Lesson 1

Text as Connected Discourse

Text – can be used for both written and spoken language. It usually refers to a stretch, an extract or
complete piece of writing or speech. (Cornbleet and Carter (2001))

 The word “text” is derived from Latin word “texere” which means “to weave”.

According to Scott Thornburry, texts in general are:

 Self-contained
 Well-formed
 Hang together (cohesive)
 Make sense (coherent)
 Have a clear communicative purpose
 Have recognizable text types
 Appropriate to their contexts of use

Discourse – comes from the Latin word “discursus” which means “conversation speech”.

 It is a term used in Linguistics to refer to continuous stretch of especially spoken language larger
than a sentence.
 Outside linguistics, text is used to refer to a written discourse.
 Within linguistics, text is used to refer to any specific piece of discourse whether written,
spoken, or multimodal (nonlinguistic and nonspecific).

Text is the physical manifestation of discourse, which is a process of interaction and interpretation of
language in context.

Devices for Analyzing a Written Text as Connected Discourse

Cohesion – it refers to ties and connections which exist within texts that link different parts of
sentences or larger unit of discourse.

Cohesive Devices – these are the traditional words and expressions that signal the reader what the
relationships are between the different clauses, sentences and paragraphs.

Coherence – it refers to the linking of ideas in logical sequence or order.

Parallelism – it means side by side. In some piece of literature, some comparisons or contrats go side
with each other. It helps interpret the whole text.
Lesson 2

Techniques in Selecting and Organizing Information

A. Brainstorming List
 Brainstorming is a process in which the writer collaborates with others to explore topics,
develops ideas, and/or proposes solutions to a problem.
 Brainstorming list is a well-known strategy in selecting and organizing information where every
participant is encouraged to write any ideas, suggestions and thoughts related to given topic.

Rules in Brainstorming:

 No criticism.
 Welcome unusual ideas
 Quantity wanted
 Combine and improve ideas.

Basic Techniques in having the best results of brainstorming lists:

1. Nominal Group Technique – participants provide their ideas anonymously. The facilitator lets
the group of participants individually list the ideas about the given concept and collect it in the
end.
2. Group Passing Technique – individual participants write down an idea and pass it to the other
member of the group. The adding of details and ideas will happen until each participant has
shared or commented on everyone else’s ideas.
3. Electronic Brainstorming – it means brainstorming through use of an electronic medium;
individuals list their ideas on a collaborative network.
4. Question Brainstorming – participants attempt to produce questions rather than just ideas.
The questions are used to inspire thought in others.
5. Mind Mapping – this employs a diagram to visually capture information surrounding an idea or
situation.

B. Graphic Organizers
 Graphic organizers – help students organize ideas, see relationships, and retain information
through the use of visual representations, icons and symbols.
 Network Tree – it is used in organizing a hierarchical set of information, reflecting subordinate
elements.
 Problem and Solution Map – it used when information contains cause and effect, problems and
solutions.
 Venn diagram – it is effective in comparing and contrasting two different concepts by their
features.
 Series of Events Chain – it helps organize information according to various steps or stages.
 Cycle Map – it is useful for organizing information that is circular or cyclical, with no absolute
beginning or ending.
 Fishbone Map – it is useful when cause-effect relationships are complex and non-redundant.
 Topic Outline – it lists words or phrases. It also provides a quick overview of topics ti be included in
an essay.

Sentence Outline – in a sentence outline, the thesis and the topic sentence of each supporting
paragraph are fully written out.

Lesson 3

Patterns of Development

Patterns of Development – it is the logical arrangement of thoughts. The different patterns help you
follow ideas easily and understand a text better.

 In writing, it refers to the particular strategy writers use to develop ideas.

