Hydroge

Productio
Nam : Rajvee Sing

Clas : 12

Rol Numbe : 32

Subjec : Chemistr
Introductio

Historicall speakin , th “natura ” tendenc fo ne

technologie t us chemica fuel wit highe energ conten

coincide wit th fuel havin a alwa highe H /C rati :

Woo , coa , oi , natura ga . Eventuall , i ma b conclude :

Th m s poten fue amon th chemica fuel i hydroge an

i i natura tha mankin move toward usin i i th nea

futur .

Fo tunatel , i i th m s abundan elemen o ea t an i

th unive s an i i als th cleanes fue – th produc of

hydroge combustio i wate .

Pur hydroge a th stronges chemica fue allo t

suppres CO2 an pa ticulat emission alm s completel

(dependin o th proces of hydroge productio ) an t

lowe th NO emission (dependin o th energ conve sio

s ste use ).

H oweve , hydroge i no onl th stronges chemica fue , i

als serve a a energ carrie (vecto ). Hydroge ca b

produce i severa d fferen wa an the use fo energ

transfe ove sho an lon distance o fo th onsit

conve sio of energ int electricit an hea .

Obviousl , interes focuse o th s wa of hydroge

productio tha ar sustainabl (lik biomas ) o , eve

be e , renewabl (lik sola , win , geotherma , hydr , et .).

Tw basi option exis fo producin hydroge . On wa i t

separat th hydroge fro hydrocarbon throug processe

referre t a reformin o fue processin . Th secon wa t

produc hydroge i fro wate usin th proces of

electrol si t dissociat wate int it separat hydroge an

xyge constituent .

Electrol si technologie tha hav bee i us fo decade

bot dissociat wate an captur xyge an /o hydroge

primaril t mee th industr ’ chemica need . Electrol si

als playe critica rol i lif suppo i spac an

submarin application ove th pas decade . I th followin

section som technologie fo hydroge productio fro

f ssi , sustainabl , an renewabl primar energ source wil

b presente , th emphasi lyin o pur hydroge productio

processe .
H o I Hydroge

Produce ?

● Productio fro F ssi Fuel

Hydroge i currentl produce o a industria scal b stea reformin of natura

ga . M s of th hydroge mad fro f ssi fuel i presentl use i th fe tilize ,

petroleu , an chemica industrie . Natura ga resource wil s ffic fo severa

decade , suc tha thei us wil b extende t mee th hydroge need i th

mediu ter . Th worl ga productio i expecte t doubl betwee 2000 an

2030. Th resource of natura ga ar abundan an expecte t increas b aroun

10%. H oweve , regiona disparitie of ga resource an productio c st wil modif

th regiona ga suppl pa er b 2030.

Indee , abou on thir of th tota ga productio wil originat fro th Commonwealt of

Independen State (CIS), whil th remainin productio i projecte t b alm s equall

share b th OECD countrie , th Middl Eas , an th othe ga produce i Lati

Americ an Asi .
Anothe sourc whic i envisage t b exploite t generat hydroge i coa .

I fac , coa resource ar enormou an wil no limi coa suppl b 2030.

Theworl coa productio i expecte t doubl betwee 2000 an 2030, wit signif -

ican increas i Afric an Asi . Thi la e continen i projecte t cove mor

tha half of th tota coa productio b 2030. Compare t natura ga , howeve ,

thi resourc generate appr ximatel twic a muc CO2 pe amoun of hydr -

ge produce . Neve theles , th developmen of a economicall fficien an saf

CO2 sequestratio metho wil enabl coa t pla significan rol i hydroge

Generatio .

Th prove coa resource worldwid woul b s fficien fo 155 yea of reserv t

productio rati , whil th prove natura ga reserve woul b enoug fo 55 yea of

reserv t productio rati .

Coa i viabl optio fo producin hydroge i ver larg , centralize plant , onc th

deman fo hydroge wil b larg enoug t suppo a associate distributio

infrastructur . Som countrie an region hav enoug coa t generat al of th

hydroge tha th economie wil nee fo mor tha 200 yea .

Moreove , su stantia coa infrastructur exist alread an commercia technologie fo

conve tin coa int hydroge ar availabl fro severa licenso . I additio , th c st of

producin hydroge fro coa ar amon th lowes , an technolog improvement

neede t reac th futur c s target hav bee identifie .

If coa wil b majo sourc fo futur hydroge productio , th curren pr -

ductio an deliver infrastructur capacitie woul hav t b increase fro t -

da ’ annua us of H2 produce fro coa (11.7 millio ton pe yea ) b mor

tha facto of fou i orde t mee th 2050 hydroge deman [2]. I shoul b

note tha suc a increas i productio wil no b withou an detrimenta ef -

fect o th environmen . Indee , extractin mor coa t produc hydroge wil

hav numbe of environmenta impact , suc a lan disturbanc , soi er sio ,

dus , biodive sit impact , wast pile , abandone mine , et ., whic remai t b

Considere .

Onc coa ha bee extracte , i need t b move fro th min t th powe

plan o othe plac of us . Bul coa transpo tatio occu b railwa , truck ar

use fo loca transpo . Fo economi reason , howeve , m s of th worl ’ coa i

consume i powe plant locate nea coa mine t avoi lon -distanc transpo t -

tio . Mor tha 60% of th coa use fo powe generatio worldwid ar consume

withi 50 k distanc fro th min sit .

