UNIT- III

DC CHOPPERS
INTRODUCTION
A chopper is a static device which is used to obtain a variable dc voltage from a
constant dc voltage source. A chopper is also known as dc-to-dc converter. The thyristor
converter offers greater efficiency, faster response, lower maintenance, smaller size and
smooth control. Choppers are widely used in trolley cars, battery operated vehicles, traction
motor control, control of large number of dc motors, etc….. They are also used in
regenerative braking of dc motors to return energy back to supply and also as dc voltage
regulators.

Choppers are of two types

Step-down choppers
Step-up choppers.

In step-down choppers, the output voltage will be less than the input voltage whereas
in step-up choppers output voltage will be more than the input voltage.

PRINCIPLE OF STEP-DOWN CHOPPER

Chopper
i0
+

V R V0


Fig. 2.1: Step-down Chopper with Resistive Load

Figure 2.1 shows a step-down chopper with resistive load. The thyristor in the circuit
acts as a switch. When thyristor is ON, supply voltage appears across the load and when
thyristor is OFF, the voltage across the load will be zero. The output voltage and current
waveforms are as shown in figure 2.2.

1
 v0
V

Vdc

t
tON tOFF
i0

V/R
Idc
t
T

Fig. 2.2: Step-down choppers — output voltage and current waveforms

Vdc = average value of output or load voltage

Idc = average value of output or load current
tON = time interval for which SCR conducts
tOFF = time interval for which SCR is OFF.
T  tON  tOFF = period of switching or chopping period
1
f 
frequency of chopper switching or chopping frequency.
T

Average output voltage

Vdc  t 
 V t ONt  ...2.1
 ON OFF 
 tON 
V V V ...2.2
.d
dc  
T
 
 tON 
but  d  duty cycle ...2.3
 
t
 

Average output current,

Idc Vdc
 ...2.4
R
I V  tON  V ...2.5
 
dc
d  
R T  R

2
RMS value of output voltage
1 tON
 v dt
2
VO  o
T 0

But during tON , vo  V

Therefore RMS output voltage

1 tON 2
VO  T  V dt
0

VO  V 2 tON
t .V ...2.6
 T ON T

VO 
d. ...2.7
V

Output power P O  V O IO

VO
But I 
O
R

Therefore output power

V O2
PO 
R

PO  dV
2 ...2.8
R

Effective input resistance of chopper

R  ...2.9
V
i
I dc

R
R  ...2.10
i
d
The output voltage can be varied by varying the duty cycle.

METHODS OF CONTROL

The output dc voltage can be varied by the following methods.

Pulse width modulation control or constant frequency operation.
3
Variable frequency control.

PULSE WIDTH MODULATION

In pulse width modulation the pulse width tO of the output waveform is varied
N
keeping chopping frequency ‘f’ and hence chopping period ‘T’ constant. Therefore output
voltage is varied by varying the ON time, tON . Figure 2.3 shows the output voltage waveforms
for different ON times.

4
 V0

tON tOFF

t
T
V0

t
tON tOFF

Fig. 2.3: Pulse Width Modulation Control

VARIABLE FREQUENCY CONTROL

In this method of control, chopping frequency f is varied keeping either t or t

ON OFF
constant. This method is also known as frequency modulation.
Figure 2.4 shows the output voltage waveforms for a constant tON and variable
chopping period T.
In frequency modulation to obtain full output voltage, range frequency has to be varied
over a wide range. This method produces harmonics in the output and for large tOFF load
current may become discontinuous.
v0
V

tON tOFF
t
T
v0

tON tOFF
t
T

Fig. 2.4: Output Voltage Waveforms for Time Ratio Control

5
STEP-DOWN CHOPPER WITH R-L LOAD

Figure 2.5 shows a step-down chopper with R-L load and free wheeling diode. When
chopper is ON, the supply is connected across the load. Current flows from the supply to the
load. When chopper is OFF, the load current continues to flow in the same direction through
iO
the free-wheeling diode due to the energy stored in the inductor L. The load current can be
continuous or discontinuous depending on the values of L and duty cycle, d. For a continuous
current operation the load current is assumed to vary between two Imin and Imax .
limits
Figure 2.6 shows the output current and output voltage waveforms for a continuous
current and discontinuous current operation.

Chopper
i0
+
R

V V0
FWD L

E

Fig. 2.5: Step Down Chopper with R-L Load

v0
Output
voltage
V
tON
tOFF
t
i0 T
Output
Imax current

Continuous
Imin current
t
i0 Output
current
Discontinuous
current
t

Fig. 2.6: Output Voltage and Load Current Waveforms (Continuous Current)
When the current exceeds cur rent reduces to Imin .
6
Imax
the
ch
op
per
is
tur
ne
d-
off
an
d it
is
tur
ne
d-
on
wh
en

7
EXPRESSIONS FOR LOAD CURRENT iO FOR CONTINUOUS CURRENT
OPERATION WHEN CHOPPER IS ON 0  t  tON 

i0
+
R

V V0
L

E
-
Fig. 2.5 (a)

Voltage equation for the circuit shown in figure 2.5(a) is

diO
ViRL E ...2.11
O
dt

Taking Laplace Transform

V
 RI S   L
 S.I
S  E0  

...2.12
i

S O O O
S

At t  0 , initial current
iO 0   I

m

IO S   Imin
V  ER R ...2.13
  S 
LS  S  
 L L

Taking Inverse Laplace Transform

R
  t   R t

iO t   V  E ...2.14
1 e  L  Imin e  
R  

This expression is valid for 0  t  tON . i.e., during the period chopper is ON.