1. Narration – it is written to explain what, when, and who. It reveals what a reader should learn
and usually written in chronological order.
- It is used to tell a story or focus on a set of related events. (Storytelling)
2. Description – gives us details—an explanation or an account of a person, time, event, and the
like.
- It provides details on the idea by using either a sensory or spatial pattern.
Varieties of Description
 Subjective – the author is describing an impression of what is observed.
 Objective – the writer attempts to stay away from emotional impressions or responses, and
instead reports what is seen.
3. Definition – paragraphs that emphasize definition are used when we want to explain a new
idea, thought or concept.
Two Types of Definition
 Scientific – Scientific definition defines concepts in the most factual way.
 Subjective – Subjective definition defines objects in a personal way.
4. Exemplification – it presents the general statement and then provides specific and concrete
examples to expound on the main idea.
5. Cause and Effect
 A cause is a reason for, or events leading up to.
 An effect is the result of a cause or causes.
 We use cause and effect to show why an event is happening and what happens after it
in relation to others.
6. Comparison and Contrast – We use comparison and contrast to show similarities and
differences between objects, people, places and the like.

Two Ways to write a Paragraph

 Point by point – writing back and forth between the two subjects.
 Block paragraph – discusses one topic and then finishes the paragraph with the other
subject that is to be compared or contrasted with the first.
 7. Problem and Solution – it presents a problem and describes two or more possible solutions to
that problem.
8. Persuasion – we use persuasion to convince our readers that what we are saying is true. We
need to prove that our stand in an argument is the right one.
Methods of Persuasion
1. Facts – a statement of what is
2. Referring to authority – an expert who can be relied on to give unbiased facts and
information
3. Example – an example should clearly relate to the argument and should be typical enough
to support it.
4. Predicting the Consequence – it helps the readers visualize what will occur if something
does or does not happen.
5. Answering the Opposition – answering possible critics shows you are aware of the opposing
opinion and are able to respond to it.

Lesson 4

Properties of a Well-Written Text

1. Organization – A well-written text should possess the property of being organized. In order to
attain organization, the flow of the ideas must be logically and accurately arranged.
 Deductive Style – writing starts from general to specific.
 Inductive style – writing begins from specific to broad ideas.
2. Coherence and Cohesion
 Coherence – occurs when ideas are connected at the conceptual level.
 Cohesion – is the connection of ideas at sentence level.

Ways of Ordering Ideas to Achieve Coherence

1. Spatial Order – words used in descriptive writing to signal spatial relationships.

2. Time Order – words used in narratives, and instructions to signal chronological sequence.
3. Numerical Order – words used in expository writing to signal order of importance.
4. Cause and Effect Order – words used in expository writing to signal casual relationship.
5. General/Specific Order – words used in specific reports and arguments to signal more specific
elaboration on an idea.
3. Language Use – is a system of communication that we use to convey our thoughts and
emotions.
-It enables the author or writer to communicate more to the reader.
- It helps the readers to understand the text and the meaning of words in a text.

4. Mechanics – deals with the technical aspect of writing. In this property, the writer should focus
on the correct spelling, abbreviations, punctuations, and capitalizing a composition.
Lesson 5

Critical Reading as Looking for Ways of Thinking

 Critical Reading – also known as active reading, is not just reading the literal word-for-word
information in front of the reader. It is interpreting facts along with the author’s attitude using
implied meaning to make accurate assumptions and drawing accurate conclusions (Bennet,
2014)

Lesson 6

Explicit and Implicit Claims in a Text

Claim – is a logical conclusion based on information, evidences, and reasoning that we know and have
observed.

Implicit Claims – are those claims that are not expressed clearly in a text, but are being suggested or
implied to be the meaning of the text.

Inference – involves using what you know to make a guess about what you don’t know, or reading
between lines.

Types of Claim

 Claim of Fact – these are claims that are derived from factual information like definition, data,
history, or casual connections.
 Claim of Value – is arguable since it is based on one’s subjective opinion, judgement, appraisals,
and evaluations. It can be shown explicitly or implicitly.
 Claim of Policy – are claims that provide solutions or argue against a certain solution or policy.