Chapter 5

The Gaseous State

I) Pressure
Pressure is the force exerted per unit area.

A) Devices used to measure pressure

1) barometer
used to measure the atmospheric pressure
at seal level and 0 oC, Patm = 760 mmHg

2) manometer
used to measure the pressure of a gas in a laboratory

a) closed end manometer

mercury filled U-tube
∆h = gas pressure (P)

b) open-end manometer
compare pressure of a gas to the atmospheric pressure
Pgas = Patm + ∆h

B) Units of Pressure
SI units: pascal Pa = Kg/m•s2

commonly used units: 1 mmHg = 1 torr

1 atm = 760 mm Hg = 760 torr
1 atm = 1.01325 x 105 Pa
1 atm = 101.325 kPa
II) Empirical Gas Laws

Relationship between volume (V), pressure (P), and temperature (T) of a given amount of gas
(moles)

A) Boyle's Law
relationship between volume and pressure
at constant temperature and amount of gas

definition: At constant temperature, the volume occupied by a finite mass of gas is

inversely proportional to the applied pressure.

V ∝ 1/P at a given temperature

PV = constant

comparing two sets of V and P at a given temperature

P1V1 = P2V2

Example:
A sample of argon gas occupied 105 mL at 0.871 atm. If the temperature remains
constant, what is the volume (in L) at 197 mmHg?

P1 V1 = P 2 V 2

(0.871 atm)(105 mL)

V2 = =
P 1V 1
P2 (0.259 atm)

V 2 = 353 mL
B) Charles' Law
relationship between volume and absolute temperature
at constant pressure and given amount of gas

definition: At constant pressure, the volume of a fixed amount of gas is directly

proportional to its absolute temperature.

V ∝ Tabs at a fixed P and amt. of gas

V/Tabs = constant Tabs = absolute temp. (Kelvin)

Law expressed in terms of two pairs of variables

V1 V2
=
T1 T 1

Example:
A 425 mL sample of fluorine gas is heated from 22 oC to 185 oC at constant
pressure. What is the final volume?

V1 V2
T1
= T2

(425 mL)(458 K)
V2 = =
V 1 T2
T1 (295 K)

V 2 = 295 mL

C) Gay-Lussac's Law
relationship between pressure and absolute temperature
at constant volume and amount of gas

definition: At constant volume, the pressure exerted by a fixed amount of gas is

directly proportional to absolute temperature.

P ∝ Tabs at fixed V and amt. of gas

P/Tabs = constant

for two sets of variables

P1 P 2
=
T 1 T2
 example:
In an autoclave, steam at 100 oC is generated at 1.00 atm. After the autoclave is
closed, the steam is heated at constant volume until the pressure gauge indicated
1.13 atm. What is the new temperature in the autoclave?
P1 P2
T1
= T2

P1 T2 = P 2 T 1

P 2 T1 (1.13 atm)(100+273 K)
T2 = P1
= (100 atm)

T 2 = 421K − 273 = 148 o C

D) Combined Gas Law

expressing Boyle's, Charles', and Gay-Lussac's Laws in 1 statement

PV/T = constant for a given amount of gas

for two sets of data

P1V1 P2V2
=
T1 T2

example:
What is the new volume of a sample of oxygen (in L) if 2.75 L at 742 torr and 25.0
o
C is heated to 37.0 oC under conditions that let the pressure change to 760 torr?
=
P 1V 1 P 2V 2
T1 T2

V2 =
P 1V 1 T2
T1P 2

(742 torr)(2.75 L)(310 K)

V2 = (298 K)(760 torr)

V 2 = 2.79 L

Practice:
Divers working from a North Sea drilling platform experiences pressures of 5.0 x 101
atm at a depth of 5.0 x 102 m. If a balloon is inflated to a volume of 5.0 L (volume of
a lung) at that depth at a water temperature of 4.0 oC, what would the volume of the
balloon be on the surface (1.0 atm pressure) at a temperature of 11 oC?
 answer: (2.6 x 102 L)

E) Avogadro's Law
relationship between volume and amount of gas
fixed temperature and pressure

Definition: equal volumes of gas contain an equal number of molecules or moles of

gas

V ∝ n at constant T, P
n = moles of gas

3 H2 (g) + N2 (g) → 2 NH3 (g)

n: 3 moles 1 mole 2 moles
V: 3 volumes 1 volume 2 volumes

F) Standard Conditions
a set of conditions for basic reference in comparing properties of gases

STP - Standard Temperature and Pressure

Tstd = O oC (273 K)
Pstd = 1 atm

At STP, one mole of a gas occupies a volume of 22.4 L

The above statement is true for any gas.

