COSTAction E18 Finalreport

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COST Action E18 High-performance wood coating FINAL REPORT
Conference Paper · May 2005
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COST Action E18
High-performance wood
coating
FINAL REPORT
Edited by M de Meijer
MAY 2005
COST-E 18 FINAL REPORT
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. OVERVIEW: ACTION IDENTIFICATION DATA ___________________________________ 4

2. INTRODUCTION ____________________________________________________________ 6
2.1 OBJECTIVE OF THE ACTION _____________________________________________ 6
2.2. ACTIVITIES OF THE THREE WORKING GROUPS ____________________________ 6

2.2.1. WG 1 Coating-wood interaction _________________________________________ 6
2.2.3. WG 2 Performance, durability and environmental impacts of exterior wood
coatings 7
2.2.3. WG 3. Performance, durability and environmental impacts of interior wood
coatings 8
3. STATE OF THE ART REPORTS ______________________________________________ 10

3.1. WOOD COATING INTERACTION (WG1) ___________________________________ 10
3.1.1. Introduction _______________________________________________________ 10
3.1.2. Photodegradation and protection _______________________________________ 10
3.1.2.1. Mechanism of photodegradation ____________________________________ 10
3.1.2.2. Protection by coatings and surface treatments _________________________ 11
3.1.2.3. Influence of wood modification on photoprotection ______________________ 12
3.1.3. Substrate wetting and penetration of coatings on wood _____________________ 13
3.1.3.1. Influence of anatomical structure ____________________________________ 13
3.1.3.2. Influence of coating formulation, rheology and surface energy _____________ 14
3.1.3.2. Relevance of penetration to performance _____________________________ 16
3.1.4. Surface energy, wetting and adhesion __________________________________ 16
3.1.4.1. Surface energy of wood ___________________________________________ 16
3.1.4.1. Wetting by coatings ______________________________________________ 17
3.1.5. Adhesion _________________________________________________________ 17
3.1.5. Wood surface preparation and coating application _________________________ 20
3.1.6. Conclusions and gaps in knowledge ____________________________________ 21
3.1.7. References ________________________________________________________ 21
3.2. PERFORMANCE OF EXTERIOR WOOD COATINGS (WG 2) ___________________ 25

3.2.1. Introduction: _______________________________________________________ 25
3.2.2. Discussion ________________________________________________________ 26
3.2.2.1. Durability and Service Life: ________________________________________ 26
3.2.2.2. Service Life Issues _______________________________________________ 26
3.2.2.3. Measurement and Testing Issues: __________________________________ 32
3.2.2.4. Influence of Moisture on Performance: _______________________________ 33
3.2.2.4. Microbiological aspects of coated wood: ______________________________ 37
3.2.3 Conclusion ________________________________________________________ 41
3.2.4 Bibliography and References __________________________________________ 42
2
3.3 HIGH PERFORMANCE ENVIRONMENTALLY FRIENDLY FINISHES FOR WOOD

FOR INDOOR USES (WG 3) _______________________________________________46
3.3.1. Introduction ________________________________________________________46
3.3.2 The Industry Situation with the Cost E 18 period ____________________________46
3.3.3 The balance in 2004 at the end of the Cost E 18 _______________________________48

3.3.3.1. The implementation of the VOC Directive in Europe _____________________48
3.3.2.2. What solutions?: High solid, Waterborne, Powder, Process _______________49
3.3.3.3. VOC Removal ___________________________________________________53
3.3.3.3. Performance and certification _______________________________________53
3.3.4. Conclusions ________________________________________________________54
3.3.5. References ________________________________________________________54
4. ACTIVITIES AND RESULTS __________________________________________________56
5. DISSEMINATION ___________________________________________________________57
5.1 Publications and Workshop reports __________________________________________57
5.2 Web site (http://www.vtt.fi/rte/bp/coste18) ____________________________________57
5.3 Proposals and STSM _____________________________________________________57
5.4 Transfer of results _______________________________________________________57
7. FUTURE ACTIVITIES________________________________________________________58
3
1. OVERVIEW: ACTION IDENTIFICATION DATA
COST Action E I8
High performance wood coatings
TCT Recommendation:
CSO Approval:
Start date: 01/04/1999
Duration: 60 months
Extension: 6 months
End date: 01/10/2004
First MC meeting: 18/11/1999

Last MC meeting: 26/11/2004
Final Report: 5/5/2005
Evaluation Report:
TCT Evaluation:
Number of signatories: 16
Signatories:
Austria
Sweden
Finland
United Kingdom
France
Ita]y
Hungary
Netherlands
Romania
Portugal
Spain
Slovenia
Belgium
Switzerland
Denmark
Norway
Germany
Area: FFP
Action Web site: http://www.ctba.fr/
Chairperson:
2000 - 2002
Dr Pirjo Ahola
VTT Building Technology P.O. Box 1806
FIN 02044 VTT Finland
Tel.: 3.58-9-4565548 Fax: 358-9-456 7027
2003 - 2004
Peter Svane
Rugvænget 23
DK-2630 Taastrup Danmark
Tel.: (+45) 43 99 60 48 Fax: (+45) 43 99 60 49 E-Mail: [email protected]
4
List of events organised by COST E18
Meetings of the Management Committee
1st meeting November 18 - 19, 1999 in Brussels, European Commission (Kick off
meeting)
2nd meeting June 26 - 27, 2000 in, Rosenheim, Germany
3rd meeting June 19, 2001 in CTBA Paris, France
4th meeting April 5, in LNEC, Lisboa, Portugal
5th meeting November 22, 2002 in Brussels, European Commission
6thmeeting February 16, 2004 in Coating Consultancy, Copenhagen, Denmark
Meetings of the Working Groups
Working Group 1,2 and 3 meeting June 26 - 27, 2000 in Inst. für Fenstertechnik
Rosenheim, Germany
Working Group 1 and 2 meeting December 1,2000 in Brussels, European Commission
Working Group 3 meeting February 16, 2001 in Brussels, European Commission
Working Group 1,2 and 3 meeting June 18 - 19, 2001 in Paris, France
Working Group 1 meeting November 23, 2001 in Garston, UK
Other events
Steering Group meeting March 17, 2000 in CTBA Paris, France

Steering Group meeting actober 25, 2000 in Hague, the Netherlands
Steering Group meeting November 22, 2001 in Garston, UK
Steering Group meeting November 11, 2002 in Brussels, European Commission
Steering Group meeting July 4, 2003 in Brussels, European Commission
Steering Group meeting April 27, 2004 in CTBA Paris, France
Steering Group meeting November 2 2004 in Brussels, European Commission
Seminars
Service life prediction, Photodegradation, Furniture and joinery coatings. June 18-19,
2001 in CTBA, Paris, France.
Photodegradation workshop. November 23, 2001 in BRE, Watford, UK
The paint film, Modified substrates, Preservative treated substrates, Moisture content
and performance. April 4-5. 2002 in LNEC, Lisboa, Portugal
Measurements and testing. February 16-17. 2004 in Coating Consultancy,

Copenhagen, Denmark
Photodegradation, Wood/coating interface, Modified wod, Analytical methods,

Durability, Moisture protection, Microbiological review, Low VOC polymers, Furniture
(low VOC). April 26-27 2004 in CTBA, Paris, France
EU’s VOC-directive and its implications on European Furniture industry. November 25-
26 2004 in CATAS, Udine, Italy
5
2. INTRODUCTION
2.1 OBJECTIVE OF THE ACTION
The main objective of the Action is to improve the performance, durability and
environmental properties of coated wood structures and products by
expanding, co-ordinating and integrating knowledge on exterior and interior
wood coatings.
Means to meet the main objective
1. Through activities of the three Working Groups

2. Through state-of-art reports WGs
3. Through initiation of new activities in MC and WGs
4. Through dissemination
5. Through Scientific Short Term Missions
2.2. ACTIVITIES OF THE THREE WORKING GROUPS
2.2.1. WG 1 Coating-wood interaction
The overarching objective is to ‘obtain a better understanding of processes

occurring at the interface between wood and exterior or interior wood coatings’.
In order to translate this into specific deliverables and an action plan, the
following more detailed objectives are proposed:
1. Improve the mutual understanding of those parties involved in research

and development of coatings and wood based products.
2. Identify areas where a mismatch in scientific or technological knowledge

between the wood and coatings fields exists.
3. Establish ways to fill the identified gaps in knowledge by initiating

programs to integrate existing knowledge in this field or by starting up
new research initiatives.
4. Propose new work programmes on the basis of the above mentioned

gaps in knowledge and seek founding on EU and national levels.
5. Improving the quality and speed of new research and development work
be strengthening the co-operation between various parties in the wood
and coatings supply chain.
6. Disseminate information between COST members through networks,

seminars, workshops and electronic means.
Means to meet the Objectives
1. Establish a representative working group that can cover, by direct or

indirect contacts, all aspects and relevant disciplines to the phenomena
occurring at the wood-coating interface. Potential parties might come
from: wood processing industry, wood scientists, coating manufacturers,
raw materials suppliers, polymer, chemical or physical science.
6
2. Encourage the members in the working groups to identify the gaps in their own
knowledge and find ways to fill these gaps by either exchanging existing
knowledge or by establishing new research initiatives.
3. Disseminating existing, non-confidential knowledge between the COST

members more effectively and combine various detailed results to more
general applicable knowledge. How this can be done most effectively will be
subject of discussions during the start-up of the working group.
4. The scope of WG 1 will cover, be not restricted, to the following topics:
 Influence of wood species, properties and quality on film formation and

performance of coatings.
 Mechanisms of photochemical degradation of wood surfaces under
coatings.
 Wetting penetration and adhesion of coatings on wood
 Relation between coating properties, formulation and failures of coatings
during use.
 Impact of wood preservation, thermal treatment or chemical wood
modification on performance of coatings.
 Novel application technologies for wood coatings, like powder coating,
radiation curing etc.
WG-leader : Dr Mari de Meijer
2.2.3. WG 2 Performance, durability and environmental impacts of exterior

wood coatings
The overarching objective is to ‘ obtain a better understanding of the factors

which affect the performance, durability and environmental impact of exterior
wood coatings’. In order to translate this into specific deliverables and an action
plan, the following more detailed objectives are proposed: -
1. Establish and rank the specific benefits which different sections of the ‘Wood
Coatings Supply Chain’ would gain from a better understanding of factors
affecting performance and durability.
2. Identify the scientific and technological issues, which underpin the projected
benefits.
3. Using modern knowledge management techniques carry out a ‘meta-analysis’

of available information. Ensure existing information is analysed in a suitable
form to extract maxim benefit. Use the analysis to identify gaps, which would
have high pay back if resolved.
4. Propose new work programmes based on the above gap analysis and seek
sponsorship and funding from EU and other sources.
5. Initiate, support, co-ordinate or manage new ‘SMART’ scientific programmes as

appropriate.
7
6. Disseminate information to COST members directly through networked

contacts, and by other means including seminars and workshops. Use
electronic means such as the Internet where appropriate.
1. Establish a representative working group with extended contacts within the

wood coatings supply chain.
2. Through the working group and their contacts initiate the information analysis
study. This will include information in the public domain as well as new
contributions not previously published. Consultation on the most effective
dissemination routes will also be carried out. At the end of this exercise it must
be ensured that useful information is more readily available to the supply chain,
and that the resolution of any gaps in the knowledge base would have tangible
benefits.
3. New Work Programmes would arise, or be endorsed and prioritised from the
above analysis, with the expectation that the programmes would be ‘SMART’ by
establishing clear links between necessary research and tangible benefits. It
turn this should encourage participation and funding.
4. The scope of the studies will not be restricted to, but will include the following
areas:
 Service Life Prediction and Climatic Index

 Forensic Analysis of existing structures
 Test Methods and their Correlation with Practice
 Moisture dynamics and the control of Movement and Decay
 Microbiological Aspects of fungal spoilage and decay
 Surface Preparation and Application (including ‘adverse’ conditions)
 Maintenance of existing surfaces
 Environmental impacts
WG-leader: Mr. Jon Graystone
2.2.3. WG 3. Performance, durability and environmental impacts of

interior wood coatings
The overarching objectives is to “find technologies: products and processes in

interior uses covering also VOC issues and emissions in use with good
technical performances and at a market price” .In order to translate this into
specific deliverables and an action plan, the following objectives are proposed:
1. Establish new low VOC coatings (raw materials included) and identify
the advantages and disadvantages of these coatings not only with
regards to the VOC but also to the toxicity and the other points of the
environmental parameters such as the wastes.
2. Identify new low VOC process technologies, which allow reductions of

VOC emissions and also compliance with environmental legislation. In
8
these processes are included application devices and drying equipment.

In this part explore new technologies such as ultrasound, supercritical
gas or other technology which may reduce VOC emissions or obtain
best results according to environmental criteria.
3. Study the environmental aspects such as VOC emissions and waste.

For VOC emissions identify methods to measure the VOC, and
processes to destroy them. For waste products identify the kind of waste
and the processes to reduce or recycle them
4. Establish test methods where there is a need for test method

developments (for non-planed surfaces for example) or assessment
procedures.
Consequently:
1. Identify the scientific and technological issues, which underpin the

projected benefits.
2. Then propose new work programmes based on the above gap analysis
and seek sponsorship and founding from EU and other sources
3. Initiate, support, manage new scientific programmes as appropriate
4. Disseminate information to COST members directly through networked

contacts and by other means including seminars and workshops. Use
electronic means such as the Internet where appropriate.
1. Establish a representative working group which extended contacts :

Scientific people, coatings suppliers, application and devices
manufacturers and users (furniture, flooring manufacturers)
2. Create a forum on this thematic in order to obtain tangible benefits
3. Encourage new work programmes to solve any gaps between the

knowledge base and the end-users needs.
WG-leader: Ms. Marie-Lise Roux.
9
3. STATE OF THE ART REPORTS

Based on the exchange of knowledge during the entire action for each of the three
working groups the state of the art is compiled. This knowledge is presented for each
working group in the following sections.
3.1. WOOD COATING INTERACTION (WG1)
3.1.1. Introduction
This paper will summarise the activities within working group 1 covering the following
topics:
 Photodegradation of (coated) wood and ways for protection including wood

modification.
 Substrate wetting and penetration of coatings on wood
 Surface energies and adhesion.
 Impact of surface preparation and coating application.
3.1.2. Photodegradation and protection
3.1.2.1. Mechanism of photodegradation

The mechanism of surface degradation of uncoated wood surfaces is well understood
and described in various review publications. Therefore it is only summarised very
briefly here. The process starts with absorption of light with wavelength up to 450 nm,
meaning the UV and part of the visible light region. The chromophoric groups in the
lignin causes free radical formation inducing initially colour changes and subsequently
depolymerisation of the lignin (see figure 1). If the wood surface is exposed to moisture
the depolymerised components are finally leached out leaving the holocellulose behind.
Figure 1 Mechanism of free radical formation during lignin degradation.
10
The holocellulose if further degraded by chemical and physical processes finally

leading to degradation and erosion of the wood cells. On the wood surface this causes
the erosion of firstly earlywood and secondly of the entire wood surface (see figure 2).
The mechanism of wood surface degradation is widely studied for softwood species.
The role of extractives, in particular those of polyphenolic, tannin like, components is
less well know. If future research in this field is carried out this aspect should get more
attention in order to understand differences in discoloration between various wood
species, in particular hardwoods.
Figure 2 Mechanical breakdown of wood exposed to solar radiation.
3.1.2.2. Protection by coatings and surface treatments
The most effective way of protecting wood surfaces from photodegradation is by

coating with an opaque coating that does not transmit UV or visible light. This also
means that the underlying wood surface and natural colour of the wood is no longer
visible. Since a visual wood surface is often a demanded property of wood in many
application there is a strong requirement for transparently coated wood surfaces. With
the currently commercially available technologies this also means a limited durability
and colour stability. The main reason for such coatings failing prematurely is the UV-
visible light transparency of the topcoat and the sensitivity of the under-lying wood
components due to photo-oxidation of the lignin. The radiation degrades the wood
surface in a similar manner as for uncoated wood (although often at a slower rate)
leading to loss of adhesion of the coating on the degraded surface.
11
Several approaches has been investigated and are partially used in practice. The most
important ones are summarised below
 Addition of inorganic UV-absorbers and stabilisers like transparent iron oxides,