Th majo drawbac of usin coa t produc H2 i tha th resultin CO2

emissio i large compare t an othe wa of generatin hydroge . O ne

energ basi , coa combustio produce 80% mor CO2 tha th combustio of

natura ga an 20% mor tha residua fue oi whic i anothe widel use

fue fo powe generatio [3]. Usin curren technolog , th CO2 emissio i

abou 19 k CO2 pe kilogra of hydroge produce fro coa , whil i amount

t appr ximatel 10 k CO2 pe kilogra of hydroge fro natura ga .

● Productio fro Nuclea Energ

Nuclea energ i viabl optio fo producin larg quantitie of hydroge wit -

ou greenhous gase bein generate o favorabl renewabl energ condition o

larg lan area bein neede . Sinc nuclea reacto ar b natur ver conce -

trate source of energ , larg centralize hydroge productio plant ca b co -

structe o relativel smal lan area wit flexibl sitin requirement .

Simila t coa -base hydroge plant , nuclea hydroge plant wil requir hydroge

deliver infrastructur t connec th centralize productio facilitie wit distribute

use , suc a hydroge refuelin station fo automobile .

Th lac of curren hydroge infrastructur ma b overcom i th nea futur , if

nuclea hydroge plant wer fi s use t suppl hydroge t larg industria use ,

suc a oi refinerie , fe tilize plant , larg plant processin ta sand an hydroge ,

o synfue plant . I thi cas , hydroge fro nuclea plant woul replac hydroge

produce b natura ga stea reformin i m s case .

Th capacit of typica nuclea hydroge plan woul b i th rang of 200–800 ton

hydroge pe da , whic i comparabl t th requirement of th larg industria

hydroge use liste abov .

Ther ar severa wa of producin hydroge fro nuclea energ . Nuclea r -

acto ma b use t generat electricit whic , i tur , coul b use t powe

wate electrolyze t produc hydroge . Sinc lo -temperatur electrol si i

prove , commercia proces , thi approac t hydroge productio fro nuclea

energ coul b use toda . I fac , sinc nuclea energ currentl supplie signif -

ican amoun of electricit i man countrie , an electrolyze runnin o gri -base

electricit i actuall producin “nuclea hydroge ”.

Th larges c s facto of hydroge generate b conventiona electrol si i th c s

of electricit , an i man case , nuclea powe plant produc lo -c s electricit

compare t othe

generatin source . Accordin t th Nuclea Energ Institut i th U .S., th

curren generatin c s fo existin nuclea plant (no includin th capita c s -

carryin charge ) i les tha 2.0 cent pe kilowat -hou , whic i abou th sam

a coa -base electricit an les tha half of tha of oi o natura ga plant . H o -

eve , electricit fro ne nuclea powe plant wil b mor expensiv du t th

capita investment require . A recen stud estimate th c s of electricit fro ne

ligh -wate nuclea plant t b 4.0 t 6.7 cent pe kilowat -hou , d -

pendin o numbe of facto , includin capita c st , constructio tim , an th

capita c s .

H oweve , eve wit electricit a 5 cent pe kilowat -hou , electrol si i re -

ativel expensiv mean of producin hydroge . A 70% fficienc , wate ele -

trolyze require abou 53 kW of electricit pe kilogra of hydroge produce .

Therefor , th c s of electricit alon amount t $2.65/k . Includin capita c s

of th electrolyze an OM c st , hydroge c st i exces of $3.50/k resul . Mor -

ove , thi i fairl in fficien proces , sinc th overal fficienc of hydroge

productio woul b abou 23%, if th electricit wa generate a 33% fficienc

a i th curren ligh -wate nuclea reacto . Althoug hydroge produce b thi

metho woul b expensiv compare t curren transpo tatio fuel , nuclea plant

combine wit conventiona electrol si ma stil b viabl approac , if futur

transpo tatio c st wil increas significantl o carbo limit wil b imp se du

t globa warmin concern .

I th longe ter , th m s a ractiv hydroge productio mean usin nuclea

energ wil b th s tha utiliz hig temperature o fficien electricit fro a

advance nuclea reacto t produc hydroge fro wate . Thes advance reacto

ar know a generatio IV nuclea reacto an the ar designe t b mor

fficien , safe , an mor economica tha th curren ve sio of ligh -wate r -

acto . Th hig -temperatur heliu ga -coole reacto ar th m s develope

typ , an fi s demonstratio plant ar expecte t b buil i th nex 10 yea .

The ar of modula desig , typicall 400–600 MW(t ) pe reacto , an ca b i -

stalle i undergroun sil t enhanc safet . Whe utilizin refractor typ of

nuclea fue , the ar passivel saf , meanin tha natura force ar s fficien t

preven th temperature fro reachin th meltin poin of th fue an creatin

runawa reactio . H eliu -coole nuclea reacto operat a ver hig tempe -

atur , an the ar capabl of deliverin proces hea i th temperatur rang of

800–1000◦C . Thi i idea fo th m s promisin hig -temperatur wate spli -

tin processe . Th hig -temperatur hea ca als b use t generat electri -

it i Brayto ga turbin cycl , thu increasin th nuclea plan ’ electricit

generatio fficienc t 45–48%, compare t 33% fo conventiona ligh -wate

Reacto .

Tw mai approache hav emerge a leadin contende fo hig -temperatur

wate spli in usin hea fro advance nuclea reacto : Thermochemica c -

cle an hig -temperatur (stea ) electrol si (HTE ). HTE i base o th us of

soli xid fue cel technolog . Sinc th electrolyze operat a hig temperatur

(800–1000◦C ), po tio of th energ neede fo wate dissociatio ca b supplie

i th for of therma energ rathe tha electricit . Thi ma resul i significan

increas i hydroge productio fficienc . Eve wit th hig electricit gene -

atio fficienc of ga -coole reacto , th overal hydroge generatio fficienc

usin lo -temperatur wate electrol si i 32–35% onl . B combinin th hig -

temperatur reacto wit a HTE , th overal hydroge generatio fficienc ca b

increase t 45–50%.