Std. molar volume = Vm = 22.4 L/mol

III) Ideal Gas Law

A) Ideal Gas Law equation

so far we discussed the effects of isolated variables of P, V, T, and n
now lets combine these relations into one equation

1) Ideal Gas Law

know: V ∝ 1/P (Boyle's Law); V ∝ Tabs (Charles' Law); V ∝ n (Avogadro's Law)

combine all three laws into one statement

V ∝ nT set up equality
P
VP = cons tan t = R R is the ideal gas law constant
nT

PV = nRT Ideal Gas Law

Ideal gas assumptions:

molecules that do not attract of repel one another
(no interactions between molecules)
volume of a gas molecules is negligible compared to the volume of the container
(molecules have negligible volumes)

The ideal gas law equation describes a gas fairly well within reasonable conditions:
low to moderate pressures and not too low temperatures. This equation breaks down
at high pressures and low temperatures.

2) Gas Law constant

What is the value of the gas law constant, R?

use 1 set of conditions to solve the ideal gas law equation

1 mole of gas at STP

PV = nRT
P = 1 atm; T = 273 K; n = 1 mole; V = 22.4 L

(1 atm)(22.4 L)
R = PV = = 0.0821 atm L
nT (1 mol)(273 K) mol K
It is possible to determine a value for R using a different set of units

i.e. using P = 760 mmHg; T = 273 K; n = 1 mole; V = 22.4 L

(760 mmHg)(22.4 L) mmHg L

R = PV = = 62.4
nT (1 mol)(273 K) mol K

example:
A tank with fixed volume of 438 L is filled with 0.885 kg O2. Calculate the pressure
of oxygen at 21 oC.

PV = nRT

 1 mol O 2 
n = 885 g O 2  = 27.7 mol
 32.0 g O 2 

(27.7 mol)  0.0821 mol

atm L 
K
(294 K)
P = nRT = = 1.53 atm
V 438 L
B) Density and the Ideal Gas Law
recall: d =
m
V
The ideal gas law can be rearranged to give the density.

1) define mole (n)

mole = mass ⇒n= m
molar mass MM

2) substitute n = m/Mm into the ideal gas law

PV = nRT = m RT
Mm

3) rearrange equation to solve for the density, m/V

PV = m RT
Mm

PM m = m RT
V

PM m m
= =d
RT V

example:
Calculate the density of ammonia (NH3) in grams per liter (g/L) at 752 mmHg and
55 oC.

(752 mmHg)  7601 mmHg

atm   g 
PM m   17 mol  g
d=m= = = 0.624
V RT  0.0821 atm L  (328 K) L
 mol K 

C) Molar mass of an unknown gas

The ideal gas law can be used to find the molar mass of an unknown gas

The ideal gas law can be rearranged to give the density.

1) define mole (n)

n= m
Mm

2) substitute n = m/Mm into the ideal gas law

PV = nRT = m RT
Mm
 3) rearrange equation to solve for the molar mass, Mm
PV = m RT
Mm

M m PV = mRT

M m = mRT
PV

example:
An organic chemistry isolates a colorless liquid with properties of cyclohexane (Mm
= 84.2 g/mol) from a petroleum sample. She obtains the following data to determine
molar mass: V = 213 mL, T = 100.0 oC, P = 54 torr, mass of the flask and gas =
78.416 g, mass of flask = 77.834 g. Is the molar mass consistent with the liquid
being cyclohexane?

 1 mmHg   1 atm 
P = 754 torr = 0.992 atm
 1 torr   760 mmHg 
T = 100.0 o C + 273 = 373 K
m = 78.416 g − 77.834 g = 0.582 g

(0.582 g)  0.0821 mol

atm L 
K
(373 K) g
M m = mRT = = 84.3
PV (0.992 atm)(0.213 L) mol

D) Stoichiometry problems involving gas volumes

The ideal gas law is useful for calculating the volume of gas from a given amount of
gas at specified conditions. Many reactions involve solid or liquid reactants and
produce a gaseous product. In these types of reactions it is useful to know the
volume of gas produced from a given amount of reactant.

example:
The equation for the metabolic breakdown of glucose is the same as that for the
combustion of glucose in air.
C6H12O6 (s) + 6 O2 (g) → 6 CO2 (g) + 6 H2O (l)
Calculate the volume of CO2 produced at 37 oC and 1.00 atm when 5.60 g of glucose
is used up in the reaction.

First need to calculate the amount of CO2 produced. Then using the ideal gas law,
the moles of gas can be converted into the volume of gas.