titanium dioxide, zinc oxide, and silica. Cu (II) and Cr (VI) salts, used in wood
preservation, are also known to contribute to photo-stabilising wood. Apart from
environmental concerns for the latter, all these treatments have the disadvantage to
change the colour of the wood to a considerable extent.
 Addition of UV absorbers that selectively absorb light to prevent the deeper coating
layer and the wood-coating interface from photodegradation. Due to the sensitivity
of lignin to longer wavelengths the best protection can be expected from products
absorbing in the range up to 340 to 400 nm. It should also be taking into account
that UV-absorbers only have limited effect on the top of the surface due to the
limited absorption pathway at the top of the coating.
 Addition of HALS that trap free radicals occurring during photodegradation. The use
of HALS is a known technology to protect clear coatings, in particular in
combination with UV-absorbers. Recently specific HALS for trapping free radicals in
lignin degradation are introduced that are capable of stabilising wood surfaces.
Both UV-absorbers and HALS can leach and migrate from the wood surface, in
particular with non-filmforming coatings. Several studies have shown that it is
possible to graft these compounds to the hydroxyl groups of the wood by
isocyanate of epoxide linkages. This leads to an additional protective effect,
especially on longer terms. So far these types of technologies have not been
commercialised, most likely due to high costs and complicated treatment
conditions.
3.1.2.3. Influence of wood modification on photoprotection
Many new wood modification processes have been introduced on pilotplant and (semi)
commercial scale in last decade. Although most treatments are primarily intended to
improve resistance against decay and to reduce dimensional changes most products
show also a change in colour and weathering resistance.
The first, most widely spread group of modification processes is referred to as thermal
or heat treatment under commercial names like: Thermowood, Plato, Retification,
Perdure or Menz treatment. Details of these processes are described elsewhere. The
common principle behind these processes is a chemical change in the wood
components induced by the treatment with heat at various levels of moisture without
the use of added chemicals. Due to the heat treatment the lignin undergoes a colour
change causing the wood surface to become darker. There is relatively limited
knowledge on the colour stability of these heat-treated products. Paintability with
coatings is generally as good or even better than with untreated wood.
The second group of processes is based on impregnation of the wood with a reactive
chemical compound followed by a curing step to graft or crosslink the added chemical,
this mostly occurs at elevated temperatures. Most common types of reactive chemicals
are: anhydrides (most often acetic anhydrides) furfuryl alcohol, DMDHEU and
melamine. For the treatment with acetic anhydride it has been clearly demonstrated
that is improves the colour stability of the wood and in combination with a film forming
clear coat a good exterior durability can be achieved. Uncoated acetylated wood
remain light in colour but still shows surface erosion. This is most likely due to the fact
12
that acetylation prevents the formation of chromophores but can not prevent the
cleavage of the -O-4 ether bonds in the lignin.
Generally it can be stated that the various technologies in the field of wood modification
provide new ways to improve the protection of wood surfaces against chemical and
physical degradation. Combinations of specific coatings or treatments containing UV-
absorbers or radical scavengers might further improve the level of protection. Most
likely, with sufficient future research and development activities, serious improvements
in this field can be expected.
3.1.3. Substrate wetting and penetration of coatings on wood
3.1.3.1. Influence of anatomical structure
If paint is able to flow into the wood cells, three different ways of penetration in can be
distinguished as is schematically shown for softwood in fig 3. Firstly the outer
longitudinal tracheids or vessels are filled directly by coating flowing from the open
ends on the surface. This predominantly occurs in the earlywood. The angle between
length axis of the tracheid and the surface has a strong influence on the importance of
this mechanism. A second way of penetration is through the rays, starting also at the
open cut ends of the ray cells. A third way of penetration is from ray cells to adjacent
longitudinal tracheids in the latewood. The extent of transport from rays to tracheids is
strongly dependent on permeability of the cross-field pits and almost totally limited to
pine sapwood.
The importance of the three penetration mechanisms mentioned above implicates that
penetration of the coating can strongly be influenced by the way in which boards are
sawn out of a log. This because of the impact on differences in flat and standing growth
rings, orientation of grain to the surface, width of early and latewood bands and the
number of rays ending in radial and tangential surfaces. The origin of the wood might
influence penetration because of differences in early- and latewood portions, conditions
of the pits, number of rays and length of longitudinal tracheids or vessels. Drying
conditions of the wood might also have some influence on coating penetration because
of its impact on pit aspiration.
1. flow into open end of longitudinal
tracheid
2. flow into ray tracheid
3. flow into ray parenchyma
4. flow from ray parenchyma into
longitudinal latewood tracheid
5. flow from ray tracheid into
longitudinal tracheid
Fig. 3 Schematic overview of possible coating penetration patterns in softwood
13
Penetration in tropical hardwoods, like e.g. dark red meranti is mainly restricted to the
filling of vessels and the first cells of rays and very occasionally axial parenchym and
sklerenchym. In more permeable hardwood species (e.g. beech) vessels will be filled
deeper and penetration in axial parenchym and sklerenchym is more pronounced. The
filling of a vessel by the coating is strongly reduced if tyloses are present. Extractives
appeared to have none or only a very minor influence on the penetration.
3.1.3.2. Influence of coating formulation, rheology and surface energy
The various studies on penetration show fairly consistent results with respect to
differences in the depth of penetration. Unpigmented oil based paints show the deepest
penetration, especially through rays and adjacent tracheids. This is observed for both
formulations that are solventbased, waterbased or solvent free. Unpigmented alkyd
resins with organic solvent (mostly white spirit) also show a deep penetration.
Emulsions of alkyd resins do penetrate the outer cell layers but clearly to a lesser
extent. The penetration of waterborne acrylic dispersions is very limited. When
pigments are added to the formulations, especially at higher loadings in opaque paints,
the penetration of all types of paints is strongly reduced but the rank-order remains the
same. It should be noted that the pigments itself are still small enough to flow through
the pores, only in cross-fields some clogging might occur.
To understand these differences the underlying mechanism of the capillary flow

process should be considered. The following two cases should be considered:
2 cos   L
L= (1)
r Lg
In this approach the maximum height of capillary rise is determined by the capillary
pressure balanced by the weight of the liquid, and neglecting the effect of viscosity.
Equation 1 predicts a deeper penetration in smaller capillaries. For the very deep
penetrating oil based and unpigmented alkyd paints this is the case with the deepest
penetration in the smaller latewood cells. However for most other products the deepest
penetration is found in the wider earlywood cells. This behaviour is predicted by the
following equation (known as the Washburn equation):
 L cos  r t
L= (2)
2
With the time (t) and liquid viscosity (Please note that equation 1 describes an
equilibrium situation whereas equation 2 is a non-equilibrium, time dependent model.
Equation 2 states that the depth of capillary penetration is proportional to the square
root of: liquid surface tension, cosine of the contact angle between liquid and capillary
wall, diameter of the capillary and the reciprocal liquid viscosity. It should also be noted
that according to equation 2, lowering the surface tension if wetting is complete
(will reduce the penetration rate.
The actual limiting factor for most penetration processes following the Washburn
equation is the increase in viscosity during the capillary penetration process. The
micro-pores in the cell wall of the wood capillaries, with a size of 0.1- 1 nm, will only
allow the lower molecular weight materials like water and solvent to enter the cell wall.
The larger polymeric molecules will remain inside the capillary. The above mentioned
process is visualised schematically in fig.4.The selective removal of solvent or water
during the penetration process will increase the polymer fraction in the liquid and hence
the viscosity of the coating.
14
WOODEN
CELL WALL
FRACTION POLYMER
INCREASING
SELECTIVE
REMOVAL OF
WATER OR
SOLVENT
CAPILLARY
FLOW
OF BINDER
Fig. 4 Schematic overview of the transport processes during penetration of a

liquid containing polymeric material into a wood cell capillary
The increase in viscosity with increasing solids content is strongly dependent on the
physical nature of the polymer. Dispersions show an almost infinite increase in
viscosity at solids contents between 40-60 % depending on the nature and the particle
size distribution of the dispersion. Emulsions will remain lower in viscosity until phase
transition from an oil in water to a water in oil emulsion takes place that corresponds
with a very sharp increase in viscosity. True solutions of polymers in either solvent or
water retain a low viscosity even at high solids content. In some cases the viscosity
might even drop with increasing solids content. A comparison of various types of
binders is given in figures 5a and 5b.
If it comes to capillary penetration of a coating into wood the most important factor
seems the viscosity increase at higher solids content. The rheological behaviour of
coatings at increasing solids content or during drying is not very well understood in
general and only limited work has been published about it. This is not only important for
substrate penetration but also for properties like flow, levelling and open time which are
still issues that require improvement in waterborne decorative coatings.
-1
Fig. 5a Relative viscosity at a shear rate of 0.01 s of an Fig. 5b Viscosity – solids content of a
acrylic dispersion, alkyd emulsion and a solventborne alkyd water soluble modified linseed oil.
binder as a function of binder content.
15
3.1.3.2. Relevance of penetration to performance

Apart from the mechanism of penetration of a coating into wood, its usefulness to the
overall performance should be taken into account. The following relevant aspects are
here discussed in brief:
 Carrier of functional additives like biocides against blue-stain or decay fungi. To be

effective these products need to penetrate in the wood and hence a penetrating
coating is required. It is for this reason that blue-stain primers are often based on
low viscosity, deep penetrating oils.
 Improvement of adhesion by providing mechanical anchoring, this is discussed in

section 2.1.5.
 Improving the exterior durability by applying an impregnating primer. Apart from the
blue-stain and adhesion issues some studies have demonstrated that an
impregnating primer reduces cracking and flaking of the topcoat. This might be
explained by reducing stresses between coating and wood due to the presence of
an intermediate layer.
 Although this aspect has never been described in literature, esthetical aspects like
clarity of grains (‘anfeuerung’) and pore wetting might also be improved by a certain
degree of coating penetration.
3.1.4. Surface energy, wetting and adhesion
3.1.4.1. Surface energy of wood
Measurement of surface energies for wood has received ongoing attention in recent
decades, following the general theoretical developments in this field. The earliest
research was based on measuring critical surface tensions, later followed by
measurements of polar and disperse or non-polar energy components of the surface
energy according to either the geometric or harmonic mean methods. More recently,
the Lifshitz-van-der-Waals and (Lewis) acid-base components were used to measure
the surface free energy. Here the total surface free energy is the sum of the Lifshitz-
van der Waals and the combined acid and base components. In the definition provided
by Lewis, the acidity of a surface is determined by the possibility to accept electrons or
donate protons. The basicity is controlled by the ability to donate electrons and accept
protons. The acid-base interaction does include hydrogen bonding.
The critical surface tension of most wood species lies within a relatively narrow range
of 40 to 55 mJ m-2, although the wood species vary in chemical composition and the
different researchers used various sets of test liquids. The total surface free energy
based on polar and dispersive components shows a larger variation and is generally
higher than the critical surface tensions. The magnitude of the polar and dispersive
components is highly variable. None of the components seem to be consistently
dominant. Even for one specific wood species, the values are highly variable. For
example, the polar surface energy of beech ranges between 19.6 and 53.1 mJ m-2 and
the dispersive component ranges between 6.9 and 32.1 mJ m-2. With the Lifshitz-van
der Waals approach, the total surface free energy is much lower, generally below or
similar to the critical surface tension. The surface free energy is primarily composed of
the Lifshitz-van der Waals component, but most wood species also show a significant
base parameter with only a very low acidic parameter.
16
Apart from differences in calculation methods, a large part of the variation between
different observations might be explained by the complex nature of the wood surface
with respect to contact angle measurements. Firstly, wood is porous which causes a
continuous decrease in contact angle with sessile drop measurements due to capillary
penetration into the wood structure. Secondly the wood structure causes surface
roughness. As a consequence liquid spreading is more pronounced perpendicular then
parallel to the orientation of the wood cells and the roughness of the surface would
affect the measured contact angle data. Differences in spreading between the
smoother latewood area’s and the more rough and porous earlywood areas were also
observed by various authors.
Another complicating factor is the chemical heterogeneity of the wood surface. Apart
from its major constituent’s cellulose (40-50%), hemicellulose (15-25%) and lignin (20-
35%) wood can also contain 5-15 % of material consisting of a wide range of terpenoid,
fatty acid or polyphenolic substances. These so-called extractives can have a strong
negative impact on the wettability of wood surfaces. Because the cell wall components
are not distributed evenly within the cell walls, a spreading liquid will encounter
differences in the chemical composition of the surface depending whether its on the
outside, inside or cross-section of the wooden cell wall. Furthermore water adsorbed
onto the cell wall will always be present in significant amounts; the exact amount will,
however, differ depending on the wood species and the relative humidity of the
environment. Liquids used for the contact angle measurements will also be adsorbed
onto the wooden surface and might even diffuse into it. This means that a thin layer of
liquid vapour will be present in front of the spreading liquid.
3.1.4.1. Wetting by coatings
The wetting of a wood surface by a coating can also be measured directly with a
contact-angle of a sessile drop of coating on a wooden surface. In order to wet the
surface the surface energy of the coating should be lower than that of the wood
(coating < wood). Since most wood surface have a surface energy between 40 and
50 mJ m-2 and most coatings have a surface energy between 30 and 40 mJ m -2 this is
generally no a problem. Apart from the surface energy, the spreading of a coating
droplet might also be restricted by the viscosity. The shape and contact angle of the
spreading contact angle is influenced by capillary penetration under or at the front of
the droplet. The contact angle of a coating decrease rapidly initially reaching an
equilibrium after approximately. In general there is a good correlation between contact
angle and degree of penetration of the coating into the wood.
3.1.5. Adhesion
Understanding, measuring and predicting the adhesion of coatings on wood is rather

complex due to the fact that various mechanisms are involved. Most important topics to
take into consideration are:
 Impact of the measurement technique itself.

 Reduction of the measured adhesion by energy stored in the coating because of
internal stress.
 Work expended in deformation during peeling or torsion of the coating during
measurement.
 Impact of mechanical anchoring an adhesion.
 Influence of moisture in coating or wood.
 Molecular forces between coating and wood that determine the interfacial
adhesion.
17
Sometimes the overall or practical adhesion is referred to as adherence, whereas the

term adhesion is reserved for the interfacial forces between the two materials.Some
workers have suggested that there is no relation between adhesion and penetration.
However, there are many studies on both adhesion of glues and coatings, in which
differences in adhesion between early- and latewood areas correspond to varying
degrees of substrate penetration. Normally the adhesion strength is higher in the
earlywood, which corresponds with its deeper penetration. Adhesion is only higher in
the less penetrated latewood cells, if the wood is preweathered before application of
the coating. This can be explained by the fact the unprotected earlywood degraded
faster during weathering which lead to a weaker bond strength. A very clear example of
the importance of penetration / mechanical anchoring is given in fig. 6a and 6b. In a
peel test the work increases at penetrated earlywood and decreases on latewood.
Also microscopic analysis of the fractured surfaces after a peel or dolly pull-off
adhesion show the importance of mechanical anchoring. Two examples of these are
given in fig. 7a and 7b showing that both the penetrated part of the coating can break
cohesively or can be pulled out of the wood.
350
300
earlywood (higher penetration)
250
adhesion strength J/m2
latewood (lower penetration)
200
150
100
50
0
acrylic1 acrylic2 acrylic3 alkyd-emulsion high solid alkyd solvent alkyd
coating type
Fig. 6a Adhesion as a function of peeled distance on Fig. 6b Peel adhesion strength of various coatings on
pine sapwood with early- and latewood. pine sapwood after exposure to liquid water.
coating
Fig 7a SEM image of a pigmented alkyd Fig. 7 b SEM image of wood with part of a high solid
emulsion paint peeled from wood in a wet alkyd paint that has failed cohesively
adhesion test
It is well known from both practical experiences at scientific research that adhesion of
coatings on wood is much weaker under moist conditions and on wood with a high
moisture content (this will be further referred to as wet adhesion). The difference
between wet and dry adhesion is most pronounced with paints based on acrylic
dispersions, but also waterborne alkyd paints have a lower wet adhesion than
solventborne alkyds. Although the reasons for the weaker wet adhesion is not fully
18
understood some factors can be identified as responsible for lowering the adhesion
under wet conditions.
An important factor is the uptake of moisture in the coating, the swelling of the coating
as a consequence of this and the following build-up of hygroscopic stress. The
relations between stress and adhesion and the level of hygroscopic stress are given by
the following equations:
   wood 
2
=c . E . Wp = WaCW + Wd -  
coating
(3)
1 
 
