IT1810

AC Circuits
Sinusoids
A sinusoidal current is usually referred to as alternating current (AC). This current is reversed at regular time
intervals and has alternately positive and negative values. A sinusoid is a signal that has the form of sine or
cosine function. Curves that follow this shape are called “sinusoidal”. This shape is also called a sine wave. It
appears in radio and electronic circuits and is also the value in the frequency domain.
Where:
𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 – the amplitude of the sinusoid
𝑣𝑣(𝑡𝑡) = 𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 sin 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 𝜔𝜔 – the angular frequency in radians/s
𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 – the argument of the sinusoid

A periodic function is one that satisfies 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡) = 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡 + 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛), for all 𝑡𝑡 and for all integers 𝑛𝑛. The reciprocal of this
quantity is the number of cycles per second, known as the cyclic frequency 𝑓𝑓 of the sinusoid.

𝑣𝑣(𝑡𝑡 + 𝑇𝑇) = 𝑣𝑣(𝑡𝑡)

2𝜋𝜋 1
𝑇𝑇 = 𝑓𝑓 =
𝜔𝜔 𝑇𝑇

Phase Angles

• General expression with a phase:

𝑣𝑣(𝑡𝑡) = 𝑉𝑉𝑀𝑀 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝜙𝜙)
• A phase can lag or lead a certain
frequency.
• 𝜙𝜙 tells where to start measuring.

Adding Sinusoids
A sinusoid can be expressed in either sine or cosine form: 𝐴𝐴 cos 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 − 𝐵𝐵 sin 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 = 𝐶𝐶 cos(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 − 𝜃𝜃).
𝐵𝐵
𝐶𝐶 = �𝐴𝐴2 + 𝐵𝐵 2 𝜙𝜙 = tan−1 � �
𝐴𝐴
Examples:
1. Solve for 2 cos 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 − 3 sin 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔.
𝐶𝐶 = �𝐴𝐴2 + 𝐵𝐵2 𝐵𝐵
𝜙𝜙 = tan−1 � �
𝐶𝐶 = �(2)2 + (−3)2 𝐴𝐴
−1
−3 = 3.61 cos(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 56.3°)
𝐶𝐶 = √13 = 3.61 𝜙𝜙 = tan � �
2
𝜙𝜙 = −56.31°

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2. Find the amplitude, phase, period, and frequency of the sinusoid 𝑣𝑣(𝑡𝑡) = 12 cos(50𝑡𝑡 + 10°)𝑉𝑉.
2𝜋𝜋 2𝜋𝜋
• The amplitude is 𝑉𝑉𝑀𝑀 = 12𝑣𝑣 • The period is 𝑇𝑇 = = = 0.1257 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
𝜔𝜔 50
1
• The phase is 𝜙𝜙 = 10° • The frequency is 𝑓𝑓 = = 7.958 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻
𝑇𝑇
• The angular frequency is 𝜔𝜔 = 50 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟/𝑠𝑠

3. Calculate the phase angle of the two (2) voltages below and state which sinusoid is leading.

𝑣𝑣1 = −10 cos(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 50°) 𝜙𝜙 = 30°

𝑣𝑣2 = 12 sin(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 − 10°) ∴ 𝑣𝑣2 leads 𝑣𝑣1 by 30°

Phasors
A phasor is a complex number that represents the amplitude and phase of a sinusoid. A complex number 𝑧𝑧
can be written in a rectangular form as
𝒛𝒛 = 𝒙𝒙 + 𝒋𝒋𝒋𝒋
Where:
• 𝑗𝑗 is equal to √−1
• 𝑥𝑥 is the real part of 𝑧𝑧
• 𝑦𝑦 is the imaginary part of 𝑧𝑧.