At the instant the chopper is turned off, load current is

iO  tON   I max

8
When Chopper is OFF
0  t  tOFF

i0

Fig. 2.5 (b)

Voltage equation for the circuit shown in figure 2.5(b) is

0  RiO diO
L E ...2.15
dt

Taking Laplace transform

E
0  RI  S   L  SI  S   i  0  
O O O
S

Redefining time origin we have at t  0 , initial current 0  

max
iO I

I R E
Therefor IO  S  S max
   R
e 
L LS  S  
 L
Taking Inverse Laplace
R R
Transform  t E t 

iO t   ...2.16
1 e 
L
Imax e L 
R 

The expression is valid for 0  t  tOFF , i.e., during the period chopper is OFF. At the
instant the chopper is turned ON or at the end of the off period, the load current is

iO  tOFF   I min

TO FIND I AND I
max min

9
From equation (2.14),

At t  tON 
iO t   Imax
dT,

10
 VE dRT dRT

 

Therefor Imax    Imin e

L
...2.17
1
L
e e
R  

From equation (2.16),

At t  tOFF  T  tON ,
iO t   Imin

t  tOFF  1 d T

1d RT 1d RT 

Therefor Imin  Imax e  E 
...2.18
e
L  1 e L
R  
Substituting for I in equation (2.17) we get,
min

dRT
  
V 1 e L ...2.19
I   E
max
R  RT 
R
 1 L 
e 

Substituting for I in equation (2.18) we get,

max

 dRT 
V  e L 1  E ...2.20
I  
min
R  RT  R
 e L 1 

 I max  I min is known as the steady state ripple.



Therefore peak-to-peak ripple current

I  Imax  Imin

Average output voltage

Vdc  d.V ...2.21

Average output current

Imax  Imin
I  ...2.22
dcapprox
2

Assuming load current varies linearly fr om Imin

11
to Imax ins tantan eous load current is given by

iO  I min  I for 0  t  tON dT 

.t
dT

12
 iI
 Imax  Imin  ...2.23
t

O min 
dT
 

RMS value of load current

1 dT
 i dt
2
IORMS   0
dT 0

2
1 dT   I maxmin
It  
dT 0 
IORMS    I   dt
min
dT 

1 dT  2 I I 2 2minmaxmin
2I I I t 
IORMS   
dT 0 
I min

maxmin
dT
t
dT
 dt


RMS value of output current

1
I 
2I    Imin 
max 2
I I I  2
...2.24
I 3
ORMS 
 min min max min
 

RMS chopper current

1 dT
 i dt
2
ICH  0
T 0

1 dT   I I 2
ICH   Imin   maxmin
T 0 dT t dt

 1
I  I  Imin 
2  
2 2
I
d
max
I I
I 
CH min min max min
 
3

ICH 
d IORMS  ...2.25

Effective input resistance is

V
R
i
IS

Where IS = Average source current

13
 IS  dIdc

Therefore V
Ri  ...2.26
dI dc

14
PRINCIPLE OF STEP-UP CHOPPER

I L D
+
+ 

LOAD
V C VO

Chopper

Fig. 2.13: Step-up Chopper

Figure 2.13 shows a step-up chopper to obtain a load voltage VO higher than the input
voltage V. The values of L and C are chosen depending upon the requirement of output
voltage and current. When the chopper is ON, the inductor L is connected across the supply.
The inductor current ‘I’ rises and the inductor stores energy during the ON time of the
chopper, tON
. When the chopper is off, the inductor current I is forced to flow through the diode D and
load for a period, tOFF . The current tends to decrease resulting in reversing the polarity of
induced EMF in L. Therefore voltage across load is given by

V VL
dI i.e. VO  V ...2.27
,
O

dt

If a large capacitor ‘C’ is connected across the load then the capacitor will provide a
continuous output voltage VO . Diode D prevents any current flow from capacitor to the
source. Step up choppers are used for regenerative braking of dc motors.

EXPRESSION FOR OUTPUT VOLTAGE

Assume the average inductor current to be I during ON and OFF time of Chopper.

When Chopper is ON
Voltage across inductor L V

Therefore energy stored in inductor = V ...2.28 ,

.I.tON

wher tON  ON period of chopper.

e

15
When Chopper is OFF (energy is supplied by inductor to load)

Voltage across L  VO V

16
 Energy supplied by inductor L  VO V  ItOFF , tOFF  OFF period of
where Chopper.

Neglecting losses, energy stored in inductor L = energy supplied by inductor L

Therefor
e VItON  VO V  ItOFF

V tON  tOFF 
VO 
tOFF
 T 
V V 
O  ON 
Tt 
Where T = Chopping period or period of switching.

T  tON  tOFF

 

1 
V V
O  t 
 1 ON 
 T 
 1
Therefor
e V V ...2.29
 
1 d 
O

tON
Wher d  duty cyle
e T

For variation of duty cycle ‘d’ in the range

0  d 1 the output voltage VO will vary in the
of range V  VO   .

PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS

The thyristor requires a certain minimum time to turn ON and turn OFF. Hence duty
cycle d can be varied only between a minimum and a maximum value, limiting the minimum
and maximum value of the output voltage. Ripple in the load current depends inversely on the
chopping frequency, f. Therefore to reduce the load ripple current, frequency should be as
high as possible.

CLASSIFICATION OF CHOPPERS
Choppers are classified as
follows Class A Chopper
Class B Chopper
Class C Chopper
Class D Chopper
17
Class E Chopper
CLASS A CHOPPER

i0 v0
+

Chopper
LOAD
V v0 V
FWD


i0

Fig. 2.14: Class A Chopper and vO  iO Characteristic

Figure 2.14 shows a Class A Chopper circuit with inductive load and free-wheeling
diode. When chopper is ON, supply voltage V is connected across the load i.e., vO  V and
current i0 flows as shown in figure. When chopper is OFF, v0 = 0 and the load current iO
continues to flow in the same direction through the free wheeling diode. Therefore the average
values of output voltage and current i.e., vO and iO are always positive. Hence, Class A
Chopper is a first quadrant chopper (or single quadrant chopper). Figure 2.15 shows output
voltage and current waveforms for a continuous load current.

ig
Thyristor gate pulse

t
i0
Output current

CH ON
t
v0 FWD Conducts
Output voltage

t
tON
T

Fig. 2.15: First quadrant Chopper - Output Voltage and Current Waveforms

18
 Class A Chopper is a step-down chopper in which power always flows from source to
load. It is used to control the speed of dc motor. The output current equations obtained in step
down chopper with R-L load can be used to study the performance of Class A Chopper.