With the elastic energy () due to stored hygroscopic strain, thickness (c) ,elasticity (E)
and Poisson ratio () of the coating and hygroscopic expansion  (swelling) of coating
or wood for a given change in environmental conditions. The measured peel work of
adhesion (Wp) is a function of: interfacial work of adhesion (WaCW), work expanded in
plastic deformation during peeling (Wd) and elastic energy stored in the coating
because of strain (. This means that is the swelling of the coating is much higher than
that of wood, the stress will be high and might exceed the interfacial adhesion.
In addition to the adhesion reduced by internal stress there might be other factor
leading to a lower wet adhesion. The weak boundary layer theory explains the loss of
adhesion as a failure in an intermediate molecular layer between adhesive and
adherent. This molecular layer consists of low molecular weight impurities of various
origins, including water. This theory has never been verified for wood, but it is known
that low molecular weight extractives can easily migrate to the surface and might
reduce adhesion. Also lower molecular weight fractions in the coating (e.g. surfactants,
thickeners or coalescing agents) can influence wet adhesion because they might cause
a weak boundary layer. Another reason for a decrease in adhesion can come from
depletion at the polymer (coating) – surface interface since a random coil of a polymer
is repelled, entropically from an impenetrable surface. The depletion effect has to be
overcome by adsorption of the polymer to the surface.
Several attempts can be made to improve the adhesion of coatings on wood but most
important seems to improve the adhesion under wet conditions. The following
approaches are described below:
 Pretreatment of the wood by flame-ionisation or plasma- treatment. These

techniques are aiming to increase the surface energy of the wood and to change
the ratio between polar and dispersive components. The improvements in adhesion
with such techniques are limited which seems logical keeping in mind that substrate
wetting is generally not the limiting factor in getting good adhesion. And even if the
wetting of the wood by the coating is incomplete this is more likely to be due to
viscosity effects.
 Incorporation of adhesion promoting monomers in acrylic dispersions. The
monomers used are usually based on (meth)acrylates, maleates, alkyl or vinyl ester
compounds, which carry amino, acetoacetate, cyanoacetae, urea, thiourea or cyclic
urea groups. The working principle of these monomers on wood is not described in
literature but for adhesion on old alkyd paints (with similar poor adhesion) it might
work by the virtue of formation of hydrogen bounds or acid-base interactions.
 Reducing the wateruptake and / or swelling of the coating by crosslinking of the
polymer or reducing the hydrophilicity.
 Chemical crosslinking between coating and wood. In principle various types of
reactive groups in two component coatings like isocyanate or epoxides could also
react with the hydroxylgroups of the wood. So far no commercial products based on
this principle are available but some are claiming formulations based on this
principle.
19
3.1.5. Wood surface preparation and coating application
The wood surface preparation prior to application of a coating has usually received little
attention but might have an important impact on the performance of a coating. Sanding
reduces or even complete prevents the penetration of the coating due to cell
deformation and clogging of capillaries with dust. Rough sawn surface generally show
a higher uptake of paint material and an improved performance because of that.
Following several damage complaints about early cracking of solventborne paints on

softwood studies has been done on the influence of planing conditions on durability of
wood coatings. It was shown that sharp planing knifes are essential to prevent
compression of wood cells during planing. If the compressed cells are coated with a
solventborne paint the cells remain initially compressed but expand during weathering.
Because of the extreme expansion taking place than, most coatings will crack. With
waterborne paints the cells will expand during application of the paint. This will lead to
grain raising and an uneven surface but cracking during service will be prevented. A
comparison of grain raising with water- and solventborne paints is shown in fig. 8.
Coated with Coated with

Exposed solventborne waterborne
to water paint alkyd paint
Fig. 8 Response of compressed wood to water and paints
Air inclusions, or microfoam in the dry film can have significant impact on the integrity
of the coating film. Although the impact of microfoam on performance of the coating
has not been studied systematically it seems fair to assume that it will have a negative
impact on the general performance. The presence of air inclusions is of particular
importance with spray applied waterborne coatings. Factors influencing the size and
amount of microfoam are: amount and effectiveness of defoamers and deaerators in
the paint, type of spray equipment and conditions during spraying.
20
3.1.6. Conclusions and gaps in knowledge
The state of the art within the scope of WG 1 of COST E18 has been briefly
summarised. From the present knowledge the following can concluded.
 The mechanism of photochemical degradation of wood is known to a large extent,

both on a chemical as on an ultrastructural and anatomical level. The only aspect
that has received less attention is the role of extractives in the photodegradation
process.
 The most important gap in knowledge is how to prevent photochemical degradation
of wood in order to improve service life of transparently coated wooden materials.
Specific types of chemical wood modification might be able to overcome this
problem but most technologies are still in a very experimental stage and practical
applicability is not known. The use of UV absorbers and HALS specifically designed
to photo-stabilise the wood might be another option.
 The mechanism of coating penetration into wood is known, including the relevant
factors for both wood and coating. For a coating the rheology during drying seems
to be the most relevant factors. The rheology of a coating during drying is hardly
studied, although this seems to be a relevant issue for properties like flow, levelling
and open time. It has been demonstrated that penetration of the coating into wood
has a beneficial effect on adhesion and overall exterior durability.
 The surface energy of wood surfaces has been widely studied but contradictionary
results are often found. This can be explained by the fact that most of the
underlying theoretical assumptions are not fulfilled in case of wood. Furthermore
the results found can not properly be related to the observed adhesion of wetting
phenomena of coatings on wood.
 Adhesion of coatings on wood under wet conditions is often critical, in particular for
waterborne paints. A good understanding why adhesion is reduced by moisture is
still a gap in knowledge.
 The wood surface preparation and the application conditions of a paint can have a
significant impact on the condition of the wood coating interface and its overall
performance. However a good understanding of the most important parameters to
avoid failures is lacking.
3.1.7. References and bibliography
George B., E. Suttie, A. Merlin, X. Deglise, Photodegradation and photostabilisation of wood

(state of the art) COST E 18 – WG1 - Paris - April 2004.
Rogez D., Colour stabilisation of wood and durability improvement of wood coatings, COST E
18 – WG1 - Paris - April 2002.
Homan W.J., Wood modification, state of the art 2004, ) COST E 18 – WG1 - Paris - April 2004.
de Meijer M., A review of interfacial aspects in wood coatings: wetting, surface energy,
substrate penetration and adhesion, COST E 18 – WG1 - Paris - April 2004.
Svane, P. Application methods and equipment – influence on performance, COST E 18 – WG1

- Paris - April 2004.
Grull, G., F. Tscherne, I. Schweiger, T. Anderl, Air inclusions in coating films, COST E 18 –
WG1 - Paris - April 2004.
21
Selected bibliography wetting, surface energy and adhesion
Ahola P., Adhesion between paint and wood substrate, JOCCA 74 (5), (1991) 173-176
Bardage S. L. and J. Bjurman, Adhesion of waterborne paints to wood, J. of Coatings Tech. 70

(878) (1998) 39-47
Beetsma, J. Alkyd paints: from the ease of organic solvents to the difficulties of water, XXIIth
Fatipec Conference Budapest Vol 2, 1994, 157-167
Boxall J., Exterior wood finishes: performance testing by accelerated natural weathering,
JOCCA (2) (1984), 40-44.
Chen, C-M.; Effect of extractive removal on adhesion and wettability of some tropical woods,
Forests Products Journal, 20 (1), 1970, 36-41.
de Meijer M., K. Thurich and H. Militz, Comparative study on penetration characteristics of

modern wood coatings, Wood Sci. Technol. 32 (1998), 347-365
de Meijer M. and H. Militz, Wet adhesion of low-voc coatings on wood a quantitative analysis,
Progress in Organic Coatings, 2000, 223-240.
de Meijer M., S. Haemers, W. Cobben and H. Militz, Surface energy determinations of wood,
Langmuir 16, 9352-9359 (2000)
de Meijer M., K. Thurich, H. Militz, Quantitative measurements of capillary coating penetration

in relation to wood and coating properties Holz als Roh- und Werkstoff 59 (2001) 35 - 45
Meijer M., B. van de Velde, H. Militz, Rheological Approach to the cappillary penetration of
coating into wood, J. Coating Technology 2001, 39-50
de Meijer M., Mechanisms of failure in exterior wood coatings, 3thd PRA Wood Coatings
Conference, The Hague (2002).
Ekstedt J. Influence of Coating Additives on Water Vapour Absorption and Desorption in

Norway Spruce, Holzforschung, 2002, 6, Pages 663–668
Gardner, D.J.; Application of the Lifshitz-van der Waals acid-base approach to determine wood
surface tension components, Wood and Fiber Science 28 (4), 1996, 422-428
Gnatowski, M., Method for protecting wood surfaces and a wood product produced thereby,
Patent WO 93/19858, 1993
Gray, V.R.; The wettability of wood, Forest Products Journal, 12 (9), 1962, 452-461
Herczeg, A. Wettabilty of wood, Forest Products Journal, 15 (11), 1965, 499-505
Jaic M. and R. Zivanovic, The influence of the ratio of the polyurethane coating components on
the quality of finished wood surface, Holz als Roh- und Werkstoff 55 (1997) 319-322.
Jansen M.L., Performance testing of exterior wood primers, JOCCA 5 (1986) 117-128
Kambanis S.M. and G. Chip, Polymer and paint properties affecting wet adhesion, J. of
Coatings Technol. 53 (682) (1981) 57-64
Liptáková, E.; Kúdela, J.; Bastl, Z.; Spirovová, I.; Influence of mechanical surface treatment of
wood on the wetting process, Holzforschung, 49, 1995, 369-375;
Löfflath, F.; Gebhard, M. Rheological changes during the drying of a waterborne latex coating,
Journal of Coatings Technology, 69 (867), 1997, 55-66
22
Loon J. van (1966) The interaction between paint and substrate. Journal of the Oil and Color
Chemists Association (49): 844-867
Nguyen, T.; Johns, W.E.; Polar and dispersion force contributions to the total surface free
energy of wood, Wood Science and Technology, 12, 1978, 63-74
Nienhuis J. G., M.A.J. Akkerman, Durable systems for wooden window frames, Surface
Coatings Int. , 2002 123-129.
Nussbaum R.M. (1994) Penetration of water-borne alkyd emulsions and solvent-borne alkyds
into wood. Holz als Roh- und Werkstoff 52: 389-393
Nussbaum R.M., The critical time limit to avoid natural surface inactivation of spruce surfaces
(Picea Abies) intended for painting and gluing, Holz als Roh- und Werkstoff 53 (1995) 384
Nussbaum, R.M., E.J. Sutcliffe and A.C. Hellgren, Microautoradiographic studies of the
penetration of alkyd, alkyd emulsion and linseed oil coatings into wood , J. of Coatings Technol.
70 (878) (1998) 49-57
Richter K., Feist W.C., Knaebe, M.T. (1995), The effect of surface roughness on the
performance of finishes. Part 1. Roughness characterization and stain performance. Forest
Products Journal 45 (7/8):91-97
Rijckaert V., M. Stevens, J. Van Acker Effect of some formulation parameters on the penetration
and adhesion of water-borne primers into wood. Holz als Roh- und Werkstoff 59 (2001) 344 –
350
Rijckaert V., M. Stevens, J. Van Acker,. M. de Meijer and H. Militz Quantitative assessment of
the penetration of water-borne and solvent-borne wood coatings in Scots pine sapwood, Holz
als Roh- und Werkstoff 59 (2001) 278 – 287
Rødsrud G. and E.J. Sutcliff, Alkyd emulsions-properties and application. Results from
comparative investigations of penetration and aging of alkyds, alkyd emulsions and acrylic
disperions, Surf. Coat. Int. 77 (1) (1994), 7-16
Schneider M.H. (1980) Microscopic distribution of linseed oil after application to wood surface.
Journal of Coatings Technology 52 (665): 64-67
Schneider M.H., Cote W.A. (1967) Studies of wood and coating interactions using fluorescence
microscopy and pyrolysis gas-liquid chromatography. Journal of Paint Technology 39 (511):
465-471
Schneider M.H., Sharp A.R. (1982) A model for the uptake of linseed oil by wood. Journal of
Coatings Technology 54 (693): 91-96.
Scheikl, M.; Dunky, M.; Measurement of dynamic and static contact angles on wood for the
determination of its surface tension and the penetration of liquids into the wood surface,
Holzforschung, 52, 1998, 89-94
Schwarts M., R. Baumstark, Waterbased acrylates for decorative coatings, 2001, Vincentz.
Shen, Q.; Nylund, J.; Rosenholm J.B.; Estimation of the surface energy and acid-base propeties
of wood by means of wetting method, Holzforschung, 52, 1998, 521-529
Singh, B. et al Novel wet adhesion monomers for use in latex paints, Progress in organic
coatings 34, 1998, 214-219
Smulski S., Côté W.A. (1984) Penetration of wood by a water-borne alkyd resin. Wood Science
and Technol. 18: 59-75
Thay P.D. and P.D. Evans, The adhesion of an acrylic primer to weathered radiata pine
surfaces, Wood and Fiber Science 30 (2) (1998) 198-204.
23
Tjeerdsma B.F., W. Cobben, Wood machining and cell derformation (in dutch), SHR report
1.157, 2002
Underhaug A., T.J.Lund and K. Kleive, Wood protection - the interaction between substrate and
product and the influence on durability, JOCCA (11) (1983), 345-350
Van den Bulcke J., V. Rijckaert, J. Van Acker, et al. Quantitative measurement of the
penetration of water-borne coatings in wood with confocal lasermicroscopy and image analysis,
Holz als Roh- und Werkstoff 61(2003): 304 – 310
Wålinder M., Wetting Phenomena on Wood, Doctoral thesis, Royal Inst. Technol., Stockholm
(2000)
Williams R.S.and W.C. Feist, Durability of paint or solid-color stain applied to preweathered
wood, Forest Prod. J. 43 (1) (1993) 8-14
24
3.2. PERFORMANCE OF EXTERIOR WOOD COATINGS (WG 2)
3.2.1. Introduction:
It is an objective of COST Action E18 to bring about improvements in wood coating

performance by the co-ordination and integration of available knowledge, as well as the
identification of ‘gaps’ where further work will be beneficial to the European market.
The term ‘performance’ is a broad one and could be applied to aspects ranging from
longevity of the coating system, ease of maintenance and operational factors such as
application under adverse conditions. As has been noted in a previous paper [1] the
significance and value of any improvements in performance must be judged in the
context of a specific supply chain sector. However there can be little doubt that from
the perspective of the end-user (customer or consumer), the service life, or durability,
of a coating system is one of the most important performance attributes. But even the
best systems cannot last forever, and the requirement for a long service life is also
combined with a need that eventual failure should be progressive rather than
catastrophic, enabling maintenance to be carried out in the most cost effective manner.
When describing the behaviour of coating systems during their life cycle a distinction
can be made between a ‘performance factor’ and a ‘property’. Performance factors are
the criteria by which users judge fitness for purpose. They might include appearance
change, dirt pick-up, retention of integrity etc. Such factors lie at the top of a
hierarchical ladder moving from phenomenological to fundamental properties. Many of
the latter have been described in the previous paper and will include for example
mechanical properties, surface energy, UV resistance and many others. In order to
improve performance properties must be optimised. Some, such as UV resistance,
may be maximised for best effect, but others including elastic modulus need to lie
within an optimum band. For a specific property, attainment of the optimum values is a
necessary, but not sufficient condition, for good performance. In some cases the
correlation between a property and performance is sufficiently strong that it may be
possible to speak of ‘improved properties’ as being synonymous with improved
performance.
However this is not always the case and much fundamental work is directed at
understanding the causal links between properties and performance. Once such a link
is established it can greatly facilitate the development of improved products. However
the complex nature of the relationship between properties and performance still
requires validation of the latter by essentially phenomenological testing, such as
weathering and other types of exposure. In consequence of this the E18 activities on
exterior coatings were divided between two overlapping working groups WG1 and
WG2. The former has concentrated on more fundamental aspects of wood coating
interaction, while the latter has focussed on more technological aspects. However the
division is arbitrary and the two groups have worked closely together with shared
conference and workshop activities (see Bibliography). Taken together the findings of
WG1 and WG2 present a broad view of the ‘state of the art’ in exterior wood coating
performance. The following account will concentrate on
 Durability and service life