Perha , th m s compellin technolog fo generatin hydroge wit nuclea

energ i thermochemica wate spli in . Thermochemica cycle produc hydr -

ge throug serie of couple chemica reaction , som endothermi an som

exothermi . Energ i inpu i th for of hea (o hea plu smalle amount of

electricit fo hybri cycle ). Th ne resul i th productio of hydroge an x -

ge fro wate a muc lowe temperatur tha direc therma decomp sitio of
wate . Al th proces chemical ar full recycle , an th onl consumabl i w -

te . Typicall , hig -temperatur endothermi reactio ste i necessar , requirin

therma energ i th temperatur rang of 750–1000◦C . Thermochemica cycle

wer investigate fro th lat 1960 throug th mi -1980 , bu m s develo -

men activitie wer stoppe a nuclea powe fel ou of favo . Ove 200 cycle

usin d fferen combination of chemica reaction hav bee identifie i liter -

tur , althoug man hav bee foun t b unworkabl , t hav parasiti sid rea -

tion tha reduc fficienc , o t requir excessiv temperature . Thermochemica

cycl technolog stil i i relativel earl stag , an onl fe cycle hav bee

demonstrate o th laborator scal . Althoug ther i stil unce taint abou th

outcom of th R&D, ther als i th potentia fo significan proces improvemen

base o mor recen advance i material an chemica proces technolog ove

th pas tw decade . th sulfu -iodinecycl . I thi cycl iodin an sulfu di xid ar

adde t wate , formin hydroge iodid an sulfuri aci i a exothermi reactio .

Unde prope condition ,thes compound ar immiscibl an ca b separate easil .

Th sulfuri aci ca b decomp se a abou 850◦C , releasin th xyge an recyclin

th sulfu di xid . Hydroge iodid ca b decomp se a abou 350◦C , releasin

hydroge an recyclin iodin . Th ne reactio i th decomp sitio of wate int

hydroge an xyge . Th whol proces require wate an hig -temperatur hea

onl an release hydroge , xyge , an lo -temperatur hea . Al reagent ar

recycle withou an routin releas of ffluent . Figur 2.10 sho simpl schemati

representatio of th proces .
A complet laborator -scal s ste of th S-I cycl ha bee operate succes -

full a lo pressur i Japa , producin u t ∼50 norma lite /hou of hydroge .

A laborator -scal S-I cycl tes loo workin unde prototypica pressur an te -

peratur condition i no unde constructio i th U .S. b Genera Atomic , Sandi

Nationa Laborator , an th Frenc nationa laborator CEA . Th loo

i designe t produc 100–200 norma lite /hou of hydroge . Commercializatio

of thi proces i planne t catc u wit tha of th hig -temperatur ga -coole

reacto b 2017–2020. Overal proces fficienc i expecte t b appr ximatel

46%. Whe couple t modula heliu reacto , th c s of hydroge productio

i estimate t b $3.00/k withou an emission of CO2.

A secon leadin thermochemica cycl i th hybri sulfu (HyS) proces whic

wa originall develope b th Westinghous Electri Compan i th 1970 . Th

HyS proces i varian of sulfu -base thermochemica cycle , an i utilize th

sam hig -temperatur sulfuri aci decomp sitio ste a th S-I cycl t for su -

fu di xid an liberat xyge . Thi greatl simplifie materia

consideration an minimize chemica separatio ste . Th tw -ste HyS cycl

consist of th followin chemica reaction :

H2 SO4 ⇔ SO2 + H2 O + O2

thermochemica , 800 − 900◦C

2H2 O + SO2 ⇔ H2 SO4 + H2

electrochemica , 100 − 120◦C

Th presenc of SO2 a th anod of th electrolyze greatl decrease th reve sibl

cel potentia fo electrol si . Wherea direc electrol si of wate ha reve sibl cel

potentia of 1.23 volt a 25◦ C , th reve sibl potentia fo SO2 anod -depolarize

electrol si i 0.158 volt onl ( theoretica 87% reductio i electri energ

requirement ). Th researc objective ar t achiev practica cel voltage of 0.5 t

0.6 volt a curren densitie of 500 mA /c 2 .

Th majo processin operation necessar fo hydroge productio usin th

HyS proces ar show i Fi . 2.11. Sinc HyS i hybri thermochemica c -

cl , energ inpu i th for of bot electricit an therma energ i require .

Fo commercia nuclea hydroge plan , appr ximatel 38% of th nuclea r -

acto ’ therma outpu woul b directe t electricit productio an 62% t

provid proces hea . Recen flowcha anal si an optimizatio le t calculate

overal therma proces fficiencie of 52–54% o highe heatin valu basi .

Th c s of hydroge fro thermochemica cycle depend primaril o th ca -

ita c s of th nuclea reacto , th capita c s of th hydroge plan , an th overal

fficienc of conve tin nuclea hea int hydroge . Estimate fo matur , larg ce -

tralize plant usin ga -coole nuclea reacto an th HyS thermochemica cycl

revea hydroge productio c st of $2.00/k o les . Thi ma b competitiv wit

hydroge fro natura ga stea reformin plant , if th c s of natura ga exceed

abou $5.00 pe millio Bt an /o limitation o taxe ar imp se du t th ga

plan ’ carbo di xid emission .