Complex Numbers
The complex number z can also be represented in three (3) ways:
𝑥𝑥 = 𝑟𝑟 cos 𝜙𝜙
Rectangular form 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
𝑦𝑦 = 𝑟𝑟 sin 𝜙𝜙
𝑟𝑟 = �𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦 2
Polar form 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑟𝑟∠𝜙𝜙 𝑦𝑦
𝜙𝜙 = tan−1
𝑥𝑥
𝑧𝑧 = 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 𝑟𝑟∠𝜙𝜙
Exponential form 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
𝑧𝑧 = 𝑟𝑟(cos 𝜙𝜙 + 𝑗𝑗 sin 𝜙𝜙)

Complex Numbers Operation

𝑧𝑧1 = 𝑥𝑥1 + 𝑗𝑗𝑦𝑦1 = 𝑟𝑟1 ∠𝜙𝜙1 𝑧𝑧2 = 𝑥𝑥2 + 𝑗𝑗𝑦𝑦2 = 𝑟𝑟2 ∠𝜙𝜙2
1 1
Addition: 𝑧𝑧1 + 𝑧𝑧2 = (𝑥𝑥1 + 𝑥𝑥2 ) + 𝑗𝑗(𝑦𝑦1 + 𝑦𝑦2 ) Reciprocal: = ∠ − 𝜙𝜙
𝑧𝑧 𝑟𝑟
𝜙𝜙
Subtraction: 𝑧𝑧1 − 𝑧𝑧2 = (𝑥𝑥1 − 𝑥𝑥2 ) + 𝑗𝑗(𝑦𝑦1 − 𝑦𝑦2 ) Square Root: √𝑧𝑧 = √𝑟𝑟∠
2
𝑧𝑧 = 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 𝑟𝑟∠ − 𝜙𝜙
Multiplication: 𝑧𝑧1 ⋅ 𝑧𝑧2 = 𝑟𝑟1 ⋅ 𝑟𝑟2 ∠(𝜙𝜙1 + 𝜙𝜙2 ) Complex Conjugate:
= 𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
𝑧𝑧1 𝑟𝑟1 1
Division (Polar): = ∠(𝜙𝜙1 − 𝜙𝜙2 ) Dividing (Rectangular): = −𝑗𝑗
𝑧𝑧2 𝑟𝑟2 𝑗𝑗

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Phasor in Circuit Elements: Resistors

These phasors allow manipulating relationships for resistors, inductors, and capacitors in a current-voltage
relationship.

𝑣𝑣(𝑡𝑡) = 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅(𝑡𝑡)

𝑉𝑉 = 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅∠𝜙𝜙

Example: If the voltage 𝑣𝑣(𝑡𝑡) = 24 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐(377𝑡𝑡 + 75°) 𝑉𝑉 is applied to a 6Ω resistor, determine the current of the
circuit.
𝑉𝑉 = 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅∠𝜙𝜙
𝑉𝑉 = 24∠75°
𝑉𝑉
𝐼𝐼 =
𝑅𝑅
24∠75°𝑉𝑉
𝐼𝐼 =
6Ω
𝐼𝐼 = 4∠75°
𝑖𝑖(𝑡𝑡) = 4 cos(377𝑡𝑡 + 75°)𝐴𝐴

Phasor in Circuit Elements: Inductor

Inductors, on the other hand, have a phase shift between voltage and current. In this case, the voltage leads
the current by 90°.

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑(𝑡𝑡)
𝑣𝑣(𝑡𝑡) = 𝐿𝐿
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑉𝑉 = 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗

Example: The voltage 𝑣𝑣(𝑡𝑡) = 12 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐(377𝑡𝑡 + 20°) 𝑉𝑉 is applied to a 20𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 inductor. Determine the current of
the circuit.

𝑉𝑉
𝐼𝐼 =
𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
12∠20°𝑉𝑉
𝐼𝐼 =
(377)(20𝑚𝑚)∠90°
𝐼𝐼 = 1.59∠ − 70°
𝑖𝑖(𝑡𝑡) = 1.59 cos(377𝑡𝑡 + 70°)𝐴𝐴

Phasor in Circuit Elements: Capacitor

Capacitors have the opposite phase relationship as compared to inductors. In this case, the current leads the
voltage. In a phasor diagram, this corresponds to a negative phase angle between the voltage and current.

