IT2102

Introduction to Embedded Systems

Embedded systems are a combination of hardware and software parts. When these two parts are combined, embedded
systems bring together products such as a cell phone, a music player, a network router, an aircraft guidance system, and
many others. Embedded means something that is attached to another thing. A system is an arrangement in which all its
units assemble work according to a set of rules. It can also be defined as working, organizing, or doing one or many tasks
according to a fixed plan.

Definition of Terms (Marwedel, 2017)

• Ubiquitous computing (Pervasive computing) describes that computing focuses more on providing
information anytime, anywhere. (Weiser, 1988)
o Definition (Dictionary)
▪ Ubiquitous – connotes to everywhere.
▪ Pervasive – connotes to diffused throughout every part of.
o Invisible computer implicates that computers are going to be integrated into products that it will
become invisible. This is in the sense of being more miniscule and unseen in today’s interpretation.
o Ambient intelligence implies that intelligence can be implanted in our everyday environments and
makes those environments sensitive.
• Embedded systems are information processing systems embedded into enclosing products. (Marwedel, 2017)
• Cyber-Physical Systems (CPS) are integrations of computation and physical processes. (Lee, 2017)
o It integrates computation with physical processes whose behavior is defined by both cyber and
physical parts of the system.
o These CPS are designed to be observed (through sensors) and control something (through actuators).
• The Internet of Things “…describes the pervasive presence of a variety of devices – such as sensors, actuators,
and mobile phones – which, through unique addressing schemes, can interact and cooperate to reach
common goals.” (Giusto, et al., 2010)

History of Embedded Systems (OmniSci, n.d.)

• The first modern, real-time embedded computing system was the Apollo Guidance Computer, developed by Dr.
Charles Stark Draper at the MIT for the Apollo Program. (1960)
• Intel released the first commercially available microprocessor unit Intel 4004 – an early microprocessor that still
required support chips and external memory. (1971)
• In the early 1980s, memory, input, and output system components had been integrated into the same chip as
the processor, forming a microcontroller.

Basic Structure of an Embedded System (TechTarget)

• Sensor − It measures the physical quantity and converts it to an electrical signal which can be read by an observer
or by any electronic instrument like an ADC.
• A-D Converter − It converts the analog signal sent by the sensor into a digital signal.
• Processor – It processes the data to measure the output and store it in the memory.
• D-A Converter – It converts the digital data fed by the processor to analog data
• Actuator – It compares the output (from DAC) to the actual output stored in it and stores the approved output.
• Memory – it is the storage unit of the whole system.

Figure 1. Basic Structure of an Embedded System

Source: TechTarget.com

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Characteristics of an Embedded System (Marwedel, 2017)

➢ Cyber-physical and IoT systems must be dependable.
o Safety: It is the state of being ‘safe’, the condition of being protected from harm or other non-
desirable outcomes”.
o Security: A system is secure if it is protected against harm caused by attacks originating from outside
the system.
o Confidentiality: The information can only be accessed by the intended recipients.
o Reliability: This term refers to malfunctions of systems resulting from components not working.
o Repairability: It is the probability that a failing system can be repaired within a certain time.
o Availability: It is the probability that the system is available.
➢ Mismatches between physical and cyber models will happen.
o Real-time constraints. It refers to not completing computations within a given time frame can result in
a serious loss of the quality provided by the system or may cause harm to the user.
▪ Hard Real-time – a system designed to meet all deadlines. A missed deadline is a design flaw.
Ex: Nuclear reactor monitoring system, Anti-lock braking system.
▪ Firm Real-time – a system designed to meet all deadlines, but occasional missed deadline is
allowed. Ex: In multimedia systems, audio or video quality is affected due to interference.
▪ Soft Real-time – a system designed to meet as many deadlines as possible. It will do its best
effort to complete a task within specified time, but it may be late. Ex: Switch or router.

“A time constraint is called hard if not meeting that constraint could result in a catastrophe”. (Kopetz, 1997)

➢ Embedded systems must be resource-aware.

o Energy: Electronic information processing uses electrical energy for information processing. For
embedded systems, the availability of electrical power and energy is a deciding factor.
o Run-time: Embedded systems should exploit the available hardware architecture. It implies
optimization of execution times in processes and avoidance of wasting process cycles.
o Code Size: There may be constraints on the storage capacity of the system.
o Weight: All portable systems must be lightweight.
o Cost: A minimum amount of resources should be used for implementing the required functionality.
➢ Reactive − Many embedded systems must continually react to changes in the system's environment.
➢ Heterogeneity - It implies that the availability and compatibility of design and materials are needed for
producing components.