 1 mol C 6 H 12 O 6   6 mol CO 2 
5.60 g C 6 H 12 O 6  = 0.187 mol CO 2
 180 g C 6 H 12 O 6   1 mol C 6 H 12 O 6 
 PV=nRT
(0.187 mol)  0.0821 mol
atm L 
K
(310 K)
V = nRT = = 4.75 L
P (1.00 atm)

Practice:
A 500.0 mL flask containing a sample of octane, a component of gasoline, is placed
in a boiling water bath in Denver, where the atmospheric pressure is 634 mm Hg and
water boils at 95.0 oC. The mass of the vapor required to fill the flask is 1.57 g. What
is the molecular weight of octane? If the empirical formula is C4H9, what is the
molecular formula?

IV) Gas Mixtures

A) Dalton's Law of Partial Pressures

In a mixture of unreacting gases, the total pressure is the sum of the partial pressures
of the individual gases.

PT = PA + PB + PC + . . .

partial pressure - pressure of the individual gas component in the mixture

Unreacting gases behave independently.

Let's look at a mixture of N2 and H2 gases, where the volume and temperature are
the same for both gases.

n N 2 RT n H2 RT
P N2 = and P H 2 =
V V
Dalton's Law
P T = P N 2 + P H2

Substitute in the partial pressures of N2 and H2 gases and simplify

n N 2 RT n H 2 RT
PT = + = (n N 2 + n H2 ) RT = n T RT
V V V V
PT = nT RT
V
 It would be useful to have a simple relationship between total pressure of a gas (PT)
and partial pressure of a gas (PA).

We need to define a new term:

mole fraction (χ)
each component contributes a fraction of the total number of moles in the mixture
in general:
n nA
χ A = nA =
T (n A + n B + …)

Note: the sum of the mole fractions equals one

n n (n + n + …) n T
χ A + χ B + … = nA + nB + … = A n B =n =1
T T T T

nA + nB + … = nT

The mole fraction will be useful in defining a simple relationship between PT and PA.

Set up a ratio of PA to PT
RT
P A nA V
=
P T n T RT
V

simplify
P A nA
= = χA
PT nT
rearrange
PA = χAPT relationship between PT and PA

B) Collecting gases over water

refer to figure 5.16 in Ebbing
A gas is bubbled through water which carries some of the water into the vapor
phase
The amount of water vapor depends on the temperature
Table 5.6 p203 in Ebbing gives a list of PH2O at different temperatures
vapor pressure of water = partial pressure of water vapor

If gas is collected over water, the vapor pressure of water must be subtracted from
the total pressure.
PT = Pgas + PH2O
Pgas = PT – PH2O
Example:
Oxygen gas generated in the decomposition of potassium chlorate is collected over
water. The volume of the gas collected at 24.0 oC and atmospheric pressure of 762
mmHg is 128 mL. Calculated the mass (in grams) of oxygen gas obtained?

At 24.0 oC, PH2O = 22.4 mmHg; molar mass of O2= 32 g/mol

P O 2 = P T − P H2 O = 762 mmHg − 22.4 mmHg = 740 mmHg

PV = mRT
Mm

(740 mmHg)(0.128 L)  32.0 mol 

g
PVM m
m= = = 0.164 g O 2
RT  62.4 mmHg L  (297 K)
 mol K 

Practice:
How many moles of O2 would be obtained from 1.300 g KClO3?
2 KClO3 (s) → 2 KCl (s) + 3 O2 (g)
If this amount of O2 were collected over water at 23 oC and a total pressure of 745
mmHg, what volume would this gas occupy?

answer: V = 0.406 L
V) Kinetic Molecular Theory
A) Postulated of Kinetic Theory

Kinetic energy: energy in motion

KE = 12 mu 2

mass speed

1) Particle Size (postulate 1)

size of gas particles is negligible compared to average distance between them

2) Particle Motion (postulates 2 - 4)

molecules are in constant random straight-line motion

in all directions
various speeds
collisions are elastic
no lost of KE
molecules do not influence each other
no forces, attractive or repulsive, between molecules

3) Particle Speed, Temperature, Energy (postulate 5)

at given temperature, all gases have same average KE

↑ T, ↑ molecular KE (Note: ↑ = increase in)

T ∝ KE = 12 mu 2
B) How theory explains behavior of gas samples

1) Origin of Pressure

molecules collide with the surface; this exerts a force

↑ number of molecules; ↑ number of collisions ∴↑P
(postulates 2-4)

2) Boyle's Law (V α 1/P, const. T)