CLASS B CHOPPER
D
v0
i
0
+
R

V L v0
Chopper
i0
E


Fig. 2.16: Class B Chopper

Fig. 2.16 shows a Class B Chopper circuit. When chopper is ON, vO  0 and E drives a
current iO through L and R in a direction opposite to that shown in figure 2.16. During the ON
period of the chopper, the inductance L stores energy. When Chopper is OFF, diode D
conducts, vO  V and part of the energy stored in inductor L is returned to the supply. Also the
current iO continues to flow from the load to source. Hence the average output voltage is
positive and average output current is negative. Therefore Class B Chopper operates in
second quadrant. In this chopper, power flows from load to source. Class B Chopper is used
for regenerative braking of dc motor. Figure 2.17 shows the output voltage and current
waveforms of a Class B Chopper.
The output current equations can be obtained as follows. During the interval diode ‘D’
conducts (chopper is off) voltage equation is given by
i0
+
D
Conducting R

V V0
L

E
-
LdiO
V  Ri  E
dt O

For the initial condition i.e., iO t   Imin at t  0 .

The solution of the above equation is obtained along similar lines as in step-down
chopper with R-L load

19
 R
 E
V  t R
 t
Therefore iO t    Imin e
L
1 e 0  t  tOFF
L


R  

At t  tOFF iO t   Imax

VE 
R
t  R
 t
I   1 L OFF
e OFF

  Imin e
L
max
R 


During the interval chopper is ON voltage equation is given by

i0
+
R

Chopper V0
ON L

E
-
LdiO
0  Ri  E
dt O

Redefining the time origin, at t  0

iO t   Imax .

The solution for the stated initial condition is

RR
E  t t  

 t 
iO  Imaxe L 1 e L  0  t  tON
R 

At t  iO t  
tON Imin

R R
  t
E  t 
Therefore I I e ON 1 e L ON
L
min max
 R 

20
 ig
Thyristor gate pulse

t
i0 tOFF tON

T
t
Output current
Imax
Imin D Chopper conducts
conducts

v0 Output voltage

Fi g. 2.17: Class B r - Output Voltage and Current Waveforms

Choppe
CLASS C C
Clas HOPPER ion of Class A and Class B Choppers. Figure 2.18 shows
a Class C t s C Chopper is a cuit. For first quadrant operation, CH1 is ON or D2
conducts an combinat wo quadrant ration, CH2 is ON or D1 conducts. When CH1 is ON,
Chopper cir
the load curr flows in the direction as shown in figure 2.18.
d for second quadrant
The ope ent i is positive. V vO  V  and the load receives power from the
O

source.

CH
1 D1
i0 v0
+
R
V
CH D2 L v0
2

Chopper
i0
E 

Fig. 2.18: Class C Chopper

When CH1 is turned OFF, energy stored in inductance L forces current to flow through

21
the diode D2 and the output voltage vO  0 , but iO continues to flow in positive direction.
When CH2 is triggered, the voltage E forces iO to flow in opposite direction through L and

22
CH2 . The output voltage v  0 . On turning OFF CH , the energy stored in the inductance
O 2

drives current through diode D1 and the supply; output voltage vO  V the input current
becomes negative and power flows from load to source.
Thus the average output voltage vO is positive but the average output current iO can
take both positive and negative values. Choppers CH1 an CH2 should not be turned ON
d
simultaneously as it would result in short circuiting the supply. Class C Chopper can be used
both for dc motor control and regenerative braking of dc motor. Figure 2.19 shows the output
voltage and current waveforms.

ig1
Gate pulse of CH1

t
ig2 Gate pulse of CH2

t
i0
Output current

D1CH1D2CH2D1CH1D2CH2 ONONONON

V0
Output voltage

Fig. 2.19: Class C Chopper - Output Voltage and Current Waveforms

CLASS D CHOPPER

v0
CH1 D2

R i0 L E
V
+ v0  i0
CH2
D1

Fig. 2.20: Class D Chopper

Figure 2.20 shows a class D two quadrant chopper circuit. When both CH1 and CH
2

23
are triggered simultaneously, the output voltage vO  V and output current iO flows through

24
the load in the direction shown in figure 2.20. When CH1 and CH are turned OFF, the load
2

current iO continues to flow in the same direction through load, D1 and D2 , due to the energy
stored in the inductor L, but output voltage v  V . The average load voltage v is positive
O O

if chopper ON-time tON  is more than their OFF-  tOFF and average output voltage
time

becomes negative if tON  tOFF . Hence the direction of load current is always positive but load
voltage can be positive or negative. Waveforms are shown in figures 2.21 and 2.22.
ig1
Gate pulse of CH1