 Measurement, testing and Prediction
 Influence of Moisture on performance
 Microbiological aspects of coated wood
25
3.2.2. Discussion
3.2.2.1. Durability and Service Life:
During the past decade or more there have been substantial improvements in the
service life and performance of coated artefacts. Motorcars are a good example. The
corrosion and coating performance problems of the 50's and 60's have been largely
overcome and manufacturers are able to guarantee extended warranties. This is not
true to anything like the same extent for exterior wood, especially, for example, window
joinery. In both factory painted joinery, and for maintenance painting there exists a high
level of customer dissatisfaction. A factor reflected in the growth of uPVC, as a
replacement for windows and for other joinery.
There are reasons why windows present a particular challenge. Wood as a natural
material is a difficult substrate, with differences arising from species, grain orientation,
heartwood sapwood ratio and so on. There are many other causal factors that can
influence performance including design, the nature of previous coatings and the
exposure history. An overarching problem is that of the weather itself. As an
uncontrolled variable, climatic influences are difficult to separate from other sources of
experimental variance. The result is poor test capability, in terms of both repeatability
and reproducibility. This is a problem that has bedevilled the development of European
performance standards.
Paint and other surface coatings also differ from many other industrial products in that
they are supplied as an intermediate. Final performance, or service life, will be
contingent on many factors both upstream at the manufacturing stage, and
downstream during application and conversion or curing. It would also be true to say
that a user’s perspective on wood coatings is often governed by issues of maintenance
carried out under relatively uncontrolled conditions, in comparison with factory
application. Issues of maintenance are discussed in a later paper at this conference.
In the context of the COST objectives, which include the encouragement of further
productive work, it is pertinent to assess the value of improvements both in durability,
and the ability to predict performance. Only by considering the whole supply chain can
these be fully assessed. Benefits will include shorter development times, reduced risks,
low maintenance and many others, according to the perspective taken [1].
3.2.2.2. Service Life Issues
‘Service Life’ is a difficult concept to fully quantify and overlaps with concepts of
durability and reliability. Paint has both protective and aesthetic functions. A premature
‘failure’ in either function is likely to be judged harshly by the end user. When a failure
is ‘catastrophic’ or unequivocal, as for example with an electrical fuse, it is relatively
easy to collect and quantify data on the frequency and distribution of the events. In the
coatings industry the point at which failure is deemed to have occurred is less sharply
defined. Expectations, as well as values that may be physically measured, will
influence the exact point at which for example gloss loss or colour change is deemed
unacceptable. The same is true of other failure modes such as flaking, film cracking
and mould growth.
Another complication is that coated artefacts have alternative failure modes. It is the
mode that first reaches a level of unacceptability, which would be judged as dominant.
The dominant mode will however be subject to service conditions. It is thus possible to
talk of an ‘outcome’ determining step as well as a rate-determining step in failure.
26
Analysis of failure is often helped by the construction of a fault-tree in which causal

factors are
arranged in a hierarchical relationship [2]. At the top of the hierarchy are the basic
faults such as design, substrate, formulation, distress factors, climate, and application.
Each of these is sub-divided into progressively more fundamental causes, which at the
limit could extend to the molecular level.
Fault tree analysis emphasises how many factors might influence performance, if these
are not controlled they will manifest themselves as a high variability and often
interpreted as experimental error. A major problem in even simple weathering tests is
to separate unwanted influences from the factors being studied. Thus in simple panel
tests it is very difficult to separate climatic influences from formulation factors and the
contribution from the substrate. This has been a problem with the EN 927-3:2000
weathering test, and may be masking important information about product
performance. If variability is not controlled it leads to an unacceptably level of
replication in order to gain discrimination. It also implies a wide range of performance in
real conditions. Reducing variability is therefore as important a target as increasing the
mean value of the chosen performance factor. Techniques such as ‘Variance
Component Analysis’ can be used to quantify the contribution of different factors and
are invaluable in defining the relationship between specification limits and test
precision.
A fundamental question is the relationship between different types of testing, and the
extent to which they should correlate. Test methods can be divided into two broad
groups:
 Property Tests
 Phenomenological Performance Tests
Property tests might include mechanical properties such as modulus and extensibility,
adhesion, permeability and various resistance tests including UV. Phenomenological
tests such as natural weathering are more concerned with assessments at a practical
level with user-based criteria dominating. In one sense the latter validate the former
when used to predict performance. There is some overlap but the former can only be
used is product standards, or specifications, when the link between property and
performance is unequivocal.
Performance tests such as weathering have a further hierarchy, some of which may be
subjected to artificial and accelerating regimes:
 Simple panel tests

 Modified panels
 Jointed test pieces
 Constructions (such as window frames)
 Test houses
 Real buildings
Much product development is carried out using panel tests, but an AIR Project [3] and
other work have shown that there is often no straightforward correlation between these
options. This is clearly a cause for concern and requires further investigation.
Another aspect of assessment that contributes to test variability is the extent to which
assessors can discriminate consistently where scales are non-linear, and range over
different orders of magnitude. (E.g. Assessment of cracking, chalking, blistering and
their relative importance). Visual scales can be useful but there is probably scope for
greater use of image analysis and related techniques.
27
The issue of whether service life should be predicted from property analysis or
phenomenological studies is an important one and can be related to concepts used in
reliability studies. Essentially such studies can be probabilistic or deterministic. The
latter requires causal understanding of the factors involved while the former does not.
Probabilistic Reliability Deterministic Reliability

Studies overall failure rates independently Studies individual failure mechanisms as a
of causes function of time.
Used to predict failure for e.g. maintenance Investigates failure at component, or

scheduling, spare part stocks causal level.
Studies system reliability, e.g. through Tries to eliminate failure at the causal level
redundancy, fault elimination etc
Concerned with multiple failure rate Concerned with single failure distributions
distributions and the impact of random events.
Probabilistic reliability methods are widely used in military, aerospace and

telecommunication specification. There are many published equations, some specific to
individual manufacturers. Most equations are based on a constant rate assumption with
an exponential distribution. The basic failure rate is modified by factors for
environmental stress and operating conditions that are determined empirically. Such
methods have had a major impact on the reliability of manufacture products. Among
the possible shortcomings are the time to accumulate enough data and the
mathematical assumptions such as constant failure rate. The influence of temperature
is very important and is studied probabilistically rather than in terms of the activation
energy for specific failure modes.
In deterministic reliability some of the calculations are the same and may be based on
lognormal and other distributions as noted later. Deterministic methods require realistic
system requirements in terms of the life expectancy, and the identification of a “critical
usage parameter” (i.e. the correct portion of the fault tree). In deterministic studies it is
essential that there is a conceptual model around which the failure mode can be
analysed. Fundamental mechanistic aspects will suggest provide a basis for modelling.
Ageing Effects:
Physical ageing affects many substances including polymers, and is described as a

change in a property as a function of storage time under no influence from external
conditions [4]. Physical ageing therefore involves reversible changes in contrast to the
irreversible changes associated with chemical or biological ageing. Mechanisms of
physical ageing are often linked to free volume and service temperature in relation to
Tg. Thus adjustment of the Tg is an important tool when designing polymeric binders
for wood coatings.
In contrast with ageing, polymers may also undergo degradation and in some cases
further cross-linking in response to external conditions. The effects of UV, water and
temperature have all been widely studied in the context of durability. However the
correlation of this data to service life prediction also requires knowledge of the stress or
damage regimes that the coating will encounter. ‘Correlation’ is a widely used
technique in establishing causal relationships, but one with potential pitfalls (see
regression analysis below).
A useful approach in failure studies is to consider the chain of events that ultimately
leads to failure. What was the immediately preceding step and how far back can its
influence be traced? The initial effects of ageing, or degradation are seldom apparent
to the naked eye. Studies of the causal chain may allow modern instrumental
28
techniques to predict performance at a much earlier stage. Where concurrent events

are linked they may be described as a ‘time series’ [15], and this has important
consequences for data analysis.
Accelerated Methods:
All service life and durability predictions require data and in the case of exterior
weathering data acquisition may be a major factor in the length of the product
development cycle. One way of generating the necessary data is to have an extensive
outdoor exposure program preferably under service conditions. This is expensive and
does not give fast feed back, particularly for new technologies and where the desired
lifetime is a long one. Thus to meet the objective of shortening development cycles
other approaches are used such as:-
 Artificial accelerated weathering

 Intensified natural weathering
 Extrapolation from early results
 Mechanistic studies
All these approaches require some kind of quantified interpretation; hence statistics
and model building have an important role to play. In general however, although the
coating industry uses all of these methods there is a great deal of truth in the assertion
that the industry, and its customers are wary of laboratory-based tests. Natural
weathering is preferred, with its attendant disadvantages of poor repeatability and
reproducibility as well as long lead times. This is in marked contrast with electronics,
aeronautical and medical industries, and indeed it is hard to see how these latter
industries could have grown so fast without considerable reliance on predictive
laboratory testing.
When the coating industry uses artificial weathering it nearly always uses a
methodology, which requires the construction of a ‘black box’ where, conditions such
as temperature, UV and water are set to provide a correlation with external factors.
CEN TC/129 have supported the development of an improved cycle for wood finishes
[5]. This approach is not without criticism and many studies have failed to find a
satisfactory correlation between accelerated and natural weathering. Artificial testing
can however be useful for intermediate screening studies and for comparing similar
and established coating chemistries.
A common feature of much artificial weathering is the use of ‘proven standards’ to

provide an internal reference, essentially the results are ‘relative’ rather than ’absolute’,
and it is the ‘rank order’ rather than the service-life that is emphasised. This distinction
is important when it comes to assessing the merits of different methodologies. With
sufficient data it may be possible to establish an acceleration, or ‘shift’ factor [38] to
predict real time durability. However, a problem for new technologies is that there is not
sufficient statistically significant data; moreover it is not uncommon when comparing
the performance of different ‘standards’ especially those embodying different
chemistries, to encounter rank reversals between different climatic zones, or artificial
regimes. The frequency of both real and apparent reversals is the key challenge that
accelerated testing must meet. It is equivalent to poor correlation and indicates either
an inappropriate test cycle, or a lack of understanding of the underlying causal factors.
One potential solution is to base analysis on a cumulative damage model, with proper
dosage metrics. Where acceleration is by artificial means a need for a closer match
between the spectral power distribution of the source, and natural sunlight, has been
identified [6].
29
An alternative approach to traditional natural or artificial weathering techniques is to

use the tools associated with reliability theory. A particular proponent of this approach
is Martin and co-workers [7,8]. The key elements of the arguments against the
traditional approach may be summarised as:
 Practical coating failures invariably show a wide and often non-normal

distribution.
 Incidents of early failure may have more practical significance than average
service life.
 Outdoor exposure conditions are not reproducible.
 Quantification of exposure environments (natural or artificial) is poor.
 Durability data is multivariate.
 There is no a priori reason to expect correlation between different coating
chemistries under different service conditions whether natural or artificial.
There is an underlying assumption in much accelerated testing that raising the level of
a ‘stress’ such as UV radiation will simply increase the rate at which changes occur
such that the damage depends on the total absorbed energy, and is therefore
independent of radiant intensity and exposure time. This is known as a ‘reciprocity law’,
a practical example is manifested in the aperture/speed ratios for exposing film in a
camera. A recent review [9] outlines many exceptions to the simple assumption. At
various radiant flux thresholds different reciprocity relationships have been observed,
indicating that alternative, system dependent degradation paths have been followed. A
model based on band theory has been proposed to explain this behavior and to
complement photochemical mechanisms.
High temperature is often deemed the enemy of reliability, because it causes

premature failure. For the same reason it is a useful accelerating factor but requires a
normalising model such as the Arrhenius relationship [10]. It is well known that the
colour of a surface coating will strongly affect the temperature, and this has had
significant effects in the performance of coating systems. Differences in colour,
between for example white and brown coatings, may lead to different moisture contents
and subsequent movement and/or fungal growth. The use of colour as a means to
induce systematic temperature change in weathering investigations is an area that has
been neglected.
It is often the case that the damaging effects on natural weather are caused by the
combination of solar radiation and wetness from rain and dew. Models, which take
these factors into account as damage indices, have shown good predictive power [11].
However it is to be stressed that it is the temperature, UV absorbance, time of wetness
etc., of the actual specimen, and not the ambient conditions that must be use in the
model.
Both temperature and moisture levels may change photoconductance and would be
expected to alter the photodegradation reciprocity relationship.
The problem of spectral power distribution in artificial exposure testing was noted
earlier [6]. Another problem is that of non-uniform distribution of radiation over the
specimen surface. The use of an integrating sphere construction has shown promise in
addressing this issue [12].
Mathematical Aspects of Service Life Prediction:
Interpretation of both natural and artificial weathering requires a mathematical model.

Such models range from the empirical or statistical, to full ‘ab-initio’ physical models. In
some circumstances the choice of analytical technique will depend on the nature of the
data that is collected, but often the technique will influence the experimental design.
30
For example, reliability methodologies often require more panels to be exposed than is
common for simple comparative weathering, these are typically withdrawn on reaching
a defined end point, rather than being allowed a fixed term of exposure. This is a more
realistic approach to service life since it is unlikely that at a given time all components
of a structure will have failed.
The following techniques are all used in the analysis and modeling of durability and
reliability data and related test methods: -
 Statistics and Experimental Design
 Regression
 Non parametric statistics
 Time Series Forecasting
 Reliability Methodologies
 Failure Modeling
 Bayesian Methods
The applicability of these techniques to performance prediction have been reviewed

[13] and is to be included in the COST E18 final ‘state of art’ report. Mathematical
issues are common to all scientific disciplines, and it may be noted that there has
always been dialectic between theoretical and statistical approached to data analysis
[14]. Experimental testing of wood coatings often involves the use of statistics but there
is a particular problem in identifying the causes of high variation associated with
weathering.
Regression analysis is one of several methods to investigate the relationship between

two variables, it is widely used in weathering studies, including the establishment of
relationships between artificial and natural weathering. Much analysis assumes a linear
correlation, there are usually other implicit assumptions about errors being
independent, normally distributed and with zero mean. If these are not true then
caution is indicated. Care is also needed in the interpretation of correlation coefficients,
which are a measure of linear association. A high value does not guarantee the validity
of a relationship for predictive purposes; they will not be appropriate if the relationship
is non-linear. Techniques for examining residual errors can give useful clues about
deviations from linearity. An essential element of normal regression analysis is the
assumption that measurements carried out at different times are independent. This is
clearly not the case in much coating degradation (e.g. gloss loss) where the next result
clearly depends to a large degree on the previous one and the order of observation
must be taken into account. The residual errors in a time series are correlated, and this
provides a mathematical tool to investigate the data. Time series analysis [15] is a
potentially useful technique that has received relatively little attention in the coating
industry.
The question of how prior knowledge should be used has become controversial to
statisticians. Classical statistics views probabilities as being long-term relative
frequencies, whereas in Bayesian statistics probabilities are conditional on certain prior
information or evidence. Some statisticians have seen this as allowing a subjective
element to enter the analysis. The consequences of Bayesian methods can be quite
profound. For example consider the situation if a test predicting a particular outcome is
90% accurate, but the known probability of that outcome is one in a hundred. A positive
result in the test means that the likelihood of the outcome according to Baye’s theorem
is only 1 in 12 (not 9 in 10). This is because the posterior probability has been taken
into account. The use of prior information in accelerated testing is discussed by Meeker
& Escobar [16] and shows how Bayesian methods can be used to enable information
on activation energy for a failure mode to be used in analysis. Clearly the ability to use
prior knowledge can increase the cost effectiveness of an investigation. As with other
statistical techniques a sensitivity analysis on the effect of inputs to any model is
advised.
31
3.2.2.3. Measurement and Testing Issues:

Testing is at the heart of the scientific method; under the auspices of COST a
symposium on the measurement of wood coating properties was organised in
Copenhagen [17]. The results of this symposium will form a component of the final
report. An overarching theme for all testing methods is the issue of how variance can
be controlled and translated into meaningful test specifications. Although it may not
seem a ‘state of art’ issue to describe mundane details of test capability, there is ample
evidence from both standards development work, and research projects, that this issue
is not being properly addressed.
It has been common in the past to describe variance as ‘error’, and to divide this into
systematic and random errors. This is often derogated, and the term ‘common cause’,
and ‘special cause’ variation are preferred in order to make a distinction between
‘mistakes’, and the variance that is often part of the normal process of measurement.
Variance is perceived by differences in results obtained in measuring the same