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𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑(𝑡𝑡)
𝑖𝑖(𝑡𝑡) = 𝐶𝐶
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝐼𝐼 = 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗

Example: The voltage 𝑣𝑣(𝑡𝑡) = 100 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐(314𝑡𝑡 + 15°) 𝑉𝑉 is applied to a 100𝜇𝜇F capacitor. Determine the current
of the circuit.

𝐼𝐼 = 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
𝐼𝐼 = (314)(100𝜇𝜇∠90°)100∠15°
𝐼𝐼 = 3.14∠105°

𝑖𝑖(𝑡𝑡) = 3.14 cos(314𝑡𝑡 + 105°)𝐴𝐴

Impedance
Impedance 𝑍𝑍 of a circuit is the ratio of the phasor voltage 𝑉𝑉 to the phasor current 𝐼𝐼, measured in Ohms (Ω).
The impedance represents the opposition that the circuit exhibits to the flow of sinusoidal current.

𝑍𝑍 =
𝑉𝑉 Note: 𝜔𝜔 = 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
𝐼𝐼

Example: Determine the equivalent impedance of the network given that the frequency is 𝑓𝑓 = 60𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻.
Compute for the current 𝑖𝑖(𝑡𝑡) if the voltage source is 𝑣𝑣(𝑡𝑡) = 50 cos(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 30°)𝑉𝑉.

Step 1: Find each impedance.

𝑍𝑍𝑅𝑅 = 25Ω
𝑍𝑍𝐿𝐿 = 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 𝑗𝑗(2𝜋𝜋 × 60𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻)(20𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚) = 𝑗𝑗7.54Ω
𝑗𝑗 𝑗𝑗
𝑍𝑍𝐶𝐶 = − =− = −𝑗𝑗53.05Ω
𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 (2𝜋𝜋 × 60)(50𝜇𝜇)
Step 2: Add up the impedances.
𝑍𝑍 = 𝑍𝑍𝑅𝑅 + 𝑍𝑍𝐿𝐿 + 𝑍𝑍𝐶𝐶 = 25Ω + 𝑗𝑗7.54Ω + (−𝑗𝑗53.05)Ω
𝑍𝑍 = 25Ω − 𝑗𝑗45.51Ω

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Step 3: Compute for the current 𝐼𝐼.

𝑉𝑉 50∠30° 𝑣𝑣 50∠30° 𝑣𝑣
𝐼𝐼 = = =
𝑍𝑍 25 − 𝑗𝑗45.51 Ω 51.93∠ − 61.22° Ω
In phasor:
𝐼𝐼 = 0.96∠91.22° 𝐴𝐴
In time domain:
𝑖𝑖(𝑡𝑡) = 0.96 cos(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 91.22°) 𝐴𝐴

Phasor in Circuit Elements: Nodal Analysis

Examples:
1. Find the voltage 𝑣𝑣 and currents 𝑖𝑖1 and 𝑖𝑖2 .

Step 1: Apply KCL to find the equations. Step 2: Substitute the equations to find 𝑣𝑣.
𝑖𝑖 = 𝑖𝑖1 + 𝑖𝑖2 𝑣𝑣 𝑣𝑣 − 10∠60°
5∠10° = +
𝑗𝑗8Ω 3 − 𝑗𝑗4Ω
𝑣𝑣 𝑣𝑣 𝑣𝑣 − 10∠60°
𝑖𝑖1 = �5∠10° = + � × 40
𝑗𝑗8Ω 𝑗𝑗8Ω 3 − 𝑗𝑗4Ω
𝑣𝑣 − 10∠60° 200∠10°
𝑖𝑖2 =
3 − 𝑗𝑗4Ω = −𝑗𝑗5𝑣𝑣 + 8∠53.13° − 80∠
− 6.87°
196.96 + 𝑗𝑗34.73
= (𝑗𝑗5 + 4.8 + 𝑗𝑗6.4) − 79.43
+ 𝑗𝑗9.57
276.39 + 𝑗𝑗25.16 = 𝑣𝑣(4.8 + 𝑗𝑗1.4)
276.39 + 𝑗𝑗25.16
𝑣𝑣 =
4.8 + 𝑗𝑗1.4
𝑣𝑣 = 55.51∠11.06°
Step 3: Use nodal equations to solve for 𝑖𝑖1 and 𝑖𝑖2 .
𝑣𝑣 55.51∠ − 11.06°
𝑖𝑖1 = =
𝑗𝑗8Ω 8∠90°
𝑖𝑖1 = 6.94∠ − 101.06 𝐴𝐴