t
ig2 Gate pulse of CH2

t
i0
Output current

t
CH1,CH2 D1,D2 Conducting
ON
v0 Output voltage
V

Average v0
t

Fig. 2.21: Output Voltage and Current Waveforms for tON  tOFF

25
 ig1
Gate pulse of CH1

t
ig2 Gate pulse of CH2

t
i0
Output current

CH1 CH2
t
D1, D2
v0 Output voltage
V
t
Average v0

Fig. 2.22: Output Voltage and Current Waveforms for tON  tOFF

CLASS E CHOPPER

CH1 D1 CH3 D3

i0 R L E
V
+ 
v0 CH4
CH2 D2 D4

Fig. 2.23: Class E Chopper

26
 v0
CH2 - D4 Conducts CH1 - CH4 ON
D1 - D4 Conducts CH4 - D2 Conducts

i0

CH3 - CH2 ON D2 - D3 Conducts

CH2 - D4 Conducts CH4 - D2 Conducts

Fig. 2.23(a): Four Quadrant Operation

Figure 2.23 shows a class E 4 quadrant chopper circuit. When CH1 an CH4 are
d
triggered, output current iO flows in positive direction as shown in figure 2.23 through CH1
and CH4 , with output voltage vO  V . This gives the first quadrant operation. When both CH1
an CH4 are OFF, the energy stored in the inductor L drives iO through and in the
d D3 D2
same direction, but output voltage vO  V . Therefore the chopper operates in the fourth
quadrant. For fourth quadrant operation the direction of battery must be reversed. When CH2
an CH3 are triggered, the load current iO flows in opposite direction and output voltage
d
vO  V .
Since both iO and vO are negative, the chopper operates in third quadrant. When both
CH 2 and CH 3 are OFF, the load current iO continues to flow in the same direction through D1
and D4 and the output voltage vO  V . Therefore the chopper operates in second quadrant as
vO is positive but iO is negative. Figure 2.23(a) shows the devices which are operative in
different quadrants.

EFFECT OF SOURCE AND LOAD INDUCTANCE

In choppers, the source inductance should be as small as possible to limit the transient
voltage. Usually an input filter is used to overcome the problem of source inductance. Also
source inductance may cause commutation problem for the chopper. The load ripple current
is inversely proportional to load inductance and chopping frequency. Therefore the peak load
current depends on load inductance. To limit the load ripple current, a smoothing inductor is
connected in series with the load.

Problem 2.1 : For the first quadrant chopper shown in figure 2.24, express the following
variables as functions of V, R and duty cycle ‘d’ in case load is resistive.
Average output voltage and current
Output current at the instant of commutation
Average and rms free wheeling diode current.
RMS value of output voltage
27
RMS and average thyristor currents.

28
 i0
+

Chopper
LOAD

V FWD v0


Fig. 6.24.
Solution
 tON 
Average output voltage, V  V  dV
dc  
T
 

Average output current, I

Vdc dV
dc
 
R R

The thyristor is commutated at the instant t  tON .

V
Therefore output current at the instant of commutation is , since V is the output
R
voltage at that instant.
Free wheeling diode (FWD) will never conduct in a resistive load. Therefore average and
RMS free wheeling diode currents are zero.

RMS value of output voltage

1 tON
 v dt
2
VORMS  0
T
 0

But during tON

vO 
V

1 tON
VORMS   T  V 2dt
0

V 2  tON 
VORMS   T


VORMS   dV

tON
Where duty cycle, d
T

29
RMS value of thyristor current

30
 = RMS value of load current
VORMS 
 R

dV
 R

Average value of thyristor current

= Average value of load current

dV
 R

Problem 2.2 : A Chopper circuit is operating on TRC at a frequency of 2 kHz on a 460 V

supply. If the load voltage is 350 volts, calculate the conduction period of the thyristor in
each cycle.

Solution
V = 460 Vd = 350 V, f = 2 kHz
V, c

1
Chopping period T
f
T  0.5 m sec
1
3
210
tON 
Output voltage V  V
dc  
 T 

Conduction period of thyristor

tON T Vdc
 V
0.5103  350
tON 
460

tON  0.38 msec

Problem 2.3 : Input to the step up chopper is 200 V. The output required is 600 V. If the
conducting time of thyristor is 200 ssec. Compute
Chopping frequency,
If the pulse width is halved for constant frequency of operation, find the new output voltage.
Solution
V = 200 tON  200 s , Vdc  600V
V,

31
  T 
Vdc  V  
Tt
 ON 

32
  T 
600  200
 6 
Solving for T  20010 
T
T  300 s

Chopping frequency
1
f
T
1
f   3.33KHz
6
300 10

Pulse width is halved

20010
Therefor tON  6  100 s
e
2

Frequency is constant

Therefore f  3.33KHz

1
T
f  300 s
 T 
Therefore output voltage =V 
  ON 
Tt
300106 


200  300 Volts
  300  100 106 

Problem 2.4: A dc chopper has a resistive load of 20

and input voltage VS  220V . When

chopper is ON, its voltage drop is 1.5 volts and chopping frequency is 10 kHz. If the duty cycle
is 80%, determine the average output voltage and the chopper on time.

Solution
VS  220V , R  20, f = 10 kHz

tON
d
T  0.80

Vch = Voltage drop across chopper = 1.5 volts

33
Average output voltage

34
 t 
Vdc   ON  VS V ch
T
 

Vdc  0.80220 1.5  174.8 Volts

Chopper ON time, tON  dT

1
Chopping period, T
f
1
T  0.1103 secs  100 μsecs
10 3
10
Chopper ON time,
tON  dT

t  0.800.1103
O

tON
 0.08103  80 μsecs

Problem 2.5: In a dc chopper, the average load current is 30 Amps, chopping frequency is
250 Hz. Supply voltage is 110 volts. Calculate the ON and OFF periods of the chopper if the
load resistance is 2 ohms.

Solution
Idc  30 Amps , f = 250 Hz, V = 110 V, R  2

1 1
Chopping period, T   4103  4 msecs
f 250

Idc 
Vdc and  dV
R Vdc

Therefor Idc dV
e  R

Idc R 30  2
d   0.545
V 110

Chopper ON period,
tO  dT  0.545 4103  2.18 msecs
N

Chopper OFF period,

tOFF  T  tON

35
tOFF
 4103  2.18103

tOFF
1.82103 1.82 msec

36
Problem 2.6: A dc chopper in figure 2.25 has a resistive load R 10 and input voltage of
of
V = 200 V. When chopper is ON, its voltage drop is 2 V and the chopping frequency is 1 kHz.
If the duty cycle is 60%, determine
Average output voltage
RMS value of output voltage
Effective input resistance of chopper
Chopper efficiency.