phenomenon more than once. Common-cause variation in a process or test method is
due to the process itself and is produced by interactions of variables of that process,
not a disturbance in the process. It can be removed only by making basic changes, e.g.
by selecting a more accurate balance if the test involves weighing. Special-cause
variation results from attributable causes. Special-cause variation is intermittent,
unpredictable, and unstable. It is not inherently present in a system; rather, it arises
from causes that are not part of the system as designed.
The distinction is not always sharp, and by investigation it may be possible to translate
from special, to common-cause variation. For example in panel exposure the climate
and exposure could be ignored in coating system testing. This would lead to a large
special cause variation that could be reduced by exposing all panels at the same site.
Alternatively the variance could be treated as a response and incorporated into a
dosage model.
Another example is the wood species. Not to specify the species would lead to a large
common-cause variation, and would make comparison between products almost
impossible. The obvious solution is to make the variation attributable by tightly
specifying the species and other parameters such as grain angle etc., as is the case in
EN 927-3. However the variability in wood is such that there still remains a relatively
high common-cause variation with consequences in reproducibility, repeatability and
interpretation of results. Moreover as is explained below there will also be a given
probability that an acceptable product (based on prior knowledge) will fall outside a test
specification unless an unrealistically large number of test samples is used.
Common cause variance influences the accuracy of results, while special cause errors
will affect the precision of the results. Accuracy is the difference between the average
measurement of a sample and its ‘true’ value, while precision is the variation in
measurements observed with a test method while measuring the same sample multiple
times on the same instrument by the same operator
It is always desirable to reduce variance, and this can be studied using a statistical
technique such as ‘variance component analysis’. This enables the contribution of each
cause to be identified (preparation, substrate, conditioning etc.) allowing effective
action to be taken. Wherever possible special cause variation should be made
negligible with respect to common cause and in general large sources of variance
should be treated before smaller ones. Despite the many years of studying the
interaction between wood and different coatings there seems much that has yet to be
quantified in relation to the specific and species dependent factors that influence
coating performance, and therefore create the testing problems that are the inevitable
result of high variance.
32
3.2.2.4. Influence of Moisture on Performance:
Water absorption will modify the physical properties of coatings and may cause
chemical change; transmission through the coating also causes swelling, shrinkage
and movement of the substrate. Moisture supports surface moulds, and more seriously
if above 20%, will allow the development of decay fungi including the structurally
damaging Basidiomycetes group. Consequently the moisture transmission rate
(permeability) of wood coating systems has been a subject of investigation over many
years. Despite this past work it has never been unequivocally clear if there is an
optimum permeability range that coatings should meet for specific end-uses in specific
climatic zones.
With so many choices of wood coatings what governs the user’s choice? Clearly
products ranging from low to high build, or from opaque to transparent cannot be
expected to perform equally. For a given technology a properly formulated opaque
coating will always be more durable than a transparent one, hence the decision to use
a clear ‘varnish’ for aesthetic reasons carries the penalty of more frequent
maintenance. The comparison between a low build and high build coating is less clear-
cut. Generally the higher build coating will last longer than the lower build. However the
comparison must also involve operational considerations such as ease and frequency
of maintenance.
There is also the issue of user expectations. A high PVC ‘Red Paint’ is widely used
Sweden, and elsewhere and has enormous cultural significance [18]. Yet the high
permeability of Swedish Red Paint is seemingly at variance with many of the
requirements of moisture control, and indeed inspection of coated buildings will often
show substantial wood cracking. While this might be acceptable in some structures it
would not be appropriate for softwood window joinery. So clearly the issue of
permeability and moisture control can never be considered independently from
customer needs and expectations.
Some of the issues and questions raised about moisture permeability were reviewed at
the 1st Hague Conference [19]. More recently at the final COST E18 Seminar this was
updated by Ekstedt [20], from which the following account is drawn.
Moisture Transport Mechanisms:
Transport of liquid water in organic polymers is mainly controlled by diffusion (e.g. Siau
1984; Bagda 1990; Thomas 1991 – see alphabetical bibliography for references). The
diffusion through the matrix due to a concentration gradient can be of two different
mechanisms, activated diffusion through the homogenous polymer matrix and non-
activated diffusion through pores and defects (i.e. sub-microscopic pathways). In non-
porous films, water transport occurs through activated diffusion whereas in porous films
capillary transport occurs to a larger extent resulting in higher permeability. This may
be the reason waterborne coatings with more porous films often show higher
permeability. Water-borne coatings will also contain soluble materials, which also
contribute to high permeability, and complicate testing as they are gradually leached
from the film.
Adding pigments to a polymer matrix (i.e. opaque coating) will lower the permeability
since normal pigments are inorganic substances with “non-permeable” properties, as
long as the pigment volume concentration (PVC) is below the critical pigment volume
concentration (CPVC). Well-dispersed, non-hydrophilic, impermeable pigments reduce
the diffusion of water through the coating by increasing the volume fraction of
impermeable substances in the coating (Hare 1997). In practice the reverse may occur.
If incomplete dispersion, flocculation, irregular distribution, poor bonding between
pigment and resin or non-ideal pigmentation, (e.g. hydrophilic pigments) exist, these
33
non-ideal conditions can even lead to an overall increase in moisture transport through
the coating with increasing PVC (van der Wel and Adan 1999). Some pigments are
hydrophilic in nature and some degree of flocculation may occur due to improper
dispersion. Adding surfactants, which in turn may coat the pigments with water-
sensitive layers, normally solves flocculation. The
work by Michaels (1965) indicates that the water absorption through the interfaces
between pigment and polymer matrix is substantially greater than the water transport
through the polymer matrix. The use of chemically surface-modified pigments may, in
part, solve this problem.
The diffusion in the homogenous polymer matrix can be divided into three basic cases
(Blahník 1983):
 Case I or Fickian diffusion, where the speed of diffusion is much smaller than the
speed of relaxation in the polymer
 Case II diffusion, where the speed of diffusion is very fast in comparison with
relaxation processes
 Non-Fickian diffusion, which appears when the speed of diffusion and relaxation
are comparable
The change from one diffusion mechanism to another may take place when the
polymer changes its physical state, for example passes the glass transition
temperature (Tg) where relaxation processes change considerably. Absorption of
substances that plasticizes the polymer film has also been found to increase the
diffusion coefficient. Michaels (1965) concludes that for polymers capable of absorbing
less that about 5% of water, the diffusion coefficient for water is essentially
independent of water content or relative humidity. For polymers absorbing more than
5% of water, the diffusion coefficient tends to increase rapidly with water content due to
the fact that water itself gives swelling and plasticization to the polymer. Deviation from
Fickian diffusion may be due to the fact that certain penetrant molecules bind to certain
active localities in the polymer matrix and thus become more immobile.
Numerous studies have been reported in the literature regarding moisture transport
through paint films (Holbrow et al. 1972; Bagda 1988; Ahola 1993; Davies and Bassi
1994; Nilsson and Hansen 1981; Hora 1994; Ekstedt 1995, 2002, 2003a, 2003b;
Derbyshire and Miller 1996, 1997a, 1997b; de Meijer and Millitz 2000, 2001; de Meijer
2002; Ekstedt and Östberg 2001, 2003). Review articles on water and moisture
behaviour in coated wood have been published (Huldén and Hansen 1985; Graystone
1998; van der Wel and Adan 1999). Theoretical calculations of moisture conditions in
coated wood have been carried out (e.g. Hjort 1998 and Derbyshire and Robson 1999).
Due to the anisotropic character of wood some parts of a wooden construction are
more susceptible to water ingress than others. The importance of end-grain sealing on
moisture protection has been addressed (Miller and Boxall 1984, 1987; Miller et al.
1987; Raaschou Nielsen and Lindberg 1987: Lawther et al. 1992). Many reports in the
literature deal with the moisture dynamic properties of free films. A more realistic
approach is to measure these properties of coatings on wood. Nguyen et al. (1995)
review the literature regarding water permeability for coatings applied to a substrate
and water permeability for free films. They conclude that several papers report higher
water uptake in applied films than in free films while the opposite sometimes also is
reported. Huldén & Hansen (1981) report that the measured permeability of water and
moisture through coatings on wood is normally higher than the measured permeability
through free films. They report the following reasons for this discrepancy:
 When the thickness of the coating is calculated, based on the amount of coating
applied, the effective thickness will be less because some of the coating will
penetrate the substrate
 The uneven swelling of the wood substrate compared to the swelling of the coating
 Fibres from the substrate penetrate the coating film, thus reducing the net thickness
 The interface between the coating and the wood is larger than its geometrical
surface
34
 The surface of the wood is more hydrophilic than the coating

 Cracks and inhomogeneity of the coating on wood are difficult to control
European standard EN 927-5 :
The European standard EN 927-5 specifies a test method for assessing the liquid
water permeability of coating systems for exterior wood by measuring the water
absorption of coated wood panels (EN 927-5:2000). A summary of the development of
the EN 927 standards has been published by Miller (1998). This standard method has
been used in much work initiated by CEN TC139/WG2.
In Ekstedt and Östberg (2001) test samples of Norway spruce (Picea abies) were used.
The test samples were manufactured in accordance with the specifications in EN 927-
5. A full description of the coating systems is given in Ekstedt and Östberg (2001). The
results of measurements of water absorption values according to EN 927-5 show that
the standard method gives significant differences in water absorption values for
different types of coatings on wood. The proposed limits for the water absorption
values, for coatings to be used in different constructions, seem to be set at acceptable
levels, at least if measurement before any weathering is considered. There was good
correlation between the level of water absorption and practical experience of the
performance of the paints in Scandinavia. Water absorption values for the tested
coatings were typical of the range shown by many commercial coatings. Most were
below the proposed limits of 250 g/m2 of ENV 927-2. Swedish red paint stands out as
atypical with a permeability of 600-700 g/m2.
The fact that Swedish Red Paint is commercially successful highlights the difficulty in
setting specifications. A number of coating manufacturers have raised concerns about
the use of limits, which may not take all the circumstances and substrates into account.
The possibility of non-mandatory guiding values rather than restrictive limits is likely to
be an acceptable compromise in view of the differing positions.
Water absorption value as a function of exposure time:
Assessment of the water absorption properties using the EN 927-5 standard give the
water absorption through the coating after 72 hours of exposure to liquid water. Ekstedt
and Östberg (2001) show however that ageing might drastically change the water
absorption for a coating or a coating system during weathering and thus alter the water
protection properties of the coating. Hence ageing of the coated test samples is
needed for proper assessment of the water absorption properties, especially for
assessing the long-term performance of the coating. Measurement of the water
absorption value, before any ageing, has a rather limited usefulness for the prediction
of long-term water absorption behaviour.
Tests show that the combination of a standard procedure for water absorption
measurement and an artificial weathering procedure gives more information regarding
expected durability and long-term performance than a single measurement of water
absorption on fresh, unweathered coated wood. This combination of water absorption
measurement and artificial weathering could become a useful tool in product
development as well as in benchmarking. Together with statistical tools, such as
reliability-based methodologies for predicting the service life of coating systems and
increasing the numbers of replicates, a reduction in testing times may be achieved.
Moisture Dynamics in Coated Wood:
Some methods of assessing permeability can only estimate the average moisture
content of an artifact. Under fluctuating conditions there will be continual movement of
moisture and zones of above average wetness may persist. Thus the conditions for
35
decay may exist even when the average moisture content is below 20%. The zones of
wetness will be different during absorption and desorption phases. There is clearly a
need to know the conditions under which localised high moisture contents will occur
and the consequences.
Are they primarily caused by faults in the film, or failure to seal end grain and what role
does the coating have in preventing or allowing dissipation? Is there a threshold at
which decay fungi can control their own microclimate having become established in the
wetter zones? Are there conditions under which water becomes concentrated
immediately below the surface perhaps with catastrophic effects on adherence?
A number of methods have been used to study water distribution. These include the
use of electrical probes [21] computed x-ray absorption tomography [22,23], and
magnetic resonance imaging - MRI [24]. Destructive methods have also been used in
which small sub-surface samples are removed and rapidly weighed [25]. The
distribution of moisture has also been investigated by computer modeling [26 - 29].
Clearly the information to be gained from these is different and highlights the difficulty
of drawing general conclusions from a single technique. The combination of MRI with
ESEM shows an accumulation of moisture at the coating/wood interface with obvious
implications for adhesive performance. This is an example where average result would
be much less relevant.
The following general conclusions and observations represent widespread views on the
consequences of moisture ingress for coating system performance on wood.
[1] Permeability of wood coating systems correlates with a number of film

properties exposed to moisture but this may be a secondary rather than primary effect.
Permeability has a primary influence on wood movement and will modify the moisture
content of wooden structures exposed to liquid or water vapour.
[2] Where moisture gains entry solely through the coating, then the permeability will
control the moisture content which according to the environmental conditions may
reach an equilibrium, a fluctuating steady state, or a fluctuating increase such that one
of the conditions for decay to occur is met. If however the coating is by-passed in some
way then the influence of the coating is greatly reduced and may become marginal.
[3] Dominant effects on coating permeability of free films are the chemical nature of
the polymer extensively modified by the physical form of the binder. Dispersion
polymers offer alternative pathways to diffusion and will generally show higher
permeability than solution polymers. Permeability will be reduced by well-wetted and
stabilised pigments but increased if the pigment is not wetted. This will be exacerbated
if flocculation or percolation can occur. Water-soluble components such as surfactants
can cause anomalous moisture build up within and below the film. Permeability will
increase with rising temperature and decrease as film thickness is increased. The least
permeable layer will largely control the permeability of multi-coat systems.
[4] For a given wood species the substrate does not have a major primary
influence on the coating vapour permeability and this will reduce the value of using an
un-coated control for comparison purposes. However the substrate has strong
secondary effects through swelling, penetration, wicking etc. Hence moisture
transmission must be determined upon the substrate upon which it is to be used.
Differences between free and wood supported films will be greater for liquid than
vapour transmission.
[5] Moisture within a wooden component will seldom be uniformly distributed and
there can be areas with moisture contents well above average, e.g. areas adjacent to
cracks, areas of mould growth and in some circumstances immediately below the
36
surface. High moisture zones can be studied with techniques such as X-ray
tomography or MRI and visualised using computer modelling.
[6] Moisture transmission rates should be measured under well-specified

conditions keeping derived units as simple as possible. The age and preconditioning of
the film is important.
[7] Single liquid water uptake transmission rates provide a good indication of the
capability to control movement. The prediction of average moisture contents requires a
measurement that addresses cyclic conditions in the presence of a temperature
gradient.
[8] Control of movement in softwoods used for end uses where dimensionally
stability is required (e.g. windows) requires a relatively low permeability. Controlling the
moisture content of wooden constructions is primarily a matter for good design and
detailing. The possibility that the moisture controlling properties of coatings could
compensate for design failings is unproved and seems unlikely on the present
evidence. It is not yet known whether coating strategies should be adjusted according
to climatic zone and exposure.
[9] Specification of permeability to control wood movement should be possible

within the current state of knowledge for specified substrates. This is not yet possible
for the control of moisture content. Highly permeable coatings are unlikely to prevent
cracking of high-movement timbers during natural weathering.
[10] Although much has been published about the dynamics of moisture
transmission of coated wooden artifacts, there still remains a grey area concerning the
best strategy to prevent high moisture build up and hence a greater propensity to rot
with the concomitant need for preservation. On the basis of this review control of wood
movement is relatively straightforward and requires a relatively impermeable coating
for ‘stable’ categories of end use (see EN 927-1). What needs to be established is
whether these values are in conflict with the requirement of moisture level control. If
design and detailing considerations are overriding then it should suffice to set the same
upper limits for moisture level and movement control. However since it is less
practicable to prevent moisture ingress into many semi- and non-stable end use
categories, and since these end-uses by definition require either less or no movement
control, a lower as well as upper limit should be specified. The most difficult situation
would be if the moisture control strategy is strongly dependent on climatic conditions
and might for example need different coating types according to location and climatic
conditions. In this case cyclic test methods will be needed and the results interpreted
according to expected exposure conditions. If European performance standards are to
be quickly developed a conclusion on this issue is urgently needed. It is to be hoped
that this COST initiative has provided an opportunity to fully share European
knowledge and encourage the initiation of the required work.
3.2.2.4. Microbiological aspects of coated wood:

Introduction:
As was noted earlier coated wooden artefacts have a number alternative failure modes
which may require remedial action if performance is to be improved. At opposite ends
of the failure spectrum, albeit with some interaction, are failures of film integrity and
various forms of bio deterioration. Bio degradation divides into two broad groups
 Degradation of the substrate by decay or disfigurement of the wood structure

 Disfigurement of the coated surface by moulds and algae
37
In both cases there are two broad strategies for reduction and prevention. One is to
remove or prevent one or more of the causal requirements such as water or nutrients.
The other is to prevent biological activity by the addition of a substance that interferes
with the metabolism of the biological agent. Such ‘poisons’ will be known by terms such
as biocides, fungicides, and algaecides. With increasing environmental and legislative
pressure, such as the Biocidal Product Regulations, this route is becoming less
attractive.
In 2002 a major paint company was ordered to pay $136 million damages for a product
which is alleged to have failed to prevent decay in windows [30]. The decision is being
contested, but it highlights a troublesome gap in knowledge about the performance of
coating systems on wood. When a wooden substrate decays beneath an intact coating
is the solution
 Better design?
 A more powerful preservative?
 Modified Coating Permeability?
All three areas have been extensively studied and much is known about best practice
in design, including end-grain sealing and techniques of preservation. Issues relating to
moisture permeability and the attainment of moisture levels above the decay safety
limit (20-22%) have been discussed earlier. As pressure increases on the use of
preservatives there is an added incentive to combine best practice in design, with
optimum coating permeability.
Disfigurement of surface coatings by fungal (mould) growth is less catastrophic than

decay, but still a major concern to the user. Disfigurement may be a cause for
maintenance even when the coating is intact. The visual manifestation of fungal growth
can be similar to that of dirt pick-up. Attachment of spores and dirt particles has some
common mechanisms. However mould spores develop hyphal growth, which become
more disfiguring as time progresses. As with decay control of mould growth requires
control of causal factors, or inhibition with fungicides.
State of Art Studies on Microbiological Aspects of Coated Wood:

Microbiological aspects of coated wood have been extensively reviewed during the
COST Action, including a dedicated work group and conference held in Lisbon in April
2002. The papers have been critically reviewed by J Van Acker [31] and are cited in the
bibliography. The picture, which emerges, is a complex one and it difficult to integrate
results from specific studies into a single ‘big picture’.
Testing:
Among the several problems is the problem of testing and test capability. Earlier
discussion has highlighted the many factors, which influence the performance of
coatings from the perspective of mechanical properties and appearance. Colonisation
by fungal species is equally complex and also subject to climatic factors. Under field,
as opposed to laboratory conditions, the arrival, nature and attachment of fungal
spores is subject to many seemingly random factors of distribution. Exposure of a
common set of test panels on different aspects of the same building, or at different
sites shows marked differences in the rate of colonisation which are not necessarily
repeatable [32]. This has major implications for correlation with laboratory testing. The
nature of the colonising species may also be very different although the end effect in
terms of disfigurement seems similar to the end-user. It is clear therefore that
evaluation microbiological aspects just as fungal colonisation has similar problems of
testing and correlation already described – but with some added complications!
The review of test procedures, which range from in vitro screening, agar plates and
humidity chambers to full field exposure, shows that no comprehensive methodology
38
has been developed. There remains considerable scope for standardisation, and
investigation of the predictive potential of test methods.
Role of the Substrate:

The nature of the substrate (wood species, heart wood vs sapwood, etc.) is clearly a
major determinant of microbiological deterioration. The propensity for wood to decay is
well documented and the subject of national categorisation systems. Wood
preservation per se is outside the primary scope of this Action (see COST Action E22),
which has
concentrated on disfigurement by blue stain in service, and surface mould growth on

the coating. For blue stain the considered view is that Aureobasidium pullulans is the
dominant colonist on coated wood. Much testing is carried out on pine sapwood using
EN 152 as the test method. This test is primarily for evaluating fungicides, and not ideal
for investigating other factors [33]. As is the case with the coating itself, it is not clear
how to distinguish between the role of the substrate in
 Providing a reservoir of moisture

 Supplying Nutrients
 Inhibiting the growth of specific organisms, e.g. the role of extractives
Dickinson has provided considerable detail on the role of physiochemical breakdown

products as a source of nutrient for A.pullulans [34]. Viitanen reports that kiln dired
surface are more susceptible to fungal attack than re-sawn surfaces [35].
Although it is clear, particularly for blue stain in service, that the nature of the wood
species plays a seminal role, for some types of fungal growth this is less important.
Common paints systems exposed over wood, metal and masonry surfaces all show
degrees of mould growth, including some that are common to all three substrates [36].
Role of the Coating Formulation:

Formulation parameters influence film thickness, physical properties including
permeability and film morphology and chemical and surface energy. All of these may
be expected to influence fungal colonisation and significant differences can be seen
and have been reported. For example in [32] data is given showing a faster rate of
colonisation for a set of acrylic coatings in comparison with alkyds over a range of test
sites. Conversely another equally well-founded paper [37] reached the opposite
conclusion, with alkyd-based paints showing a greater susceptibility. The underlying
reasons for the observed differences are important for commercial and practical
reasons. It is unlikely that the differences in the previous examples could be attributed
to the chemistry of the resin itself but (as with the substrate influences) be attributed to
factors that increase moisture retention, and provide either nutrients or inhibitors for
fungal activity. The acrylic paints in [32] were water-borne thermoplastic dispersions,
whereas the alkyds were solvent-borne solutions capable of further autoxidation. Thus
inasmuch as generalisations are possible it may be noted that many water-borne
formulations are
 more permeable (different film morphology)

 softer (spores adhere readily)
 may contain nutrients (soluble thickeners etc.)
 can raise the moisture content at the interface (surfactants)
 are less likely to contain inhibiting materials (e.g. metal driers)
These are all factors that could increase the propensity for fungal growth and
colonisation. However it must be emphasised that any comparison between coating
technologies that focuses only on terms such as ‘water-borne’ and ‘solvent-borne’, is
likely to be an oversimplification. Most coating chemistries, i.e. the resins and polymers
39
that provide coating binders in the dried film, can be carried in water or solvent, as
either solutions or dispersions. Moreover the technologies can be used together in a
coating system, or blended in various hybrid systems. Furthermore many so called
water-borne systems do contain co-solvents.
Despite the work already carried out there remains a clear need to separate the
contribution of the formulating factors that contribute to different rates of
biodegradation.
Film Biocides (Fungicides)

A significant factor in the formulation of wood coatings is whether or not to use a
fungicide, and the nature, concentration and physical form of such a fungicide.
Paradoxically early water-borne formulations used mercury-based fungicides, which
rather undermined any environmental advantages. Mercury compounds and
polychlorinated
phenols have long since been phased out, but concerns about health and
environmental factors has continued, resulting in the EU biocide product directive
(BPD). The BPD has restricted the use of fungicides and in the eyes of some will
hinder new developments due to the high registration costs. Some users, and indeed
some national legislation, may prefer to accept fungal colonisation as preferable to the
use of ‘toxins’. In these circumstances understanding the other factors that influence
fungal growth becomes imperative.
Notwithstanding these concerns research and development on new and existing

fungicides has continued. The present portfolio of fungicides includes isothiazolones,
iodo carbamates, silver chloride combinations, pyridinethiols and many others. Many
papers have been published on the efficacy of specific compounds but as noted in the
introduction issues of test capability remain a problem. References [32] and [37] both
show an overwhelming strong influence of exposure site on fungal growth, with
consequential problems of correlation with laboratory testing. Further more while
laboratory testing may be suitable for screening purposes, differences arise between
laboratories reflecting perhaps different strains of test fungi. It is also found that efficacy
of fungicides may be lost on storage, and is lost during exposure partly because of
leaching, but also due to photo degradation.
40
3.2.3 Conclusion
The ‘performance’ of exterior wood coatings cannot be quantified by any single
parameter but is judged by different criteria according to the outcome that requires
action within a supply chain. Performance may be judged by initial properties including
appearance and application, but major concerns usually lie with the retention of
properties and the concepts linked to durability. Outcomes that are of particular
concern to the user include a loss of protective function through mechanical failure, and
disfigurement by fungal growth. While the broad factors that influence these functions
are reasonably well understood, there is a problem of testing and test capability which
obscures many detailed differences in performance and prevents the quantification
necessary to gain user benefits and to provide a bridge between laboratory testing, and
real life experience. Difficulties in test repeatability have also hindered the development
of performance standards.
Broad areas that would benefit from further resolution are
 Combining the best practices from traditional weathering (natural and artificial)
with the insights provided by reliability methods of service life prediction, and
the attendant mathematical tools.
 Developing dose-response models for predicting performance and resolving the
origin of apparent rank order differences of coatings exposed at different sites.
 Identifying the causes of variance in panel testing and relating these to real
exposure conditions and the performance of coatings on buildings.
 Resolving final questions that remain about the permeability characteristics best
suited to different end-use situations from the perspective of both movement,
and biodegradation.
 Greater quantification of the factors that contribute to fungal colonisation in
service, including physical and chemical aspects of both the film and added
biocides.
41
3.2.4 Bibliography and References

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3. Ahola P et al , “Performance and Durability of Wooden Window Joinery coated with Low
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4. Hutchinson J M, Physical Aging of Polymers, Prog.Polym.Sci.,Vol 20, 703-760, 1995.
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5. Podgorski L, “A Reliable Artificial Weathering Test for Wood Coatings”, Paper 13, 3
International Woodcoatings Congress, The Hague, October 2002. (see also prEN 927-
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6. Gerlock J L, “Testing Accelerated Weathering Tests for Appropriate Weathering
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Federation Series on Coatings Technology.FSCT. June 1996.(or NIST Building Science
Series 172, 1994).
8. Martin J W, A Systems Approach to the Service Life Prediction Problem for Coatings
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9. Martin J W, Chin J W, Nguyen C T, “Reciprocity law experiments in photodegradation: a
critical review”, Progress in Organic Coatings 47 (2003) 292-311.
10. Schutyser P, Perera D Y. Statistical Evaluation of Accelerated Weathering Data. Double
Liaison, No 479-480 1996.
11. Burch D et al, Computer Analysis of Polymer Coating Exposed to Field Weather
Conditions. Journal of Coating Technology, Vol.94, No. 924, Jan 2002, 75-86.
12. Chin et al, The Use of Integrating Spheres as Uniform Sources for Accelerated UV
Weathering of Advanced Materials. Polymeric Materials: Science and Engineering
(PMSE) Fall Meeting, Vol.83. Proceedings. American Chemical Society (ASME). Aug
20-24,2000.
13. Graystone J A, “Service Life of Exterior Wood Coatings – a review of measurement and
performance factors”, COST E18 Final Seminar, Paris 2004.
14. Nelder J R, “Statistics, Science and Technology”, J.R. Statistics Society A, 149, part 2,
109-121, (1986).
15. Rehfeldt T K.”Evaluation of Degradation Data by Time Series Analysis”. Prog.
Org.Coatings, 15 (1987) 261-268.
16. Meeker W Q, Escobar L A, “Accelerated Life Tests: Concepts and Data Analysis.” ACS
Symposium Series 722, Service Life Prediction of Organic Coatings, A Systems
Approach, 1999, ISBN 0-8412-3597-X, Ch.10, 149-170
17. Graystone J A, “Strategic and Tactical Aspects of Coating Testing” COST E18 Seminar,
Copenhagen, February 2004.
18. Kjellin M, Erikson N, “Genuine Falun Red”, Borkförlaget Prisma, Stockholm, 1999.
(ISBN 91-518-3659-9)
st
19. Graystone J A, “Moisture Transport Through Wood Coatings”, paper 6, 1 International
Woodcoatings Congress, Brussels 1998.
20. Ekstedt J, Graystone J A, “Current Views on the Role of Water in the Behaviour of
Coated Wood Substrates”, COST E18, Final Seminar, Paris 2004.
21. Falla N A Novel electrical Resiatance Method. PRA Progress Report No. 24 1993.
22. Ekstedt J et al. Moisture distribution in coated wooden panels. Studies of moisture
dynamics by computerized axial tomography. The International Research Group on
Wood Preservation. May 1992. IRG/WP/2413-92.
23. Falla N A R Mechanism of degradation of wood coating systems. Proc. 'Advances in
Coatings Technology ACT '95' Conf, (Institute of Plastics & Paint Industry, Gliwice,
Poland), Katowice (Poland) 1995, Paper 19, 15 pp. Full details in PRA Research
Report RR2/95
24. Ekstedt, J., McDonald, P. J., Bennett, G.MARWINGCA, Progress Report
WP 4/PR5.2002
25. Hjort S “Moisture Transport Properties of Painted Wood”. Farg och Lack Scandinavia
2/1998 pp5-16.
26. Hjort S A two dimensional computer program for calculating the moisture conditions in
painted wood structures. SCI 1998 (7) pp330-337.
27. Derbyshire H Computer modelling studies:Water transmission rates of Paint. BRE
Multiclient Research Project PT0987/PT1601 Dec 1995.
42
28. Droin-Josserand A; Taverdet J L; Vergnaud J M Modelling the absorption and

desorption of moisture by wood in an atmosphere of contant and programmed relative
humidity. Wood Sci. Tech. 1988, Vol 22 No 4, 299-309: Abs Bull. Paper Sci. Tech.
29. Banken E L J; Frencken M Modelling and Measurement of Moisture Transport in

Coating-Protected Wood. PRA Conference Proceedings. Paper 19, 7th Asia Pacific
Conference.
30. Chem Week, 27 Feb 2002, 164 (8),10 “Breach of Warranty suit”.
31. Van Acker J, “Microbial Aspects of Coated Wood”, COST E18 Final Seminar, Paris
2004.
32. Kennedy R, “Towards Improved Prediction of Microbial Spoilage of Water-borne
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Coatings”, Paper 42, 3 Internation Woodcoatings Congress, The Hague, October
2002.
33. Van Acker J, Van Den Bulke J, “Test Methods for Biological Degradation of Paint by
Blue Stain”, COST E18 Seminar, April 2002, Lisbon.
34. Dickinson D, “Importance and Biology of Aureobasidium pullulans in Painted Wood”,
COST E18 Seminar, April 2002, Lisbon.
35. Viitanen H, “Mould Growth on Painted Wood”, COST E18 Seminar, April 2002, Lisbon.
36. Graystone J A, “Quantification of Fungal Growth using Image Analysis”, COST E18
Seminar, April 2002, Lisbon.
37. Bardage S, Weissenborn P, Östberg G, “Fungal Growth on Exterior Coatings for
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Wood”, Paper 11,pp117-122, 17 SLF Congress, Stockholm, September 2003.
38. Simms J A. Acceleration Shift Factor and its use in Evaluating Weathering Data.
Journal of Coatings Technology, Vol.59 No.748, May 1987, 45-53.
Moisture Transport Bibliography (compiled by J Ekstedt)
Ahola, P. (1993) Chemical and physical changes in paints or painted wood due to ageing,
Doctoral dissertation. Technical Research Centre of Finland, Espoo, Finland, ISBN 951-38-
4393-9.
Bagda, E. (1988) Humidity balance of coatings. Proc. XIXth FATIPEC Congress. Aachen
1988, Vol 3, 461-466.
Bagda, E. (1990) Neues zur Bestimmung des Feuchtehaushalts von Beschichtungen (News
about the Determination of Moisture Properties of Coatings). Bautenschutz + Bausanierung,
13, 26.
Blahnik, R. (1983) Problems of measuring water sorption in organic coatings and films, and
calculations of complicated instances of moistening. Progress in Organic Coatings, 11, 353-
392.
Davies, H. and Bassi, R. S. (1994) The water permeability of masonry coatings: comparison
of BS:6477:1984 Appendix F and Draft EN Test Method. Surface Coatings International, 77,
9, 386-393.
Derbyshire, H. and Miller, E. R. (1996) Moisture conditions in coated exterior wood. Part 1:
An investigation of the moisture transmission characteristics of exterior wood coatings and
the effect of weathering on coating permeability. Journal of the Institute of Wood Science,
14, No. 1, 40-47.
Derbyshire, H. and Miller, E. R. (1997a) Moisture conditions in coated exterior wood. Part 2:
The relation between coating permeability and timber moisture content. Journal of the
Institute of Wood Science, 14, No. 4, 162-168.
Derbyshire, H. and Miller, E. R. (1997b) Moisture conditions in coated exterior wood. Part 3:
Moisture content during natural weathering. Journal of the Institute of Wood Science, 14,
No. 4, 169-174.
Derbyshire, H. and Robson, D. J. (1999) Moisture conditions in coated exterior wood. Part
4: Theoretical basis for the observed behaviour. A computer modelling study. Holz als Roh-
und Werkstoff, 57, 105-113.
43
de Meijer, M. and Millitz, H. (2000) Moisture transport in Coated Wood, Part 1 Analysis of
sorption rates and moisture content profiles in spruce during liquid water uptake. Holz- als
Roh und Werkstoff, 58, 354-362.
de Meijer, M. and Millitz, H. (2001) Moisture transport in Coated Wood, Part 2: Influence of
coating type, film thickness, wood species, temperature and moisture gradient on kinetics of
sorption and dimensional change. Holz- als Roh und Werkstoff, 58, 467-475.
de Meijer, M. (2002) Comparision between laboratory water permeability tests and wood
moisture content in full scale window frames. Surface Coatings International Part B:
Transactions, Vol. 85, B2, 131-137.
Ekstedt, J. (1995) Measurements of liquid water absorption according to the draft

proposition prEN 927-2.1. European Committee for Standardization, CEN/TC 139/WG
2/doc N 184.
Ekstedt, J. & Östberg, G. (2001) Liquid Water Permeability of Exterior Wood Coatings –
Testing According to a Proposed European Standard Method. Journal of Coatings
Technology, 73, No. 914, 53-59.
Ekstedt, J. (2002) Studies on the barrier properties of exterior wood coatings. Doctoral
thesis. Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm. TRITA-BYMA 2002:5. ISBN 91-7283-394-
7.
Ekstedt, J. & Östberg, G. (2003) Liquid Water Permeability of Exterior Wood Coatings –
Effect of Artificial Weathering. (accepted for publication in Journal of Coatings Technology)
Ekstedt, J. (2003a) Influence of Coating System Composition on Moisture Dynamic

Performance of Coated Wood. Journal of Coatings Technology, 75, No. 938, 27-37.
Ekstedt, J. (2003b) Reliability-based service life prediction methodology for assessment of

water protection efficiency for coatings on wood, The International Research Group on
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Wood Preservation. IRG/WP 03-20268. 34 Annual Meeting, Brisbane, Australia. May 18-
24 2003.
EN 927-1 (1996) Paint and varnishes – Coating materials and coating systems for exterior
wood – Part 1: Classification and selection. European Committee for Standardization,
Brussels.
ENV 927-2 (2000) Paint and varnishes – Coating materials and coating systems for exterior
wood – Part 2: Performance specification. European Committee for Standardization,
Brussels.
wood – Part 3: Natural weathering test. European Committee for Standardization, Brussels.
wood – Part 5: Assessment of the liquid water permeability. European Committee for
Standardization, Brussels.
Floyd, F. L. (1998) Reducing Product Development Cycle Times Without Increasing Risk.
Journal of Coatings Technology, 70, No. 876, 71-81.
Graystone, J. (1998) Moisture Transport Through Wood Coatings: The Unanswered

Questions. Conference Paper no 6. Advances in Exterior Wood Coatings and CEN
Standardisation. Brussels, Belgium, 19-21 Oct. 1998.
Hare, C. H. (1997) Water Permeability in Pigmented Films, J. Protective Coat. Linings, 14,
No. 10, 77-94.
Hjort, S. (1998) A two-dimensional computer program for calculating the moisture conditions
in painted wood structures. Surface Coatings International 81, 7, 330-336.
44
Holbrow, G. L., Sherwood, A. F., Dasgupta, D., Gardiner, D., Gibson, M. C. and Haines, M.
J. (1972) Wood protection. J. Oil Col. Chem. Assoc., 55, (1), 35-51.
Hora, G. (1994) The Dynamic Contact Angle - A Characteristic to Predict the Lifetime of a
Wood Topcoat. Journal of Coatings Technology, 66, No. 832, 55-59.
Huldén, M. and Hansen, C. M. (1981) Fukttransport i målat trä (Moisture transport in coated
wood) NIF-Report T7-81 M. (in Swedish)
Huldén, M. and Hansen, C. M. (1985) Water permeation in coatings. Progress in Organic

Coatings. 13, No. 3/4, 171-194.
ISO 11 341:1994. Paints and varnishes – Artificial weathering and exposure to artificial
radiation – Exposure to filtered xenon-arc radiation.
Lawther, J. M., Banks, W. B., Anderson, D. G. and Cornfield, J. A. (1992) End grain sealing
by polymer impregnation. The International Research Group on Wood Preservation (IRG),
Doc. IRG/WP/3708-92.
Martin, J. W. (1999) A Systems Approach to the Service Life Prediction Problem for Coating
System” in Service Life Prediction of Organic Coatings. Edited by Bauer, D. R and Martin,
J.W. ACS Symposium Series 722, pp 1-20. Oxford University Press.
Michaels, A. S. (1965) Water and the Barrier Film. Official Digest, 37, 485, 638-653, June
1965.
Miller, E. R. and Boxall, J. (1984) The effectiveness of end-grain sealers in improving paint
performance on softwood joinery. Part II, L-joint results after 4 years natural weathering.
Holz als Roh- und Werkstoff, 42, 27-34.
Miller, E. R. and Boxall, J. (1987) The effectiveness of end-grain sealers in improving paint
performance on softwood joinery. L-joint results after 4 years natural weathering. Holz als
Roh- und Werkstoff, 45, 69-74.
Miller, E. R., Boxall, J. and Carey, J. K. (1987) External joinery: end grain sealers and
moisture control. Building Research Establishment, United Kingdom, Information Paper IP
20/87.
Miller, R. (1998) The Development of EN 927 by CEN/TC 139 Working Group 2.