Embedded System Models (Marwedel, 2017)

According to Jantsch (2004), a model is a simplified representation of something else, a physical thing or another model.
It contains only the modeled entity’s traits and properties that are relevant to the job at hand.
• Hierarchy:
o Behavioral hierarchies: These hierarchies contain objects necessary to describe the system behavior.
▪ Example: Objects such as states, events, and output signals.
o Structural hierarchies: These describe how systems are composed of physical components.
▪ Example: components such as processors, memories, actuators, and sensors.
• Concurrency: Real-life systems are distributed, concurrent systems composed of components.
• Behaviors:
o Timing behavior: Time is one of the key dimensions of running systems.
o State-oriented behavior: Automata (states) provides a mechanism for modeling reactive systems.
o Exception-oriented behavior: To design dependable systems, it must be possible to describe actions
to handle exceptions easily.
• Event handling: Due to the reactive nature, mechanisms for describing events must exist. Such events may be
external (caused by the environment) or internal events (caused by components of the system under design).
• Executability: Executing the specification is a means of plausibility checking.

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• Readability: Specifications should be captured in languages that are readable by humans and by computers.
• Portability and flexibility: An embedded system should be independent of specific hardware platforms so that
they can be easily used for a variety of target platforms.
• Non-functional properties: An embedded system exhibits some non-functional properties, such as fault
tolerance, size, extendibility, expected lifetime, power consumption, weight, disposability, user-friendliness,
and others.

Common Types of Embedded Systems (Barkalov, 2019)

• Cyber-physical systems - These systems are combining computations with physical processes. Embedded
systems execute monitoring and control of physical processes. Feedback loop included in these systems.
• Real-time systems – These systems are based on the time of response in which it determines the quality of the
system. It means that the computations should be executed with a given time frame.
• Dedicated systems - These systems execute only calculations connected with this algorithm.
• Reactive systems – These systems execute when events are triggered depending on the state of a controlled
object. The events are determined by signals on the system inputs.
• Systems with a dedicated user interface – These systems have a dedicated user interface including steering
wheels, pedals, push buttons, small LED displays.

Applications of Embedded Systems (Marwedel, 2017)

• Transportation and mobility:
o Automotive electronics: These include engine control systems, anti-braking systems (ABS), electronic
stability programs (ESP), GPS systems, driver assistance systems, and others.
o Avionics: Includes flight control systems, pilot information systems, autopilots, and autonomous
flying (drones).
• Factory automation: CPS/IoT technology is the key toward a more flexible production, being the target of
“Industry 4.0”. Example: RFID technology provides easy identification of every object.
• Health sector: These technologies allow significantly improved result monitoring, giving doctors a better
means for checking certain ailments or treatment.
• Smart buildings: Information processing is used to increase the comfort level in buildings. It can reduce the
energy consumption within buildings, and can improve safety and security.
• Public safety: Identification/authentication of people – fingerprint sensors or face recognition systems.
• Robotics: Robotics is also a traditional area in which embedded/cyber-physical systems have been used.
• Military applications: Information processing has been used in military equipment such as improvement of
military radar signals.
• Telecommunication: It includes mobile phones, radio frequency design, digital signal processing, low-power
design, and IoT.

References:
Barkalov, A., Titarenko L. & Mazurkiewicz, M. (2019). Foundations of embedded systems. Springer International.
Embedded Systems. In Omnisci.com [Article]. Retrieved on June 2, 2021, from https://www.omnisci.com/technical-
glossary/embedded-systems
Embedded Systems Tutorial. In Tutorialspoint.com [Webpage]. Retrieved on June 2, 2021, from
https://www.tutorialspoint.com/embedded_systems/es_overview.htm
Lee, E., Seshia, S. (2017). Introduction to embedded systems: a cyber-physical systems approach [2nd ed.]. MIT Press.
Lutkevich, B. (n.d.). Embedded system [Article]. Retrieved on June 2, 2021, from
https://internetofthingsagenda.techtarget.com/definition/embedded-system
Marwedel, P. (2018). Embedded system design: Embedded systems, foundations of cyber-physical systems, and the
internet of things [3rd ed.]. Springer International.
Pan, T., Zhu, Y. (2018). Designing embedded systems with Arduino a fundamental technology for makers. Springer.
Peckol, J. (2019). Embedded systems – A contemporary design tool [2nd ed.]. Wiley.

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