Chopper
i0
+

v0
V R


Fig. 2.25
Solution

V = 200 R 10 , Chopper voltage drop, Vch  2V , d = 0.60, f = 1 kHz.

V,

Average output voltage

Vdc  d V Vch 

Vdc  0.60200  2  118.8 Volts

RMS value of output voltage

VO  d V Vch 
VO  0.6 200  2  153.37 Volts

Effective input resistance of chopper is

V V
R 
i IS Idc

Idc 118.8
   11.88 Amps
Vdc
10
R
V V
R  200  16.83
i IS Idc  11.88
37
Output power is

38
 dT 2
PO  1  0vdt
T 0R
2
1
dT
V V 
T
PO  ch
dt
0 R

d V Vch 2
PO 
R

0.6  200 
PO  2  2352.24 watts
2
dT 10
1
Input power, Pi 
T  Vi dt
0
O

1
dT
V V V 
T 0
PO  ch
dt
R

dV V Vch  0.6 200200  2

P O   2376 watts
R 10

Chopper efficiency,
PO
 100
Pi

2352.24
 100  99%
2376

IMPULSE COMMUTATED CHOPPER

Impulse commutated choppers are widely used in high power circuits where load
fluctuation is not large. This chopper is also known as parallel capacitor turn-off chopper or
voltage commutated chopper or classical chopper.

Fig. 2.28 shows an impulse commutated chopper with two thyristors T1 and T2. We
shall assume that the load current remains constant at a value IL during the commutation
process.

To start the circuit, capacitor ‘C’ is initially charged with polarity (with plate ‘a’
positive) as shown in the fig. 2.28 by triggering the thyristor T2. Capacitor ‘C’ gets charged
through ‘VS’, ‘C’, T2 and load. As the charging current decays to zero thyristor T2 will be
turned- off. With capacitor charged with plate ‘a’ positive the circuit is ready for operation.
For convenience the chopper operation is divided into five modes.

39
 LS T1 iT1
+ a + IL +

b
_C T2
iC FWD
V L
v
S O O

L D1
_ _

Fig. 2.28

MODE – 1
Thyristor T1 is fired at t = 0. The supply voltage comes across the load. Load current IL
flows through T1 and load. At the same time capacitor discharges through T1, D1, L1, and ‘C’
and the capacitor reverses its voltage. This reverse voltage on capacitor is held constant by
diode D1. Fig. 2.29 shows the equivalent circuit of Mode 1.

LS T1

+ + IL
VC _C iC LOAD
VS

L D1
_

Fig. 2.29
Capacitor Discharge Current

iC t   C sint
V L

i t   I sint ; where I  V C
C P P L
1
Where 
LC

& Capacitor Voltage

40
VC t   V cost

41
MODE – 2
Thyristor T2 is now fired to commutate thyristor T1. When T2 is ON capacitor voltage
reverse biases T1 and turns it off. Now the capacitor discharges through the load from –VS to
0 and the discharge time is known as circuit turn-off time.

Circuit turn-off time is given by

VC  C
tC
IL
Where IL is load current.

Since tC depends on load current, it must be designed for the worst case condition
which occur at the maximum value of load current and minimum value of capacitor voltage.
Then the capacitor recharges back to the supply voltage (with plate ‘a’ positive). This
time is called the recharging time and is given by

VS C
td
IL

The total time required for the capacitor to discharge and recharge is called the
commutation time and it is given by

tr  tC  td

At the end of Mode-2 capacitor has recharged to ‘VS’ and the free wheeling diode starts
conducting. The equivalent circuit for Mode-2 is shown in fig. 2.30.

IL

+ LS _ IL
VC C L
VS + T2 O
A
_

Fig. 2.30.
MODE – 3
Free wheeling diode FWD starts conducting and the load current decays. The energy
stored in source inductance LS is transferred to capacitor. Instantaneous current is
i t   I L cost Hence capacitor charges to a voltage higher than supply voltage. T2 naturally
turns-off.

The instantaneous capacitor voltage is

42
 V t   V  I LS C sin t
C S L S

Where 1
S 
LS C

Fig. 2.31 shows the equivalent circuit of Mode – 3.

IL

+ LS IL
+
VS _C T2
L
VS
O
FWD A
_

Fig. 2.31
MODE – 4
Since the capacitor has been overcharged i.e. its voltage is above supply voltage it
starts discharging in reverse direction. Hence capacitor current becomes negative. The
capacitor discharges through LS, VS, FWD, D1 and L. When this current reduces to zero D1
will stop conducting and the capacitor voltage will be same as the supply voltage fig. 2.32
shows in equivalent circuit of Mode – 4.

LS

+ + IL
VC _C LOAD
D1
VS
L
_ FWD

Fig. 2.32

MODE – 5
In mode 5 both thyristors are off and the load current flows through the free wheeling
diode (FWD). This mode will end once thyristor T1 is fired. The equivalent circuit for mode 5
is shown in fig. 2.33

43
 IL FWD
LOAD

Fig. 2.33

Fig. 2.34 shows the current and voltage waveforms for a voltage commutated chopper.

ic Capacitor Current
IL
0 t
Ip
iT1

IL Ip Current through T1
vT1
t
V Voltage across T1
c t
0
vo
Vs+Vc Output Voltage
Vs t
vc

Vc t
Capacitor Voltage
-Vc tc
td
Fig. 2.34

Though voltage commutated chopper is a simple circuit it has the following

disadvantages.
A starting circuit is required and the starting circuit should be such that it triggers thyristor T2
first.
Load voltage jumps to twice the supply voltage when the commutation is initiated.
The discharging and charging time of commutation capacitor are dependent on the load current
and this limits high frequency operation, especially at low load current.
Chopper cannot be tested without connecting load.
Thyristor T1 has to carry load current as well as resonant current resulting in increasing its
peak current rating.