Conference Paper no 1. Advances in Exterior Wood Coatings and CEN Standardisation.
Brussels, Belgium, 19-21 Oct. 1998.
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Coating Applied to a Substrate. Journal of Coatings Technology, 67, No. 844, 37-46.
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Permeation Measurements by the Cup Method. Journal of Coatings Technology, 53, No.
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Progress in Organic Coatings, 37, 1-14.
45
3.3 HIGH PERFORMANCE ENVIRONMENTALLY FRIENDLY FINISHES

FOR WOOD FOR INDOOR USES (WG 3)
3.3.1. Introduction
The group included institutes, universities and some industrial companies. Due to the
fact the main objective was oriented to find solutions to meet the European Directive on
the reduction of VOC emission in the Wood and Furniture Industry. For that the main
topics were:
- Implementation of the VOC Directive in Europe
- Different solutions for the reduction at the Source (Development on raw materials,
products and processes)
- VOC treatments
- Performance and tests methods
- Economic Aspects
3.3.2 The Industry Situation with the Cost E 18 period
The Council Directive on Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) - published in March

1999 - concerns the reduction of VOC emissions caused by the use of organic solvents
in certain activities and installations, including coating activities and coating for wooden
surfaces. This preventive action is required to protect public health and the
environment against the consequences of particularly harmful emissions from the use
of organic solvents and to guarantee citizens the right to a clean and healthy
environment. There is national and international legislation, at various stages of
implementation, across Europe that will have a significant impact on the use of wood
finishes over the coming years.
This Directive is the result of another more general one published in 1996 which is the
Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control Directive .The source of VOCs in the
industrial zones of the planet is mainly transport and industry. The industrial coatings
market in Europe represents about 2,8 million tons and wood coating is the most
important area, about 430000 tons increasing by 2 – 3% per year. The aim is to reduce
VOC emissions by about 60-70% of 1990 values, with a deadline of 2007 for both new
and old installations. To meet this ambitious challenge companies have two solutions:
destruction of VOCs but in this case solvent technology is retained and innovation is
limited or reduction at source by using new coatings with less or no organic solvent.
The implementation of the VOC Directive obliges companies to adapt to the new
requirements; otherwise their survival could be threatened. SMEs are a reservoir for
the creation of jobs and a source of diversity in the industrial fabric, constituting an
important base for the success of regional development, particularly in rural areas. The
furniture industry represents about 84 billion Euro (Source UEA). The number of
companies that manufacture furniture is about 90.000 in Europe, with many very small
ones, more than 60.000 with fewer than 20 employees, especially in Italy, Spain and
the United Kingdom. However, it is of significance that around 70% of the overall sales
of the European furniture industry is accounted for by 1.500 companies with 100 or
more employees. In Europe, the total workforce is about 1 million people. The solutions
must ensure the competitiveness of this category of companies, through reasonably
priced products. The increase in the Industry's market share outside Europe through
these new coating systems will have a direct positive impact on the employment
situation. More generally, it is a clear competitive advantage to be able to satisfy
people who prefer to buy environmentally friendly products. All this has of course a
direct impact on business development and thus on the employment situation. The
move to the new coating systems will require adaptation of existing skills and
introduction of new ones, in particular for powder technology.
46
The aim of introducing coating systems with reduced environmental impact into the
Furniture Industry with the March 1999 VOC Directive, is motivated mainly by concern
about preservation of the ozone layer. New processes should originally have complied
from 2001, and existing ones from 2007; so there is relatively little time to introduce this
legislation. The fact that the new coating systems will enhance and ensure a long-term
utilization of wood also has a direct impact on the environment, as wood is a renewable
material and plays a role in climate change.
A breakdown of the furniture industry shows that a variety of chemicals are used to
formulate the paints, varnishes, stains and lacquers that are most commonly found
within the sector. Solvent-based formulations currently dominate the market because
the performance of alternatives, such as water-based and radiation-cured coatings, has
yet to match solvent-based quality for all applications even if they are making progress
with regards to the zone in Europe (North or South Europe) Therefore, as detailed
below in 1997 - 2000, over 80% of the coatings in use are solvent-based formulations
which means it is impossible for the vast majority of European furniture manufacturers
to comply to the regulations contained in the EC Directive. However, for2 - 3 years
there has been an increasing of waterborne systems used in the industrial Wood
sector.
Table 1 : Types of coatings used in the industrial wood sector
Coating type % in 1997 % in 2000 % 2003

Polyurethane 30 33 32
Acid-Cured 22 14 12
Nitrocellulose 21 17 13
Polyester 10 12 11
Water-borne 5 11 16
Radiation-cured 10 11 14
Others 2 2 2
The popularity of nitrocellulose varnish is explained by its excellent aesthetic qualities

on wood, ease of application, speed of drying and low price compared with other
solvent-based products. Polyurethane finishes, although more expensive, are used
when a high build appearance is required in conjunction with superior technical
performance. However, total reliance on either of these products by furniture
manufacturers will result in the failure to comply with the EC Directive on VOCs.
Another important factor controlling the emission rate of VOCs is the method of coating
application, e.g. industrial assembly lines coating flat pieces or panels using rollers and
curtains. However, the technique which emits the highest rate of solvents into the air is
spraying, which for ready-assembled units or 3-dimensional pieces is the only suitable
method.The medium term implications of compliance with the EC Directive dictate that
European furniture manufacturers will be required to adopt alternative technologies and
systems for their wood coating operations. Options to reduce solvent emissions
include :
- ‘End-of-pipe’ abatement technology, such as oxidation, absorption and bio-

treatment.
- Process modification with increased coating efficiency to reduce raw material
consumption.
- Training in application procedures and revision of cleaning operations.
- Reformulation of products to replace the conventional high solvent-based
systems. Options for the reformulation include: Water-borne systems,
Improved solvent-based systems using alternative solvents or high solid
content, Use of powder coating technology employing radiation-curing and
reactive systems. Reformulation is the route preferred by Furniture Companies.
47
Some companies, especially those manufacturing flat-pack furniture, have moved to

using UV-cure systems. However, these systems work best with clear finishes and
acceptable finish quality is difficult to achieve using opaque paints and lacquers.
Similarly, due to the inflexibility of the equipment, 3-dimensional pieces are problematic
when using the UV-curing technology owing to their complex shapes. Financial
restrictions will prevent UV-curable systems from becoming common place within the
furniture manufacturing industry as many companies are small or medium-sized
enterprises (SMEs), that are unable to afford the large investment required. UV
Technology using the spray application, (kitchen elements) reduces VOC emissions,
but does not enable companies to respect the Emission Limit Value (30 - 40% solvent
dilution mandatory).
If the coating systems are to be changed, both in terms of finish formulation and
application technology, then the final product must have the same aesthetic standard
and technical performance. The commercial success of certain high quality furniture
manufacturers is based upon traditional designs and distinctive colour schemes, which
are reliant on the use of solvent-based systems. In order to meet the expectations of
their customer base, maintain their market share and conform to environmental
legislation, these manufacturers need access to a low solvent-based solution.
Currently, such a solution is not available and clearly there is a need for research and
development work in this area. There is an overriding necessity to improve the present
state-of-the-art for environmentally friendly, low-solvent coatings currently available for
wood substrates. Owing to the diversity of the industry, it is not envisaged that there
will be a single solution, rather a combination of sector-specific practices based on a
premise of environmentally friendly coatings for wooden furniture.
The alternative solutions to replace the conventional solvent technology are:

- High solid solvent coatings
- Waterborne systems (mono component, bi-component and UV curing)
- Solvent UV products
- Powder technology: thermal and UV systems
The company will choose the technology which meet the necessary criteria:
- Aesthetic aspect obtained for the furniture surface
- Technical performance such as abrasion, scratch, chemical resistance
- Ability to produce the previous points in the plant at a cost compatible market
demand (operational factors)
- Ability to respect environmental regulation.
If the company cannot meet the different criteria in Europe, perhaps another idea may
be explored, namely to transfer production to another country where the regulations are
not so strict. The first countries considered are located in Eastern Europe, in this case
environmental regulations will have to be respected due to the fact that these countries
want to join the European Union and social (environmental) problems will concern the
West. Another option, worse for the Environment, is to move to countries where the
regulations are very flexible or non existent.
3.3.3 The balance in 2004 at the end of the Cost E 18
3.3.3.1. The implementation of the VOC Directive in Europe
Several actions were carried out :

The first action was to harmonise the regulation; each country had to modify their
national regulation to take into consideration the European Directive. The Netherlands
took over the EU VOC directive without any major changes. But it is expected that the
thresholds of this directive will be overruled by the directive concerning working
48
conditions which will allow using only coatings with a limited solvent content. In
Germany the EU – VOC Directive has been put into operation at 21st of August 2001
(so called 31.BlmSchV). The German VOC directive differs in some essential parts
from the EU VOC directive. For example the threshold for notification to the authority
starts in Germany at 5 tones VOC consumption per year but the EU directive 15 tones
per year are fixed. This means the directive touches more SMEs. Companies that
consume more than 15 tones/year VOC have to calculate the target emission by
applying the factor 3 in the equation instead 4 which is proposed in the EU directive.
Consequently companies in Germany may emit about 13% less VOC than in the EU
VOC directive is stated. In this respect most of the EU countries treat their companies
differently. In the worst case this can lead to out-sourcing parts of the production to
other countries. In France for example, documents were published in 2000 and 2002
with no real differences with the EU Directive; in Italy the publication were in February
2004.
The second action was to have a review of the situation in the industry. Thus, in Italy,
CATAS carried out a study in the Chair Triangle situated in the North East of Italy, in
the Friuli Region, close to the Slovenian border. It is a highly industrialised area where
about 1300 small and medium sized enterprises specialise in different phases of the
chair production cycle. They employ around 12000 people. The introduction of the
European directive on volatile organic compound (VOC) emissions into Italian
legislation was the motivation behind a study to get information about the
environmental situation of these companies and to verify which opportunities they have
to modify their production processes in order to respect the directive. A lot of co-
operation from many companies in this area was obtained, Among the results of this
work, was identified a clear need for co-operation between the companies of this area
with coatings producers, research institutes and public institutions to find adequate
solutions (technical, economical and esthetical) to the problem of the emission of
organic compounds from application processes. This work was presented in Lisbon in
April 2002. In the final workshop in April 2004,the situation in Germany, Netherlands,
UK and France were also presented. The main points are :
 The difficulty for SMEs (a majority of the companies in the Furniture industry) to
know the new regulation: longer documents, clarification from Authority.
 To understand what is A solvent Plan Management and a Reduction Scheme
 To choose between the Emission Limit Values and Solvent Plan Management
 Then to adopt the right solutions to meet the new regulation
In conclusion a majority of small and medium companies had difficulties in
implementing the new regulations while remaining competitive against new EU
countries with lower manpower costs.
3.3.2.2. What solutions?: High solid, Waterborne, Powder, Process
The first option : to continue with Solvent Technology and non UV Curing
Solvent-based products are now the most used as there is market demand for the
appearance and technical performance achieved by these products. Therefore, many
companies, especially small ones and those producing traditional furniture, would prefer
to continue using solvent-based products. This would also involve no change in
production processes. It is possible to reduce VOC emissions by increasing the volume
solids, Coatings with about 60 – 70% volume solids are regarded as high-solid ones.
Various polymers are possible for this technology as for example polyurethane,
polyester, others. High solids technologies have some advantages and disadvantages.
The main advantages and disadvantages are presented in table 2:
49
Table 2: High solid coatings

Advantages Disadvantages
Reduction of VOC emissions, Flatter or different viscosity temperature curve,
Solvent conservation, Inadequate levelling,
Energy savings, Lower tack after applications,
Reduced transport costs, Clean-up difficulties,
Low storage costs, Inferior reflow characteristics,
Lower insurance, More difficult to achieve open pore
No new equipment needed, products effects,
Excellent vertical surface hang-up, Higher thickness,
Lower susceptibility to solvent popping Styrene emissions (polyesters),
Costs.
Before using these products, some solutions must be found either in the composition or
the application device.
The second option: Waterborne Coating

Although waterborne coatings potentially offer many benefits, including reduction of
solvent emissions, lower material costs, non-toxicity, elimination of fire hazard leading
to lower insurance premiums and ease of application, this technology has not been
significantly developed so far but in 2004 more industrial are more interested due to the
coming of the deadline to apply the regulation.. Shortcomings include difficulty of
application on wooden substrates, poor appearance on wood (grain raising). Two
component water-borne coatings show better performance but also reveal new
problems like the homogeneous incorporation of the hardener.
The main advantages and disadvantages of waterborne finishes are given in table 3:
Table 3 : Waterborne finishes

Low solvent content (VOC compliant) Low initial gloss,
Good gloss retention, Slower drying (depends on humidity),
Reduced yellowing, Higher energy to force dry,
Improved flexibility, Poor blocking resistance,
Moisture vapour permeability, Dry film water sensitive,
Relatively odourless Poor wet edges,
Foaming problems,
Lower or different transparency,
Limit colour versatility,
Substitution of application equipment, Isolation
for electrostatic one, Sanding difficulties,
Open pore difficulties,
Higher costs
The main problems which must be solved or alleviated are:

- Finding products adapted to furniture production lines
- Achieving a competitive price for this technology
- Solving the cleaning of the equipment or reducing the waste (the cost for
treatment of mud or waste is not lower for this kind of process and must be
compared with the reduction in the level of solvent emissions).
The third option: UV-Cured Technology

Radiation curing by ultra-violet energy can be defined as a free radical initiated
polymerisation of resins and monomer units in a 100% reactive system where the UV
light produces reactive species. These types of coatings offer considerable advantages
over conventional coating systems in production speed and environmental impact. New
UV-curing resins are low in viscosity, so the amount of monomers can be reduced. The
two main types of UV finish for wood coatings are those based on styrene/polyester
and acrylic based finishes. The acrylic finishes, although more expensive, present
more advantages compared to the polyester as for example excellent working
50
viscosity, rapid curing, superior wetting on the wood surface, less sanding necessary,
easier cleaning-up. The advantages and disadvantages of the UV-curing products are:
Table 4 : UV-Cured finishes

Very rapid cure at ambient temperature, Equipment can be expensive (problem for
Theoretical use of up to100 % solid systems, small companies),
Very Low VOC emission, Difficult to coat complex shapes and
Reduction in required floor space, Automated high especially the 3-Dimensional ones as
production, assembled furniture,
Ability to coat heat-sensitive substrates, High flash Concern over toxicity and safety,
points, High raw material costs,
One-pack systems possible, Difficult to formulate at low viscosity
Minimal waste and long shelf-life, Immediate consequently VOC emission when spraying
handling of coated product. application for 3D element,
Relatively inferior durability due to lower
elasticity,
Restriction on pigmentation,
Limited thickness for pigmented films, Difficult
to obtain open pore effects, Necessity to dilute
for best levelling
Some of these disadvantages have been overcome,. but it is still necessary to continue
the work on this technology with thinned products, in particular to find coatings with a
high solid content and a low viscosity to be able to finish 3D pieces without having to
choose water-based coatings. At present, coating suppliers can offer the UV-curing
products diluted or emulsified in water. However, the difficulties posed by solvent UV-
cured products and water-based coatings explained above, especially the problems of
the drying and the wood, then have to be added.
For solvent containing UV products, the required development of solutions by a

collaboration between the industrial partners - coatings suppliers, equipment producers
and furniture manufacturers - is:
- To be able to apply products on complex shapes and on assembled furniture

for a better appearance
- To have products with high solid-content and a low viscosity for use in
application by spraying
- To apply pigmented coatings without restriction
- To adapt the “drying” of the solvent just before the curing by the UV lamps
- To adapt the thickness of the finishes and especially thin layers to obtain an
open-pore effect
For water UV products, the development of solutions is :
- To improve the present unsatisfactory appearance and the performance of the

coatings
- To find ecological and practical alternatives for some specific molecules (e.g.
glycol)
- To adapt coatings and processes to operational needs
- To adapt the application and the drying equipment (IR or microwave
technologies will be interesting ways for example) before the final phase of
UV-curing
The last option : Powder Coatings