 ● Productio fro Renewabl

1.Hydroge fro Wate Electrol si

Hydroge ca b produce fro wate usin th proces of electrol si t dissociat

wate int it separat hydroge an xyge constituent . Electrol si technologie

tha hav bee i us fo decade bot dissociat wate an captur xyge an /o

hydroge , primaril t mee th need of chemica industr . Electrol si als playe

critica rol i lif suppo ( xyge replenishmen ) i spac an submarin appl -

cation ove th pas decade . Curren electrol si technologie ar divide int tw basi

categorie :

(1) Soli polyme electrolyt (whic provide fo soli electrolyt )

(2) Liqui electrolyt , m s commonl potassiu hydr xid (KOH )

I bot technologie wate i introduce int th reactio environmen , wher i

i dissociate b a electri curren . Th resultin hydroge an xyge ar the

separate b a io -conductin membran int tw separat ph sica stream .

Soli polyme o proto exchang membrane wer develope i th 1950 an

1960 b Genera Electri an othe companie i orde t suppo th U .S. spac

Progra .
A proto exchang membran (PEM ) electrolyze literall i PEM fue

cel operatin i th reve s mod , whe wate

i fe int th PEM electrolyze cel , hydroge ion ar draw int an throug th

membran , wher the recombin wit electron t for hydroge atom . Hydroge

ga i channele separatel fro th cel stac an capture . Oxyge ga remain

behin i th wate . A thi wate i recirculate , xyge accumulate i separatio

tan an ca the b remove fro th s ste .

Electrolyze equippe wit liqui electrolyt typicall us causti solutio t

perfor simila function a PEM electrolyze . I suc s stem xyge ion m -

grat throug th electrolyti materia , leavin hydroge ga dissolve i th wate

strea . Thi hydroge i extracte readil fro th wate , whe i i directe int

separatin chambe .

I histor KOH s stem wer use i large -scal application tha PEM s -

tem . Th Electrolyze Corporatio of Canad (no Stua Energ ) an th ele -

trolyze divisio of No s Hydr buil relativel larg plant (100 k /hou an

large ) t mee fe tilize productio need a location aroun th glob , wher na -

ura ga i no availabl t provid hydroge fo th proces . Toda , th al -inclusiv c st of

producin hydroge usin PEM an KOH

electrolyt ar roughl comparabl . Reactio fficienc tend t b highe fo KOH

s stem , becaus th ioni resistanc of th liqui electrolyt i lowe tha th r -

sistanc of curren PEM membrane . Th reactio fficienc advantag of KOH

s stem ove PEM s stem , howeve , i compensate b highe purificatio an

compressio requirement , especiall fo smal -scal plan (1 t 5 k /hou ).

Proto exchang membrane , whethe operatin i th electrol si mod o fue

cel mod , hav highe fficienc a lowe curren densit . Ther i 1:1 rel -

tionshi i electrol si betwee th rat of hydroge productio an th curren

applie t th s ste . Th energ require a th theoretica fficienc limi of an

wate electrol si proces i 39.4 kW pe kilogra . PEM electrolyze operatin

a lo curren densit ma approac thi fficienc limi . H oweve , th quantitie of

hydroge produce a lo curren densit ar smal , resultin i ver hig capita

c st pe uni hydroge produce . Cel stac fficiencie dro t 75% whe curren

densitie ris t th rang of 10,000 am pe squar mete . A previousl state ,

th electrochemica fficienc of KOH s stem i highe ove broade rang of

curren densitie . Bu thi highe reactio fficienc i balance a leas i pa b

highe compressio an purificatio c st a wel a b highe c st associate wit

managin th liqui electrolyt itself.

Th curren technolog ma provid a electrolyze -base fuelin facilit whic

produce hydroge a rat of 480 k /da o 20 k /hou . Thi plan woul b abl

t refue 120 ca pe da , assumin a averag of 4 k pe ca . Electrolyze s -

tem of thi scal ar expecte t operat wit a overal fficienc of 63.5%

lowe heatin valu , includin al parasiti load othe tha compressio .

Th electrolyze ca generat hydroge a a interna pressur i th 10 ba rang .

Consequentl , supplementar compressio i require fo automotiv applicatio

i orde t rais th pressur t th rang of 400 ba . I thi cas , a additiona

electrica requiremen associate wit compressio mus b fulfille .

If assumin tha 2.3 kW/k /hou ar neede , the abou 5% ar adde t th plan ’

electrica consumptio . A consequenc , th overal fficienc i droppin dow t abou

59%. Toda , plan of thi scal woul consis of soli polyme electrolyze onl .

Wit additiona developmen , howeve , PEM technolog i expecte t achiev

comparabl scal .

Th c s of hydroge fro electrol si i dominate b th c s of electricit an

th capita c s recover fo th s ste . Anothe facto – operatio an maintenanc

expense ma ad 3 t 5% t th tota annua c st . Th electrochemica

fficienc of th uni , couple wit th pric of electricit , determine th variabl

c s . Th tota capita c s of th electrolyze uni , includin compressio , storag ,

an dispensin equipmen , i th basi of fixe -c s recover .

Regardin capita c s recover , th c s of th 480 k /da s ste , excludin

compressio an dispensin , i assume t b aroun 1000 US$/kW inpu . Th tota

c s of s ste o thi scal woul b aroun 2.5 millio US$. Sinc i i antic -

pate tha electrol si technolog scale wit a 85% facto , smalle -scal s stem ,

wit somewha highe uni c st , ar feasibl . Fo exampl , facilit wit half of

th abov capacit of hydroge productio an fuelin of 60 ca pe da woul

c s abou $1.25 millio , plu 15% scalin facto . Th scalabilit of electrol si i on of th

impo tan facto fo it likel us i earl -stag fue cel vehicle .

