they wouldn’t have gone on
(I / speak) to a student counselor. But strike.
5 what if it doesn’t help
(it/not help) me—what would 4 Had Martin not arrived so late, the
I do? I 6 wish we lived (we / live) closer to each meeting would have finished much earlier.
other. 7 If only we had decided (we / decide) to go to 5 Should you sell the product
the same college, I’m sure I’d be happier. successfully, you will be paid a commission.

Grammar Summary 177

 GRAMMAR SUMMARY UNIT 12
Approximation and vague language Would

Grammar notes Grammar notes (p. 145, Exercise 9)

Note the way these words and phrases are used in a 1 A habitual action in the past. Note that here would has
sentence. For example, note how over, about, around, a comparable meaning to used to (to talk about actions
etc., go before the number (about a million) but or so that happened repeatedly or routinely in the past but
goes after (a million or so). happen no longer) except that we can only use would
Note any other words or phrases students may know that with actions.
can be used. For example, we can use sort of instead of 2 A refusal—things “refuse” to work, function, or fit—it’s
kind of or we can use things instead of stuff. a way of saying that they fail to operate correctly, e.g.,
The car wouldn’t start.
3 The past form of will in reported speech: I wouldn’t say
Would a word was what was originally said.

Grammar and pronunciation notes 4 That’d be difficult is a polite way to refuse—note how the
use of would is distancing—it makes the statement more
Would is a modal verb and is usually followed by the polite and tentative than the very direct That’s difficult.
infinitive without to. In informal written English, would is
5 Again, the distancing effect of would makes the opinion
usually reduced to ‘d when used with a pronoun, and in
less direct here.
spoken English, it’s reduced to a /d/ sound, I’d = /aɪd/, for
example. 6 I would have come (but I didn’t)—this operates
functionally as an apology or excuse.
The example of the use of would in sentence 4 in the box
(He decided that he would escape …) is an example of 7 The hypothetical would is used in requests to be polite
future in the past. It is used to refer to a past situation or tentative.
where someone decided to do something or thought
something would happen in the future.
Persuasive language
The use of would can be categorized thus: would for
unreal or imagined situations; would as a past tense Grammar notes (p. 149, Exercise 4a)
to talk about habitual actions; would in conditional
sentences; would as the past of will in reported speech; Point out the following things to students:
would not meaning “to refuse.” The use of conditional forms—and the inclusive “we”—in
In phrases like I’d love to, I’d like, I’d imagine, I’d hope so, sentences a and c which both appeal to shared experiences.
the speaker uses the hypothetical would to distance, i.e., The use of fronting to emphasize points: The problem is ….
to be tentative and polite.
The use of emotive adverbs: desperately.

178
Exercises 4 Which of the sentences have an incorrect use of
would? Correct the incorrect sentences.
1 Cross out the option which can’t be used to talk studied
1 If you would study harder, you’d do better in
about each number.
your courses.
1 3,150 people: thousands of people / up to 3,000 2 I couldn’t bring a copy of the document because
people / 3,000-odd people my printer wouldn’t work.
2 ten hours forty minutes: over ten hours / under used to
ten hours / about ten hours 3 It would always be very cold in winter in the
3 five years and ten days: as many as five years / old house where I grew up.
will
roughly five years / over five years 4 I think it would be a great concert tonight—I’m
4 $105: 100-odd dollars / around 100 dollars / looking forward to it!
hundreds of dollars 5 Would you help me to take these boxes to my car?
5 52 cars: about fifty cars / fifty cars or so / under
fifty cars 5 Match the phrases (a–f) with the underlined words
in the sentences (1–6).
2 Complete the sentences with these words and
phrases. a intended to
b is extremely kind
and so on or something kind of c it might be true
stuff up to d please could
e refused to
1 Up to 50,000 are expected to watch f used to
today’s match—that’s the maximum capacity of
1 I would think that we could find a better price
the stadium.
stuff elsewhere. c
2 We need to go now. Put all that
2 He said he would be here tonight. a
back in your bag.
3 A: Can I help you with your suitcases?
3 Are you hungry? Do you want to stop for a
B: That would be great. b
sandwich or something ?
4 Would you please turn down your music a
4 Have you watched that new crime series?
kind of little? d
It’s not very original but it’s
5 When I was a bit younger, I would go running
interesting.
five times a week. f
5 There’s a nice store in the village that sells
6 Sorry I’m late—my boss wouldn’t let me leave
traditional clothes, shoes, and so on .
until I’d finished a report! e
3 Complete the second sentences so they mean the
same as the first. Use the words in parentheses.
6 Rewrite the conversation so it’s more polite and
indirect by inserting would in six places. Make any
1 This elevator can be used by no more than ten other necessary changes.
people at a time. (up) Would you like
A: Do you want any help?
This elevator can be used by up to ten people Would you give
at a time. B: Yes, please. Give me some information about
2 I sometimes find going to the gym a little the park. ?
would you like
boring. (kind) A: What type of information do you want?
I sometimes find going to the gym
kind of boring B: Oh, about the wildlife and the plants and trees.
.
It’s such a beautiful park.
3 Why don’t we go for a walk or do another
similar activity? (something) A: Well, we have these brochures.
Why don’t we go for a walk or something ? I’d like
B: I want something more detailed.
4 We’ll need approximately two hours to resolve
A: OK, how about one of these books?
the problem. (so)
We’ll need two hours or so to resolve the B: This one looks interesting. How much does it cost?
problem. A: It’s 30 dollars.
5 He only started the company last year but now would have
B: Oh, I expected it to be a little cheaper…
he has forty employees. (odd)
He only started the company last year but now A: Well, I could give you a discount.
he has forty-odd employees. That would be
B: That’s great, thanks.
A: OK, that’s 28 dollars.
B: Oh, um … I’ll take the brochures, thanks.

Grammar Summary 179