𝑣𝑣 − 10∠60°
𝑖𝑖2 =
3 − 𝑗𝑗4Ω
49.48 − 𝑗𝑗1.99
=
5∠ − 53.13°
49.52∠ − 2.30°
=
5∠ − 53.13°
𝑖𝑖2 = 9.90 ∠50.83° 𝐴𝐴

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2. Find the currents 𝑖𝑖1 and 𝑖𝑖2 .

Step 1: Apply KCL to find eqns.

Mesh 1: Mesh 2:
−𝑗𝑗8(𝑖𝑖1 − 𝑖𝑖2 ) = 0
−𝑗𝑗8(𝑖𝑖2 − 𝑖𝑖1 ) + 𝑗𝑗4(𝑖𝑖3 ) − 3𝑖𝑖2 − 5 + 𝑗𝑗8.66 = 0
𝑖𝑖1 = 4.92 + 𝑗𝑗50.85° 𝐴𝐴

Step 2: Substitute equations to find for 𝑖𝑖2 .

−𝑗𝑗8(𝑖𝑖2 − 4.92 − 𝑗𝑗0.87) + 𝑗𝑗4𝑖𝑖2 − 3𝑖𝑖2 − 5 + 𝑗𝑗8.66 = 0
𝑖𝑖2 (−3 − 𝑗𝑗4) − 11.95 + 𝑗𝑗48.02 = 0
11.95 − 𝑗𝑗48.02
𝑖𝑖2 =
−3 − 𝑗𝑗4
49.48∠ − 76.02°
=
−5∠53.13°
= −9.90∠ − 129.15°
𝑖𝑖2 = 9.90∠50.85°

References:
Alexander, C. & Sadiku, M. (2017). Fundamentals of electric circuits (5th Ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
All About Electronics. (2017, September 10). Phasor and the phasor diagram in AC Circuits explained [Video file]. Retrieved from
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zlmwmvijn1Y on July 24, 2019
Bird, J. (2017). Electrical circuit theory and technology (6th Ed.). New York: Routledge.
Boylestad, R. & Nashelsky, L. (2013). Electronic devices and circuit theory (11th Ed.). New Jersey: Pearson.
Coombes, M. (n.d.). Phasor Diagrams. Retrieved from http://facultyweb.kpu.ca/~mikec/P2421_Notes/Phasors/Phasors.html on July 24, 2019
Doc Schuster. (2013, February 4). Intro to AC circuits using phasors and RMS voltage and current | Doc Physics [Video file]. Retrieved from
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FrRmihdF52o on July 24, 2019
Ergül, Ö. (2017). Introduction to electrical circuit analysis (1st Ed.). New Jersey: John Wiley and Sons.
Hayt, W. Jr. & Kemmerly, J. (2012). Engineering circuit analysis (8th Ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
Lilly, J. M. (n.d.). Frequency Basics [Web presentation]. Retrieved from http://jmlilly.net/course/v3/frequencybasics.html#1 on July 24, 2019
Michel van Biezen. (2018, January 8). Electrical Engineering: Ch 11 AC Circuit Analysis (5 of 55) Mesh Analysis Example [Video file]. Retrieved from
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8OQJIqkL5h4 on July 24, 2019
Salam, Md. & Rahman, Q. (2018). Fundamentals of electrical circuit analysis. Singapore: Springer Nature.
Selvaraj, H. (n.d.). Phasor Relationships for Resistors [PDF]. Retrieved from http://www.ee.unlv.edu/~selvaraj/ee221/lecture/lecture4.pdf on July 24,
2019
Weisstein, Eric W. (n.d.). Sinusoid. In MathWorld. Retrieved from http://mathworld.wolfram.com/Sinusoid.html on July 24, 2019

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