Th electrochemica fficienc of electrol si i essentiall independen of scal .

Th tota c s of electrolyti hydroge fro currentl availabl technolog

reache 14% capita c s recover facto an ha t includ th tota c s associate wit

th fuelin facilit . Th c s of gri electricit

delivere i assume t b 7 cent /kW . Tota c st i thi cas ar i th rang of

$6.50/k of H2 produce .

Th environmenta impac of th us of electrol si t produc hydroge depend

o th sourc of electricit . Th electrol si proces a suc produce li l , if an

CO2 o othe greenhous ga emission . Electrolyze contai n combustio d -

vice an th onl inpu t th proces othe tha electricit i pur wate . H oweve ,

relationshi exist betwee emission an electrol si .

An pollutio associate wit electricit consume b th electrolyze need t b take int

accoun . A state previousl , electrol si claim t creat pat fo conve tin renewabl

powe int fue . Th lo capacit facto of renewable (othe tha geotherma an hydr

powe ), howeve , wil mak a economi al -renewable cas ver d fficul t impl -

men . Electricit fro nuclea plant als i withou an greenhous ga emission ,

bu th pr spect of additiona nuclea plant ar unce tai a bes .

Powe fro th gri i assume t b base o th gri ’ averag mi . Wit t -

da ’ gri mi , abou 17.6 k CO2 ar emi e pe kilogra of hydroge . A th

po tfoli of energ resource use t suppl electri powe wil chang i th futur ,

th amoun of CO2 emi e t produc 1 k H2 coul eithe increas o decreas .

 2. Hydroge fro Win Energ

Of al th renewable currentl o th drawin board , win i deeme t hav th

highes potentia i th nea an mediu ter fo us a a excellen sourc of productio of

pollutio -fre hydroge . Usin th electricit generate b th win

turbine , wate i electrolyze int hydroge an xyge . Th prerequisite fo it

successfu developmen an deploymen ar threefol : (1) Fu the reductio of th c s of

win turbin technolog an th c s of th electricit generate b win .

(2) reductio of th c s of electrolyze

(3) optimizatio of th win turbin -electrolyze wit th hydroge storag s ste .

Th mai technica paramete determinin th economi succes of win turbin

s ste i it annua energ outpu , whic , i tur , i determine b paramete , suc

a averag win spee , statistica win spee distributio , distributio of occurrin

win direction , turbulenc intensitie , an roughnes of th surroundin terrai . Of

thes , th m s impo tan an sensitiv paramete i th win spee , whic increase

exponentiall wit heigh abov groun . Th powe i th win i propo tiona t

th thir powe of th momentar win spee . A accurat meteorologica me -

surement an win energ ma becom mor commonl availabl , win projec

develope ca mor reliabl asses th lon -ter economi performanc of win

Farm .
Recen technica advance mad win turbine mor controllabl an gri -

compatibl an reduce th numbe of component , makin the mor reliabl an

robus . Th technolog i likel t continu t improv . Suc improvement wil

includ a enhance performanc a variabl win speed t captur th maximu

amoun of win accordin t loca win condition an be e gri compatibilit .

Thes advance ma resul fro be e turbin desig (Fi . 2.15) an optimizatio

of roto blade , mor fficien powe electroni control an driv train , an be e

material . Fu thermor , economie of scal an automate productio ma continu

t reduc c st .

Win technolog doe no hav an fue requirement , contrar t coa , ga , an

petroleu technologie . H oweve , bot th equipmen c st an th c st of specia

characteristic , suc a intermi enc , resourc variabilit , competin demand fo

lan us , an transmissio an distributio availabilit , ma ad su stantiall t th

c st of generatin electricit fro win .

Despit thes advantage , win ’ bigges drawbac continue t b it inte -

mi enc an mismatc wit deman , a issu fo bot electricit generatio an

hydroge productio . Th bes win site ofte ar no i cl s pr ximit t

population wit th greates energ need , a i th U .S. Midwes ; thi proble

make suc site potentiall impractica fo onsit hydroge productio , owin t

th hig c st of storag an lon -distanc hydroge distributio .

Worldwid , th c s of generatin electricit fro win ha falle b mor tha

80%, fro abou 38 cent /kW i th earl 1980 t curren valu fo goo win

site locate i th Unite State of 4 t 7 cent /kW , wit averag capacit fa -

to cl s t 30%. Th curren federa productio ta credi of 1.8 cent /kW fo

win -generate electricit lowe thi c s t belo 3 cent /kW a th bes win

site . Thi i c s decreas b a orde of magnitud i tw decade . Anal st

generall forecas tha c st wil continu t dro significantl , a th technolog

improve fu the an th marke gro aroun th worl , thoug som d

No .

Fo p ssibl futur technologie , i i assume tha th c s of electricit generate usin

win turbine wil decreas t 4 cent /kW (includin transmissio c st ). Thi assumptio

i base o win turbin capita c s of $500/kW, tota capita c st of $745/kW, an

capacit facto of 40%. Th expectatio i tha win turbin desig wil b refine an

economie of scal wil accru . Whil thes value ca b considere optimisti [21], othe

predic eve lowe value , give successfu technolog advancemen an suppo tiv polic co -

dition .