This technology is well established in the metal coating industry including metal
furniture. The technology is very interesting because the coatings are free of solvent
(100% solid content), consequently leading to the reduction of VOC emissions and low
volumes of waste. Several coatings producers have attempted to apply powders to
51
wood substrates, however they have encountered many technical difficulties. At

present, two powder technologies exist for substrates such as plastics or wood: thermal
powders and UV-powders. In 2000, an industrial line was opened for a TV cabinet
manufacturer who uses
MDF boards and thermal powders. However, this technology will be really developed in
the furniture industry only if we find industrial solutions for solid wood and veneers and
we are sure of producing a smooth surface (transparent and opaque appearance)
compatible with furniture requirements (aesthetic and technical). So, progress is still
needed to
implement a successful industrial process in a furniture company. In France, SOFAMO,

which produces children's furniture made on MDF, integrated the UV powder
technology in 2003. The company chose a horizontal line provided by Cefla. They
applied 500 m2 per day and from March 2004 about 1000 - 1500 m2 per day Other
companies also moved to this technology: VITRA in Germany to manufacture office
furniture, they use a line supplied by TRIAB. In Italy, Pulverwood works with a vertical
line supplied by Giardina.
The main powder suppliers such AKZO, Dupont Powder, Beckers Powder have
developed new products more adapted to the wooden substrates and Tiger which is
very popular for metal, also now proposes powders for MDF. This shows that the
coatings suppliers believe more and more in this alternative for thermal sensitive
substrates (wood but also plastics and some metal).
In order for powder coatings to be fully adopted by the furniture industry, the application
of such powders to solid woods and veneers must be investigated. At present the main
powder suppliers focus their R&D activity on the UV Powder, powder with thin
thickness (Automotive will want not more than 50µm, low temperature for thermal
powder (less than 130°C). With UV powders, we can imagine finding solutions, and
perhaps in few years obtaining a real alternative for the furniture industry. However, the
problems described for the use of UV radiation are also true for UV powders and UV
liquids.
When the technologies are compared, some additional analysis must be introduced
including health and safety criteria. VOC is one of the main environmental factors but
not the only one. The toxicity of the products which enter the composition as raw
materials is also very important. Finally, an assessment of the waste produced will be
necessary because for industrial furniture companies the choice is not only in terms of
VOC reduction but also in terms of factors such as energy and waste.
The cost of finishing is not necessarily the most important one in furniture production.
The most important ones are production costs including materials, labour and
overheads, which represent 75%. Finishing represents about 6% of total production
costs. However, the pressure of environment regulations may mean big challenges for
companies because they will have to change investment, know-how, perhaps even
market requirements in terms of appearance etc… In this case, the economic
parameters are not only a problem of cost. It will also be necessary to buy in the
technical solutions, the ability to learn the technology, to analyse other aspects of the
environment, health and safety, as well as waste treatment.
Within the COST Action, several papers were presented to show the development of
these different solutions :
In Lisbon Workshop in April 2002, the presentation highlights on two European
research CRAFT-projects, which have been conducted in the past years were
presented by WKI. The first project has strongly focused on the development of UV-
curable powder coatings for the heat sensitive wood-based materials, which included
the development of new “powder-coatable” MDF boards. The second project had its
52
focus more on the technology for the joinery industry by reducing the amount of over-
spray losses through the replacement of the conventional spray technique by a full-
scale multilayer flow-coat device under temperature and humidity controlled drying
conditions. CTBA presented the results of a national project about waterborne and UV
water-based systems where the first findings showed the UV water-based systems
were better than the conventional water-based ones. Some UV water-based systems
were excellent but not used in the furniture sector at present. This product could
replace the melamine system but now its cost was too high. Progress had to be made
to further improve these systems
In Paris Workshop 2001, ISKU, furniture manufacturer presented their study and
solution in their factory to replace the acid-cured system by UV waterborne systems.
In Lisbon 2002 and Paris 2004, two raw materials producers (UCB and Neoresins)
presented the recent developments in water-based polymers for the coatings industry
or new additives.
3.3.3.3. VOC Removal

The state-of-the-Art for the Wood and Furniture Industry was presented in the last
Workshop in April 2004 by CEFLA. The different systems are :
 Adsorption by activated carbon or similar products

 Adsorption with regeneration
 Direct combustion
 Catalytic combustion
 Regenerative Thermal Oxidizer System
In Italy, due to the regulation in some regions, these systems were chosen by the
furniture industry but in others countries, companies considered that it is expansive and
only large companies may buy this solution.
3.3.3.3. Performance and certification
Another part of the work in the Cost E18 group 3 was to be sure that performance of
coatings might be assessed. In April 2002, a lecture about the European Research
Project FUNFACE “Test methods on Wear Resistance and Long-Term Stability of
Furniture Surfaces was presented by the German coordinator, ihd Dresden. The
objective of the project was to improve established test methods and to develop
previously not tested quality characteristics in the field of furniture surface testing. This
contributed to the protection against changing temperatures and changing climate as
well as light resistance for prognosis of the long-term stability. Established non-unified
test methods for the determination of mechanical wear properties for resistance to
abrasion, scratching and impact showed clear weak points. The named test methods
were also a component of the work items of the European standard committee for
furniture surfaces CEN TC 207 and CEN TC 139 WG 7 and were supposed to support
its work. In this conference, you will have the main results of this project in three
papers.
In Copenhagen, February 2004, 3 papers were presented with regard to the tests
methods:
 one by ihd Dresden on the curing of the Uv-cured system

 a second by Catas about FUNFACE project
 a third by University of Ljubljana on a election of proper methods for evaluation
of finished interior surface.
53
An other contribution was made by Catas in April 2004 in Paris. As is the case for
exterior coating systems, the way of their validation (conformity or certification) is quite
well outlined, except for a number of improvements that could take place. In the case of
coating systems for furniture surfaces, given the current standardisation state, a
possible way of their validation could be as follows:
 The need to define the subject of certification: the surface of a piece of furniture or
a given coating system including the definition of the substrate and the description
of all the working steps;
 The tests to be carried out will be those which will try to reproduce the attacks that
a coated surface may be subject to in service(. Furniture targeted to various
application areas undergoes different tests. The different parts of the same piece of
furniture (vertical or horizontal surfaces) shall be considered separately;
 The requirements should also consider the expectations of the end-user versus the
performances of a surface.
3.3.4. Conclusions
At the end of the Cost E 18, we can consider that the State-of -the-Art is established.
The gaps to answer to the future were listed. Some links between universities,
institutes, and companies were established. Now new partnerships can be built for
future projects to answer to the challenges of the wood and furniture industry.
3.3.5. References
SOLJAMO K. "Solvent-Free Lacquers finding more applications in the Furniture Industry" -

COST E 18 - Paris 2001
GARD W "Implementation of the EU VOC directive in DE and NL innovation potential" - COST

E 18 - WG 3 - Lisbon - April 2002
BULIAN F. "The European directive and the Chair Triangle" - COST E 18 - WG 3 - Lisbon - April
2002
ROUX M-L - "The EU-VOC Directive in France : implementation in the Furniture & Joinery
sectors" - COST E 18 - WG 3 - Lisbon - April 2002
ROUX M-L - "Comparison of results between water-based products, UV water-based and

conventional coatings for furniture use" - COST E 18 - WG 3 - Lisbon - April 2002
EMMLER R. "The aims of the project called FUNFACE - Test methods on Wear Resistance and
Long-Term Stability of Furniture Surfaces” - COST E 18 - WG 3 - Lisbon - April 2002
CALVER S. "The UK performance requirements for surface finishes on furniture and specially
bathrooms." - COST E 18 - WG 3 - Lisbon - April 2002
DEMARNE B. "The situation of the French Furniture sector and the European VOC
Directive" - COST E 18 - WG 3 - Lisbon - April 2002
NUITJEN L. "Safe Chemistry – Safe Technology" - COST E 18 - WG 3 - Lisbon - April 2002
54
SOLJAMO K . "The EU-VOC Directive : Practical Industrial experience in the

furniture industry - COST E 18 - WG 3 - Lisbon - April 2002
BULIAN F. "Test methods for interior coatings (scratch, abrasion, impact, etc.) – a critical
overview" - COST E 18 - WG3 - Copenhagen - February 2004
PAVLIČ M. "Selection of proper methods for evaluation of finished interior surface quality"-
COST E 18 - WG3 - Copenhagen - February 2004
EMMLER R. "Methods for the testing of curing degree of UV-coatings on wood for interior use" -
COST E 18 - WG3 - Copenhagen - February 2004
GARD W. " The situation of the furniture industry in Germany and Netherlands" - COST E 18 -
WG3 - Paris - April 2004
CALVER S. " The situation regarding EPA in UK." COST E 18 - WG3 - Paris - April 2004
DEMARNE B. " The implementation et situation of the furniture in France" - COST E 18 - WG3 -
Paris - April 2004
BULIAN F. " Wood coatings performance and certification" - COST E 18 - WG3 - Paris - April
2004
ROUX M-L " Different alternatives to meet the VOC Directive" - COST E 18 - WG3 - Paris - April
2004
BLOTNICKI C. "Recent developments in water based polymers for the coatings

Industry" - COST E 18 - WG3 - Paris - April 2004
MARGUCCIO M. "End-of-pipe abatement technologies in the wood and furniture industries" -

COST E 18 - WG3 - Paris - April 2004
55
4. ACTIVITIES AND RESULTS

Organising the Action and information flow have been coordinated. All Working Group
members have presented shortly their previous work in the fjeld covered the Action in
the first working group meetings in Rosenheim. Also expectations of the members
conceming the Action were discussed during the meeting.
It was agreed that a common database concerning contact information of the

organisations involved in the action, the projects, results, supply chain benefits through
the Action and knowledge gaps will be established and therefore a contact proforma
was drafted and sent to the members. The contact proforma files have been collected
and some modifications have been carried out. The files will be linked to the web page
in spring 2002.
In the Brussels meeting, the knowledge gaps were identified and the possible
procedures in order to establish new knowledge were discussed and this discussion
will be continued in future meetings. Seminars, workshops and WG meetings have
been arranged in the areas which have been recognised as knowledge gaps. A special
seminar on "life time prediction" and two seminars on UV degradation and UV
stabilisation" were therefore arranged in 2001. Keynote speakers have presented the-
state-of-the-art of both specific areas. The projects and proposals initiated during the
Action in order to fill the gaps have been collected as a file.
The supply chain benefit has been under active discussion. It was agreed that
especially comments from end users will be of great importance and therefore some
keynote speakers in the first workshop came from that party.
Later seminars dealt with other topics identified as knowledge gaps: Lisbon in 2002
(The paint film, Modified substrates, Preservative treated substrates, Moisture content
and performance). Copenhagen 2004 (Measurements and testing).
Eventually the action was concluded at the final seminar in Paris (Photodegradation,
Wood/coating interface, Modified wod, Analytical methods, Durability, Moisture
protection, Microbiological review, Low VOC polymers, Furniture). The 3 volume
proceedings from this event constitute the final report of COST Action E-18 with
summarising papers for essential topics, each one presenting the state-of-the-art and
identified knowledge gaps.
An additional very final seminar, not originally planned, on EU’s VOC-directive and its
implications for European Furniture industry has been scheduled November 25-26
2004 in CATAS, Udine, Italy
56
5. DISSEMINATION
5.1 Publications and Workshop reports
The minutes and the proceedings have been published through the web.
5.2 Web site (http://www.vtt.fi/rte/bp/coste18)
The web site covers information on the Action, member lists of the Management
Committee and Working Groups and the objectives. Moreover, the information of
meetings like agenda and minutes have been disseminated through the web site. Also
workshop papers and database have been published in the web site. VTT Building
Technology is responsible for the web site.6.3 Scientific and technical cooperation
5.3 Proposals and STSM
Two proposals have been sent to ED Life Programme during the Action. One database
concerning research work in wood coatings and contact information has been created.
Six STSM application have been agreed and reported, The STSM scientists were from
Austria, Slovenia, Germany, the Netherlands Italy and France, The host countries have
been UK, Germany, Sweden, Italy the Netherlands and Denmark.
5.4 Transfer of results
The meetings have brought the members from institutes, universities and industry
together and fruitful discussions have taken place. Workshops have been actively
arranged in the network "UV degradation and stabilisation (2/2001). Coating and raw
material manufacturers and furniture industry have very actively participated in the
Action as MC and WG members and attended the workshops.
57
7. FUTURE ACTIVITIES
The now concluded action E-18 has created a forum of scientists from institutes and
industry with a much wider participation than previously known within the area of
coatings and wood. Before E-18 a main driving force was the group of technicians
engaged in CEN/TC 139/WG2 – Coatings for exterior wood. This group mainly
consists of representatives from the paint industry in the “old” western Europe and a
couple of institutes active in this field. E-18 has participation from several universities
as well, and from former eastern European countries. E-18 complements CEN/TC
139/WG2 with a broader perspective both on the technical and the European level.
During the final period of E-18 it has been discussed to propose a new action to
continue the work within the group of experts now established. Several active
members have expressed their wish to carry on work within some of the sectors
identified as “knowledge gaps” in combination with upcoming technologies. At the SC
meeting 2. November 2004 in Brussels has accordingly be discussed to propose new
work within
- Test method performance and precision

- UV/VIS curing coatings for exterior use
The first topic has been identified as a serious knowledge gap – both within E-18 and in
other contexts. The latter represents new promising technologies suitable to meet the
needs of industry after the implemention of EU’s solvent directive.
58
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COST Action E18 High-performance wood coating FINAL REPORT

Conference Paper · May 2005

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

1. OVERVIEW: ACTION IDENTIFICATION DATA ___________________________________ 4

2.2. ACTIVITIES OF THE THREE WORKING GROUPS ____________________________ 6

3. STATE OF THE ART REPORTS ______________________________________________ 10

3.2. PERFORMANCE OF EXTERIOR WOOD COATINGS (WG 2) ___________________ 25

3.3 HIGH PERFORMANCE ENVIRONMENTALLY FRIENDLY FINISHES FOR WOOD

3.3.3 The balance in 2004 at the end of the Cost E 18 _______________________________48

4. ACTIVITIES AND RESULTS __________________________________________________56

5.2 Web site (http://www.vtt.fi/rte/bp/coste18) ____________________________________57

5.3 Proposals and STSM _____________________________________________________57

5.4 Transfer of results _______________________________________________________57

1. OVERVIEW: ACTION IDENTIFICATION DATA

High performance wood coatings

First MC meeting: 18/11/1999

Action Web site: http://www.ctba.fr/

List of events organised by COST E18

Meetings of the Management Committee

Meetings of the Working Groups

Steering Group meeting March 17, 2000 in CTBA Paris, France

Photodegradation workshop. November 23, 2001 in BRE, Watford, UK

Measurements and testing. February 16-17. 2004 in Coating Consultancy,

Photodegradation, Wood/coating interface, Modified wod, Analytical methods,

2.1 OBJECTIVE OF THE ACTION

Means to meet the main objective

1. Through activities of the three Working Groups

2.2. ACTIVITIES OF THE THREE WORKING GROUPS

2.2.1. WG 1 Coating-wood interaction

The overarching objective is to ‘obtain a better understanding of processes

1. Improve the mutual understanding of those parties involved in research

2. Identify areas where a mismatch in scientific or technological knowledge

3. Establish ways to fill the identified gaps in knowledge by initiating

4. Propose new work programmes on the basis of the above mentioned

6. Disseminate information between COST members through networks,

Means to meet the Objectives

1. Establish a representative working group that can cover, by direct or

3. Disseminating existing, non-confidential knowledge between the COST

4. The scope of WG 1 will cover, be not restricted, to the following topics:

 Influence of wood species, properties and quality on film formation and

WG-leader : Dr Mari de Meijer

2.2.3. WG 2 Performance, durability and environmental impacts of exterior

The overarching objective is to ‘ obtain a better understanding of the factors

3. Using modern knowledge management techniques carry out a ‘meta-analysis’

5. Initiate, support, co-ordinate or manage new ‘SMART’ scientific programmes as

6. Disseminate information to COST members directly through networked

Means to meet the Objectives

1. Establish a representative working group with extended contacts within the

 Service Life Prediction and Climatic Index

WG-leader: Mr. Jon Graystone

2.2.3. WG 3. Performance, durability and environmental impacts of

The overarching objectives is to “find technologies: products and processes in

2. Identify new low VOC process technologies, which allow reductions of

these processes are included application devices and drying equipment.

3. Study the environmental aspects such as VOC emissions and waste.

4. Establish test methods where there is a need for test method

1. Identify the scientific and technological issues, which underpin the

3. Initiate, support, manage new scientific programmes as appropriate