44
Jone’s Chopper

+
T1 C

T2

D
V L2
L1

+
R
v0
FWD
L

Fig. 2.35: Jone’s Chopper

Figure 2.35 shows a Jone’s Chopper circuit for an inductive load with free wheeling
diode. Jone’s Chopper is an example of class D commutation. Two thyristors are used, T 1 is
the main thyristor and T2 is the auxiliary thyristor. Commutating circuit for T 1 consists of
thyristor T2, capacitor C, diode D and autotransformer (L1 and L2).
Initially thyristor T2 is turned ON and capacitor C is charged to a voltage V with a
polarity as shown in figure 2.35. As C charges, the charging current through thyristor T2
decays exponentially and when current falls below holding current level, thyristor T 2 turns
OFF by itself. When thyristor T1 is triggered, load current flows through thyristor T1, L2 and
load. The capacitor discharges through thyristor T1, L1 and diode D. Due to resonant action
of the auto transformer inductance L2 and capacitance C, the voltage across the capacitor
reverses after some time.
It is to be noted that the load current in L1 induces a voltage in L2 due to
autotransformer action. Due to this voltage in L2 in the reverse direction, the capacitor
charges to a voltage greater than the supply voltage. (The capacitor now tries to discharge in
opposite direction but it is blocked by diode D and hence capacitor maintains the reverse
voltage across it). When thyristor T1 is to be commutated, thyristor T2 is turned ON resulting
in connecting capacitor C directly across thyristor T1. Capacitor voltage reverse biases
thyristor T1 and turns it off. The capacitor again begins to charge through thyristor T2 and
the load for the next cycle of operation.
The various waveforms are shown in figure 2.36

45
Ig Gate pulse of T2 Gate pulse of T1 Gate pulse of T2

VC
+V Capacitor Voltage

Resonant action

V
Auto transformer action
tC

Capacitor discharge current

Current of T1
IL

Voltage across T1
IL

tC

46
THYRISTOR COMMUTATION TECHNIQUES

INTRODUCTION
In practice it becomes necessary to turn off a conducting thyristor. (Often thyristors
are used as switches to turn on and off power to the load). The process of turning off a
conducting thyristor is called commutation. The principle involved is that either the anode
should be made negative with respect to cathode (voltage commutation) or the anode current
should be reduced below the holding current value (current commutation).
The reverse voltage must be maintained for a time at least equal to the turn-off time of
SCR otherwise a reapplication of a positive voltage will cause the thyristor to conduct even
without a gate signal. On similar lines the anode current should be held at a value less than the
holding current at least for a time equal to turn-off time otherwise the SCR will start
conducting if the current in the circuit increases beyond the holding current level even
without a gate signal. Commutation circuits have been developed to hasten the turn-off
process of Thyristors. The study of commutation techniques helps in understanding the
transient phenomena under switching conditions.
The reverse voltage or the small anode current condition must be maintained for a
time at least equal to the TURN OFF time of SCR; Otherwise the SCR may again start
conducting. The techniques to turn off a SCR can be broadly classified as
Natural Commutation
Forced
Commutation.

NATURAL COMMUTATION (CLASS F)

This type of commutation takes place when supply voltage is AC, because a negative
voltage will appear across the SCR in the negative half cycle of the supply voltage and the
SCR turns off by itself. Hence no special circuits are required to turn off the SCR. That is the
reason that this type of commutation is called Natural or Line Commutation. Figure 1.1
shows the circuit where natural commutation takes place and figure 1.2 shows the related
waveforms. tc
is the time offered by the circuit within which the SCR should turn off completely. Thus tc
should be greater than tq , the turn off time of the SCR. Otherwise, the SCR will become
forward biased before it has turned off completely and will start conducting even without a
gate signal.
T
+

vs ~ R  vo

Fig. 1.1: Circuit for Natural Commutation

47
 Supply voltage vs Sinusoidal

 3 t
02

t

Load voltage vo
Turn off occurs here

t

 3 t
0 2

Voltage across SCR

tc

Fig. 1.2: Natural Commutation – Waveforms of Supply and Load Voltages (Resistive
Load)

This type of commutation is applied in ac voltage controllers, phase controlled

rectifiers and cyclo converters.

FORCED COMMUTATION
When supply is DC, natural commutation is not possible because the polarity of the
supply remains unchanged. Hence special methods must be used to reduce the SCR current
below the holding value or to apply a negative voltage across the SCR for a time interval
greater than the turn off time of the SCR. This technique is called FORCED
COMMUTATION and is applied in all circuits where the supply voltage is DC - namely,
Choppers (fixed DC to variable DC), inverters (DC to AC). Forced commutation techniques
are as follows:
Self Commutation
Resonant Pulse Commutation
Complementary Commutation
Impulse Commutation
External Pulse Commutation.
Load Side Commutation.
Line Side Commutation.

48
SELF COMMUTATION OR LOAD COMMUTATION OR CLASS A
COMMUTATION: (COMMUTATION BY RESONATING THE LOAD)
In this type of commutation the current through the SCR is reduced below the holding
current value by resonating the load. i.e., the load circuit is so designed that even though the
supply voltage is positive, an oscillating current tends to flow and when the current through
the SCR reaches zero, the device turns off. This is done by including an inductance and a
capacitor in series with the load and keeping the circuit under-damped. Figure 1.3 shows the
circuit.
This type of commutation is used in Series Inverter Circuit.