I th futur , c st wil b reduce b multipl advancement an fu the i -

provement i turbin desig an optimizatio of roto blade , mor fficien powe

control an driv train , an improvement i material . Th improvement i material ar

expecte t facilitat increase turbin heigh , leadin t be e acces

t th highe -energ win resource availabl a thes greate height . Th desir of

ne U .S. vendo t pa ticipat i win energ market wil increas competitio ,

leadin t a overal optimizatio an lowe c s of th win turbin s ste .

Hydroge productio fro win powe an electrol si i pa ticularl interes -

in prop sitio , sinc , a jus discusse , win powe i th economicall m s

competitiv of al renewabl source , wit electricit price of 4 t 5 cent /kW

a th bes win site .

Thi mean tha win powe ca generat hydroge a lowe c st tha an of th othe

renewabl option availabl toda . Sinc hydroge fro win energ ca b produce cl s t

wher i wil b use , ther wil b clea rol fo i t pla i th earl yea of hydroge

infrastructur developmen , especiall a i i believe tha hydroge econom i m s likel ,

a leas initiall , t develo i distribute manne .

Win -electrol si hydroge productio s stem ar currentl fa fro bein o -

timize . Fo exampl , th desig of win turbine t dat ha bee geare t electri -

it productio , no hydroge . T optimiz fo be e hydroge productio , powe

contro s stem integrate betwee th win turbin an electrolyze wil hav t

b analyze t tailo hydroge storag t th win turbin desig . Fu thermor ,

s ste ma b desgine t c -produc electricit an hydroge fro win . Unde

th righ circumstance , thi coul b mor c s - ffectiv an provid fo broade

s ste us , thu facilitatin win hydroge s ste deploymen .

Fo distribute win -electrol si hydroge generatio s stem i th USA , i i

estimate tha b usin toda ’ technologie , hydroge ca b produce a goo

win site fo appr ximatel $6.64/k H2 withou produ -

tio ta credi , wit gri electricit bein use a backu fo whe th win i no

blowin . A s ste i considere tha use th gri a backu t alleviat th capita

underutilizatio of th electrolyze wit win capacit facto of 30%. I assume

a averag c s of electricit generate b win of 6 cent /kW , whil th c s of gri

electricit i pegge a 7 cent /kW , typica

commercia rat . Thi hybri hydroge productio s ste ha pr an con . I r -

duce th c s of producin th hydroge , whic woul b $10.69/k H2 withou

gri backu , bu i i als associate wit CO2 emission fro wha woul othe -

wis b a emissio -fre hydroge productio s ste .

Th CO2 emission ar produc of usin gri electricit ; the ar 3.35 k C pe kilogra of

hydroge . I th futur , th win -electrol si hydroge s ste coul b optimize su sta -

tiall . Th win turbin technolog coul improv an , i tur , reduc th c s of

electricit t 4 cent /kW wit a increase capacit facto of 40%, a discusse

previousl . Moreove , th electrolyze c s coul com dow su stantiall an it

fficienc migh b increase , a describe i Cha . 10. Th combinatio of th

increas i capacit facto an th reductio i th capita c s of th electrolyze

a wel a i th c s of win -generate electricit result i eliminatin th nee fo usin

gri electricit (pric stil pegge a 7 cent /kW ) a backu .

Th win machine an th electrolyze ar assume t b mad larg enoug tha s fficien

hydroge ca b generate durin th s 40% of th tim th win turbine ar a -

sume t provid electricit . Du t th assume reduction i th c s of th ele -

trolyze an of win turbin -generate electricit , thi optio no i les c stl tha
usin smalle electrolyze an purchasin gri -supplie electricit whe th win

turbin i no generatin electricit . Hydroge produce i thi manne fro win

withou gri backu i estimate t c s $2.85/k H2 , whil i i $3.38/k H2 fo th

alternativ s ste wit gri backu . Fu thermor , th advantag of th hydroge

productio s ste bein no CO2 emissio –fre i adde .

Electricit s stem hav evolve s tha the ca no delive powe t co -

sume wit hig fficienc b highl integrate s ste tha aggregate suppl

an deman . Win powe benefit fro thi leve of aggregatio of thi s ste .

Numerou utilit studie hav indicate tha win ca b a sorbe readil int a

integrate networ unti th win capacit account fo abou 20% of maximu

deman .

Beyon thi , change t operationa practic woul likel b neede . Pra -

tica experienc , a win penetrate t highe level , wil continu t provid be e

unde standin of thes s ste integratio issue . Th degre t whic gri compat -

bilit an integratio wil influenc th futur hydroge productio fro win need

t b be e unde stoo .
 3. Hydroge fro Sola Energ

Sola energ hold th promis of bein inexhaustibl . If harnesse , i ca cove

al of th energ neede i th foreseeabl futur . I i clea an environmentall

friendl . I conve t sola energ int hydroge withou th emissio of an gree -

hous ga . Du t it distribute natur of powe productio , i contribute t n -

tiona securit .

Ther ar ce tai challenge associate wit th us of sola energ . Th intermi -

ten natur of sunshin , o bot dail an seasona basi , present numbe of

challenge . A backu s ste o storag s ste fo electricit /hydroge i neede

fo th period whe sunshin i no availabl an powe deman exist . Fu the -

mor , thi intermi en availabilit mean tha 4 t 6 time mor sola module hav

t b installe tha th pea wat ratin woul dictat . Thi intermi enc als i -

plie tha significan decreas i th modul c s i require . Anothe challeng i

t ensur tha n t xi material ar discharge durin th fabricatio an ove th complet

lif cycl of th sola cel . Suc question hav bee raise i th contex

of cadmiu -containin sola cell , an publi perceptio i suc case wil pla

ke rol .