↑ P; ↑ number of collisions (distance between molecules ↓ ) ∴↓ V

↓ V; ↑ frequency of collisions ∴↑P
gases are compressible due to large spaces between molecules
(postulate 1)

3) Charles' Law (V α T, const. P)

↑ T; ↑ molecular speed, ↑ KE
∴ ↑ frequency of collisions and
energetically creating ↑ internal pressure;
result ↑ V to restore constant P
(postulate 5)
VI) Graham's Law of Diffusion and Effusion

A) Diffusion
the gradual mixing of molecules of one gas with molecules of another by virtue of
their kinetic properties. (movement of one gas through another)

If molecular speeds are fast, then why does diffusion takes a long time?
reason: molecules experience numerous collisions

B) Grahams' Law of diffusion

rate ∝ 1
Mm

r1 M m2
r2 = M m1
r1, r2 - diffusion rates of gases 1 and 2

Mm1, Mm2 - molar mass of gases 1 and 2

This law is deduced from Kinetic Theory

two gases at the same Temperature have same KE
Derivation:

KE = 12 m1 u 21 u - speed of gas molecules

m - mass of gas
KE = 12 m2 u 22

1
m u2
2 1 1
= 12 m2 u 22 multiply both sides by 2

m 1 u 21 = m 2 u 22 rearrange by gathering common variable

u 21 m2
= take square root of both sides
u 22 m1

u1 m2
= m1 Graham's Law of diffusion
u2
C) Effusion
process by which gas under pressure escapes one compartment of a container to
another by passing through small openings
(process in which a gas flows through a small hole in a container)

effusion of gas into a vacuum

rate of effusion of a gas also given by Grahams' Law of diffusion
lighter gas effuse faster than heavier gases at given T & P

r1 M m2
r2 = M m1

Note:
rate ∝ 1
time

r1 t2
therefore r =
2 t1

substituting time into Grahams' Law of diffusion or effusion for rate

t2 M m2
=
t1 M m1

Example:
Both H2 and He have been used as the buoyant gas in blimps. If a small leak were to
occur, which gas would effuse more rapidly and by what factor?
MHe = 4.00 g/mol MH2 = 2.02 g/mol

r H2 M He 4.00g/mol
r He = M H2
=
2.02g/mol
= 2 = 1.41

H2 effuses 1.41 times faster than He

Practice:
If it takes 1.25 min. for 0.01 mol He to effuse, how long will it take for the same
amount of ethane (C2H6) to effuse?
answer: tC2H6 = 3.42 min.
VII) Real Gases: Deviation from Ideal Behavior

A) Differences between ideal and real gases

1) Ideal gases assume
no interaction between molecules (either attractive or repulsive)
volume of molecules is negligibly small compared to container

2) Real gases know

molecules have a finite molecular volume
interactions between molecules exist

B) van der Waals Equation

van der Waals (1873)
interpretation of real gas behavior at the molecular level

1) Pressure
approach of a molecule toward the wall of a container
intermolecular attractions soften collision impact
overall effect lowers gas pressures more than expected

2
P ideal = P real + an2
V
a - proportionality constant
n - number of moles of gas
V - volume of gas

(interaction between molecules depends on frequency that two molecules

approach once another)

2) Volume
volume occupied by a gas
molecules occupy finite (although small) amount of space
volume inside the container available to gas molecules is reduced

V ideal = V real − nb
n - number of moles of gas
b - constant

recall ideal gas Law

PV = nRT
 substitute in van der Waals' corrections for P and V

 P + an 2  (V − nb) = nRT van der Waals' equation

 V2 
adjusts the V down
adjusts the P up
to include only the
to account for the
free volume not the
decreased impact of volume of the container
collisions by attractive taken up by gas molecules
interactions

Table 5.7, page 214 in Ebbing lists van der Waals constants (a & b) for some gases

Example
A quantity of 3.50 mol NH3 occupied 5.20 L at 47 oC. Calculate the pressure of the
gas (in atm) using
a) ideal gas Law
b) van der Waals equation
(van der Waals constants are a = 4.17 atm L2/mol2 and b = 0.0371 L/mol)

a) PV = nRT
(3.50 mol)  0.0821 mol
atm L 
K
(320K)
P = nRT =
V 5.20 L

P = 17.68 atm

b)
 P + an 2  (V − nb) = nRT
 V2 
2
P = nRT − an2
(V − nb) V

(3.50 mol)  0.0821 mol

atm L 
K
(320 K)  4.17 atm L 2  (3.50 mol) 2
 mol 2 
P= −
 5.20 L − (3.50 mol)  0.0371 L   (5.20 L) 2
  mol  

P = 16.25 atm