L Vc(0)
T R + -
i
Load C

Fig. 1.3: Circuit for Self Commutation

49
 C
VL
Current i

t
0 /2 

2V
Capacitor voltage
V
t

Gate pulse

t

t

V Voltage across SCR

Fig. 1.5: Self Commutation – Wave forms of Current and Capacitors Voltage

RESONANT PULSE COMMUTATION (CLASS B COMMUTATION)

The circuit for resonant pulse commutation is shown in figure 1.12.

L
T
i
ab
C

IL
V Load
FWD

50
 Fig. 1.12: Circuit for Resonant Pulse Commutation

This is a type of commutation in which a LC series circuit is connected across the

SCR. Since the commutation circuit has negligible resistance it is always under-damped i.e.,
the current in LC circuit tends to oscillate whenever the SCR is on.

Initially the SCR is off and the capacitor is charged to V volts with plate ‘a’ being
positive. Referring to figure 1.13 at t  the SCR is turned ON by giving a gate pulse. A
t1
current IL flows through the load and this is assumed to be constant. At the same time SCR
short circuits the LC combination which starts oscillating. A current ‘i’ starts flowing in the
direction shown in figure. As ‘i’ reaches its maximum value, the capacitor voltage reduces to
zero and then the polarity of the capacitor voltage reverses ‘b’ becomes positive). When ‘i’
falls to zero this reverse voltage becomes maximum, and then direction of ‘i’ reverses i.e.,
through SCR the load current IL and ‘i’ flow in opposite direction. When the instantaneous
value of ‘i’ becomes equal to IL , the SCR current becomes zero and the SCR turns off. Now
the capacitor starts charging and its voltage reaches the supply voltage with plate a being
positive. The related waveforms are shown in figure 1.13.
Gate pulse of SCR

t
t1
V
Capacitor voltage vab

tC
Ip i

t

IL 
t
ISCR

Voltage across SCR

Fig. 1.13: Resonant Pulse Commutation – Various Waveforms

51
ALTERNATE CIRCUIT FOR RESONANT PULSE COMMUTATION
The working of the circuit can be explained as follows. The capacitor C is assumed to
be charged to VC  0  with polarity as shown, T1 is conducting and the load current I L is a
constant. To turn offT1 , T2 is triggered. L, C, T and T forms a resonant circuit. A resonant
1 2

current ic t  flows in the direction shown, i.e., in a direction opposite to that of load current
IL
.
C
ic t 
Ip (refer to the previous circuit description). Where I p  0 L &
= VC
sint
and the capacitor voltage is given by
1
v t   i t .dt
c
C
 C

v t  VC
1 sin t.dt .
0 C
c
C L

vc t   VC 0cost
T1 iC(t) IL

C L T2
ab
iC(t)
 +
VC(0) LOAD
V T3
FWD

Fig. 1.16: Resonant Pulse Commutation – An Alternate Circuit

Whe
n ic t becomes equal to IL (the load current), the current through T1 becomes

zero and T1 turns off. This happens at time t1 such that

52
IL  I p t1
sin
LC

I p  VC C
 0 L

53
 t1  LC sin1  IL L
 VC 0 C 

and the corresponding capacitor voltage is

vc t1   V1  VC 0cost1

Once the thyristor turns off, the capacitor starts charging towards the supply voltage
T1
through T2 and load. As the capacitor charges through the load capacitor current is same as
load current I L , which is constant. When the capacitor voltage reaches V, the supply voltage,
the FWD starts conducting and the energy stored in L charges C to a still higher voltage. The
triggering of T3 reverses the polarity of the capacitor voltage and the circuit is ready for
another triggering of T1 . The waveforms are shown in figure 1.17.

EXPRESSION FOR tc
Assuming a constant load current IL which charges the capacitor

CV1
t seconds
c
IL

Normally V1  VC 0

For reliable commutation tc should be greater than tq , the turn off time of SCR T1 . It is
to be noted that tc depends upon I and becomes smaller for higher values of load current.
L

54
 Current iC(t)

V
Capacitor voltage vab

t
t1

V1

tC
VC(0)

Fig. 1.17: Resonant Pulse Commutation – Alternate Circuit – Various Waveforms

RESONANT PULSE COMMUTATION WITH ACCELERATING DIODE

D2
iC(t)

T1 IL
C L iC(t) T2

- +
VC(0)
LOAD
T3
V
FWD

Fig. 1.17(a)

55
 iC
IL

0 t
VC

0 t
t1 t2
V1
VC(O) tC

Fig. 1.17(b)

A diode D2 is connected as shown in the figure 1.17(a) to accelerate the discharging of

the capacitor ‘C’. When thyristor T2 is fired a resonant current iC  t flows through the

capacitor and thyristorT1 . At time t  t1 , the capacitor current iC t  equals the load current IL
and hence current through T1 is reduced to zero resulting in turning off of T1 . Now the
capacitor
current iC t  continues to flow through the diode until it reduces to load current level IL
D2
at time t . Thus the presence of D has accelerated the discharge of capacitor ‘C’. Now the
2 2

capacitor gets charged through the load and the charging current is constant. Once capacitor is
fully charged T2 turns off by itself. But once current of thyristor T1 reduces to zero the reverse
voltage appearing across is the forward voltage drop of which is very small. This makes
T1 D2
the thyristor recovery process very slow and it becomes necessary to provide longer reverse
bias time.
From figure 1.17(b)

t2   LC  t1

VC t2   VC  O cos t2

Circuit turn-off time

tC  t2  t1
COMPLEMENTARY COMMUTATION (CLASS C COMMUTATION, PARALLEL
CAPACITOR COMMUTATION)

In complementary commutation the current can be transferred between two loads. Two
SCRs are used and firing of one SCR turns off the other. The circuit is shown in figure 1.21.
56
 IL