I ha bee estimate tha sola energ ha th potentia of meetin th energ

deman of th huma rac wel int th futur . On of th method of recoverin

sola energ i throug th us of photovoltai (PV) cell . Upo illuminatio wit

sunligh , PV cell generat electri energ . Commercia PV module ar availabl

fo wid rang of application . H oweve , the represen miniscul contributio

t electri powe productio worldwid . Th curren c s of electricit fro PV

modul i 6 t 10 time th c s of electricit fro coa o natura ga . Therefor , if

PV electricit wa t b use t produc hydroge , th c s woul b significantl

highe tha if f ssi fuel wer use . Th ke t sola energ t b use o larg

scal fo electricit o hydroge productio i c s reductio . Thi woul requir

numbe of advancement of curren technolog .

Th curren c s of sola module i i th rang of $3–$6 pe pea wat (W ).

Fo sola cell t b competitiv wit th conventiona electricit productio tec -

nologie , th modul c s mus com dow belo $1/W . Nowada , th installe

c s i abou $3.285/W , th electricit c s i estimate t b abou $0.319/kW .

Fo futuristi cas wit al expecte technolog an productio advance , th a -

ticipate installe c s of $1.011/ W wil lea t electricit c s of $0.098/kW .

Whil thi targe i a ractiv fo electricit generatio , hydroge i no produce a

competitiv c s .

Energ i consume i th manufactur of sola module . I ha bee estimate

b NREL tha fo cr stallin silico modul , th paybac perio of energ i abou

4 yea . Fo a amorphou silico modul , thi perio currentl i abou 2 yea ,

wit th expectatio tha i wil eventuall b les tha 1 yea .

Variou development ar likel t improv th economi competitivenes of s -

la technolog , especiall fo thi -fil technolog . Th curren researc o micr -

cr stallin silico dep sitio technique i leadin t highe fficiencie . Technique

leadin t highe dep sitio rate a moderat pressure ar bein develope [32].

Be e barrie material t eliminat moistur ingres i th thi -fil module wil

prolon th modul ’ lif spa . Robus dep sitio technique wil increas th yiel

fro give typ of equipmen . Inlin detectio an contro method wil hel t

reduc th c s .

Som of thes advance wil requir creativ tool an method .

I i believe tha installe c st of roughl $1/ W ar achievabl . Materia c st

ar quit lo , bu su strat materia , expensiv coatin equipmen , lo utilizatio of

equipmen , an labo -intensiv technolog lea t hig overal c st . I i expecte

tha i th nex decad o tw , improvement i thes area hav potentia t brin th c s

muc belo $1/W . Worl -clas plant wit economie of scal wil fu the

contribut t th lowerin of c s . Fo cr stallin silico wafe -base technolog ,

th ra materia c st b themselve ar alm s $1/W . H oweve , improvement i

operatin fficienc , th c s of ra material , an reduce usag of ce tai material

ar expecte t brin overal c s cl s t $1/W .

Regardin productio c st , al of th technologie discusse conve sola e -

erg int electricit an us th electricit t generat hydroge throug th ele -

trol si of wate . Sinc PV cell produc d current , th electri powe ca b

use directl fo electrol si . A discusse i th sectio abov o electrolyze ,

considerabl c s reduction ar anticipate , whic wil lowe th c s of hydroge

fro sola cell . Thes c s reduction wil b pa ticularl valuabl fo sola cel

electricit , becaus th lo usag facto associate wit PV module als co -

tribute t th lo usag of electrolyze . Thi , i tur , ha hig impac o th

c s of th hydroge produce .

Fo exampl , th hydroge c s fo th futur optimisti cas i calculate t

b $6.18/k . Fo thi cas , th c s of th installe PV panel , includin al ge -

era facilitie , i estimate t amoun t $1.011/W . I i use i conjunctio wit

a electrolyze tha i assume t tak advantag of al advancement mad i th

fue cel . Th PV pa i responsibl fo $4.64/k an th electrolyze fo $1.54/k .

Compare wit thi , th c s of hydroge fro futur centra coa plan a th di -

pensin statio i estimate t b $1.63/k , includin carbo ta . Thi c s implie

tha fo PV electrolyze t compet i th futur wit coa plan , eithe th c s

of PV module mus b reduce b a orde of magnitud o th electrolyze c s

mus dro su stantiall fro $125/kW.

I ha bee prop se t us electricit fro th gri t ru th electrolyze whe sola

electricit i unavailabl . Thi us wil increas th availabilit of th electrolyze . H oweve ,

fo sola t pla dominan rol i th hydroge econom i th lon ter , i canno rel o

powe fro th gri t supplemen equipmen utilizatio . Whil electricit a $0.098/kW

fro PV modul ca b quit a ractiv fo distributiv application wher electricit i

use directl , it us i conjunctio wit electrol si t produc hydroge ce tainl

i no competitiv wit th projecte c s of hydroge fro coa .

 4. Hydroge fro Biomas

I phot synthesi a carrie ou b plant , cyanobacteri , an microalga , sola e -

erg i conve te int biomas i commonl occurrin ec s stem a a overal

thermodynami fficienc of abou 0.4% . Thi lo fficienc i du t th

molecula prope tie of th phot syntheti an biochemica machiner a wel a

t th ecologica an ph sic -chemica prope tie of th environmen .