R1 R2
ab iC
V
C
T1 T2

Fig. 1.21: Complementary Commutation

The working of the circuit can be explained as follows.
Initially both and T2 are off; Now, is fired. Load current IL flows through R1 . At
T1 T1
the same time, the capacitor C gets charged to V volts through R2 and T1 (‘b’ becomes positive
with respect to ‘a’). When the capacitor gets fully charged, the capacitor current ic becomes
zero.
To turn off T1 , T2 is fired; the voltage across C comes across T1 and reverse biases it,
hence turns off. At the same time, the load current flows through R2 and T2 . The capacitor
T1
‘C’ charges towards V through R1 and and is finally charged to V volts with ‘a’ plate
T2
positive. When the capacitor is fully charged, the capacitor current becomes zero. To turn off
T2 , T1 is triggered, the capacitor voltage (with ‘a’ positive) comes across T2 and T2 turns off.
The related waveforms are shown in figure 1.22.
Gate pulse of T1 Gate pulse of T2
t
p
V
IL 2V
V R1
Current through R1 R
1 t

Current through T1 2V
R2
V
R1
t

2V R1 Current through T2

V
R2
t
V
Voltage across capacitor vab

-V
tC tC

Voltage across T1
t

57
 tC

58
IMPULSE COMMUTATION (CLASS D COMMUTATION)
The circuit for impulse commutation is as shown in figure 1.25.

T1 IL

T3  C
VC(O)+
L LOAD
T2
V
FWD

Fig. 1.25: Circuit for Impulse Commutation

The working of the circuit can be explained as follows. It is assumed that initially the
capacitor C is charged to a voltage VC O with polarity as shown. Let the thyristor T1 be
conducting and carry a load current I . If the thyristor T is to be turned off, T is fired. The
L 1 2

capacitor voltage comes across T1 , T1 is reverse biased and it turns off. Now the capacitor
starts charging through T2 and the load. The capacitor voltage reaches V with top plate being
positive. By this time the capacitor charging current (current through T2 ) would have reduced
to zero and T2 automatically turns off. Now and T2 are both off. Before firing T1 again,
T1
the capacitor voltage should be reversed. This is done by turning on T3 , C discharges through
T3 and L and the capacitor voltage reverses. The waveforms are shown in figure

Gate pulse of T2 Gate pulse of T3 Gate pulse of T1

t

VS
Capacitor voltage

VC
tC

Voltage across T1
t

VC

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Fig. 1.26: Impulse Commutation – Waveforms of Capacitor Voltage, Voltage across T1 .

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AN ALTERNATIVE CIRCUIT FOR IMPULSE COMMUTATION
Is shown in figure 1.27.
T1 IT1 i
VC(O) +
_C

T2
D

V
L

IL R L

Fig. 1.27: Impulse Commutation – An Alternate Circuit

The working of the circuit can be explained as follows:
Initially let the voltage across the capacitor be VC O with the top plate positive. Now
T1 is triggered. Load current flows through T1 and load. At the same time, C discharges
through T1 , L and D (the current is ‘i’) and the voltage across C reverses i.e., the bottom plate
becomes positive. The diode D ensures that the bottom plate of the capacitor remains
positive.
To turn off T1 , T2 is triggered; the voltage across the capacitor comes across T1 . T1 is
reverse biased and it turns off (voltage commutation). The capacitor now starts charging
through and load. When it charges to V volts (with the top plate positive), the current
T2
through T2 becomes zero and T2 automatically turns off.
The related waveforms are shown in figure 1.28.

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 Gate pulse of T1 Gate pulse of T2

VC
Capacitor voltage

V
tC
This is due to i
IT1 I
L
Current through SCR V RL

2V RL

IL
Load current

V Voltage across T1

tC

Fig. 1.28: Impulse Commutation – (Alternate Circuit) – Various Waveforms

EXTERNAL PULSE COMMUTATION (CLASS E COMMUTATION)

T1 L T3
T2

+ 2VAUX 
VS RL C VAUX

Fig. 1.34: External Pulse Commutation

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 In this type of commutation an additional source is required to turn-off the conducting
thyristor. Figure 1.34 shows a circuit for external pulse commutation. VS is the main voltage
source and VAUX is the auxiliary supply. Assume thyristor T1 is conducting and load RL is
connected across supplyVS . When thyristor T3 is turned ON at t  0 , VAUX , T3 , L and C from
an oscillatory circuit. Assuming capacitor is initially uncharged, capacitor C is now charged
to LC
a voltage 2VAUX with upper plate positive at t   . When current through T3 falls to zero,
T3 gets commutated. To turn-off the main thyristor T1 , thyristor T2 is turned ON. Then T1 is
subjected to a reverse voltage equal to VS  2VAUX . This results in thyristor T1 being turned-
off. Once T1 is off capacitor ‘C’ discharges through the load RL

LOAD SIDE COMMUTATION

In load side commutation the discharging and recharging of capacitor takes place
through the load. Hence to test the commutation circuit the load has to be connected.
Examples of load side commutation are Resonant Pulse Commutation and Impulse
Commutation.

LINE SIDE COMMUTATION

In this type of commutation the discharging and recharging of capacitor takes place
through the supply.

L T1

+ IL

T3 +
_C LOAD
FWD
VS
Lr
T2

Fig.: 1.35 Line Side Commutation Circuit

Figure 1.35 shows line side commutation circuit. Thyristor

T2 is fired to charge
the capacitor ‘C’. When ‘C’ charges to a voltage of 2V, T2 is self commutated. To reverse
the voltage of capacitor to -2V, thyristor T3 is fired and T3 commutates by itself. Assuming
that is conducting and carries a load current IL thyristor T2 is fired to turn off T1 . The
T1
turning ON of T2 will result in forward biasing the diode (FWD) and applying a reverse
voltage of 2V across T1 . This turns off T1 , thus the discharging and recharging of capacitor
is done through the supply and the commutation circuit can be tested without load.
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