Thi ligh energ i use a a fficienc of abou 70% b th phot syntheti reactio cente

an conve te int chemica energ , whic i conve te fu the int gluc s a th primar

CO2 fixatio en produc a a fficienc of abou 30%. Of thi energ , abou 40%

ar l s du t dar respiratio . Becaus of th phot inhibitio ffec an th no -

optima condition i natur , fu the significan l s i fficienc i o serve whe

growin plant i natura ec s stem .

Commo biomas collecte fro natura ec s stem contain abou 0.4% of th primar

incomin energ onl . Althoug highe yield (i th 1 t 5% rang ) hav bee repo te fo

som cro , th theoretica maxima fficienc i abou 11%.

Generall , tw type of biomas resource ca b considere i th discussio o

renewabl energ feedstoc :

(1) Primar biomas , suc a energ cro , includin switc gras , popla

(2) Biomas residue

I shoul b note tha th ter primar i use whe derive fro woo o pr -

cesse agricultura biomas , secondar whe derive fro foo , fibe -processin

b -product , o anima wast , an te tiar whe derive fro urba residue .

Toda , abou 4% of tota energ us i th Unite State ar base o th us of

biomas , mainl i th for of fores residue . A c s of $30 t $40/ , th availabl

biomas ca b estimate t b betwee 220 an 335 millio dr ton pe yea . Thi

biomas consist mainl of urba residue , sludg , energ cro , an woo an agr -

cultura residue .

A significan fractio of thi biomas , especiall fores residue , i alread use b directl

industr o i othe competin processe , suc a energ generatio . H oweve , if al of thi

theoreticall availabl biomas coul b conve te int hydroge , th annuall availabl

amoun woul b of th orde of 17 t 26 millio H2 . I a al -fue -cel -vehicl scenari i

th yea 2050, 112 millio H2 woul b require annuall . Considerin thi deman an th

competin demand fo othe use of biomas , th currentl availabl biomas i ins fficien t

satisf th entir deman i hydroge econom , an ne source fo biomas productio

woul nee t b considere .

Primar biomas i th for of energ cro i expecte t hav th m s significan

quantitativ impac o hydroge productio fo us a transpo tatio fue b 2050.

Estimate of energ tha ca potentiall b derive fro energ cro t produc

biomas b 2050 rang betwee 45 an 250 exajoule pe yea .Therefor , cro yield ,

managemen practice , an associate c st ar base o agricultura model rathe tha o

empirica dat .

Althoug bioenerg cro ca b grow i al region of th Unite State ,

regiona variabilit i productivit , rainfal condition , an managemen practice

limi energ cro farmin t state i th Midwes , Sout , Southeas , an Eas [36].

Considerin al cro lan use fo agricultur a wel a cro lan i th CRP, pa -

tur , an idl cro lan , tw managemen scenari fo profitabl bioenerg

cro productio ca b derive :

(1) On t achiev hig biomas productio

(2) Th secon t achiev hig level of wildlif dive sit

Th productio managemen scenari woul produc abou 188 millio ton of dr

biomas annuall , whic woul b equivalen t 15 millio ton of H2 . Thi woul

requir 41.8 millio acre of cro lan , of whic abou 56% woul b fro currentl

use cro lan , 30% fro th CRP, an 13% fro idl cro lan an pastur . Th

cro woul b exclusivel switc gras .

I th wildlif managemen scenari , 96 millio dr ton of biomas (equi -

alen t 7.6 millio H2 ) woul b produce o 19.4 millio acre of cro lan .

Thes 19.4 millio acre woul b mad u b abou 53% fro currentl use cro

lan , 42% fro th CRP, an 4% fro idl cro lan an pastur . Lan fro th

CRP woul becom significan sourc fo farmin biomas cro .

Th CRP set asid environmentall sensitiv acre unde 10- t 15-yea co -

tract . Appropriat managemen practice mus b develope befor CRP land ar

use . Environmenta impact of variou managemen practice mus b examine t

ensur tha ther i n su stantia l s of environmenta benefit , includin biod -

ve sit , soi an wate qualit . I i conceivabl tha farmin scenari alternatin

betwee agricultura cro an bioenerg cro o existin agricultura an CRP

land coul b develope . I shoul b note tha th s unprove case wer no

considere i thi anal si .

Bioenerg cro productio i considere profitabl a $40/d an coul compet

wit currentl grow agricultura cro . Base o assume yield , manag -

men practice , an inpu c st , switc gras i th leas expensiv bioenerg cro t

produc o pe dr to basi . Productio c st (far gat c st ) fo switc gras

ar estimate t rang fro $30/d t $40/d , dependin o th managemen sc -

nari .

Addin processin an deliver c st woul resul i a appr ximat

delivere biomas pric i th orde of $40 t $50/d , respectivel . Usin thes fee -

stoc c st a wel a curren an projecte gasifie fficiencie (50% ve su 70%),

th futur c st pe kilogra of hydroge produce fro biomas an delivere t

th vehicl ca amoun t abou $3.60. I thi scenari reductio i biomas c s

wa assume t b achieve b increasin th cro yiel pe hectar b 50%, whic

present significan technica challenge .

A shif of cro lan us fro traditiona agricultura cro t bioenerg cro wil als

resul i highe price fo traditiona cro . Becaus of lan owne shi , managemen , an

cro establishmen , biomas productio b energ cro productio wil b mor expensiv tha

usin residu biomas .

Additionall , regiona variatio i th availabilit of residu biomas , coul mak hydroge

productio fro biomas competitiv i suc region i th sho ter . I lon -ter

sustainabl scenari , i woul requir biomas productio a th sam rat a it consumptio .

I i unlikel tha suc localize operation woul contribut signif -

cantl t th neede H2 suppl .