A Dozen Ways To Measure Fluid Level Level 3 White Paper
A Dozen Ways To Measure Fluid Level Level 3 White Paper
A Dozen Ways To Measure Fluid Level Level 3 White Paper
23, 2012
A Dozen Ways to Measure Fluid Level
How They Work
“The more you know about fluid level
sensors – from sight glasses to guided wave
radar to lasers – the happier you will be
with the technology you choose for your
own application.” – Kevin Hambrice, Global
Sales & Marketing Manager ‐ Level
Measurement
The demands of sophisticated automated processing
systems, the need for ever‐tighter process control, and an
increasingly stringent regulatory environment drive process
engineers to seek more precise and reliable level
measurement systems. Improved level measurement
accuracy makes it possible to reduce chemical‐process
variability, resulting in higher product quality, reduced cost,
and less waste. Regulations, especially those governing
electronic records, set stringent requirements for accuracy,
Figure 1: Level Measurement determines the position of the level
reliability and electronic reporting. The newer level relative to the top of bottom of the process fluid storage vessel. A
measurement technologies help meet these requirements. variety of technologies can be used, determined by the
characteristics of the fluid and its process conditions.
1. Level Measurement Technology in Transition
The simplest and oldest industrial level measurement The simplest and oldest indus4‐20 mA current loops (where
device is, of course, the sight glass. A manual approach to the loop current varies with the level measurement) are the
measurement, sight glasses have always had a number of most common output mechanism today. Current loops can
limitations. The material used for its transparency can suffer carry signals over longer distances with less degradation.
catastrophic failure, with ensuing environmental insult, Digital signals coded in any of a number of protocols (e.g.,
hazardous conditions for personnel, and/or fire and Foundation Fieldbus, Hart, Honeywell DE, Profibus, and RS‐
explosion. Seals are prone to leak, and buildup, if present, 232) are the most robust, but the older technologies such as
obscures the visible level. It can be stated without RS‐232 can handle only limited distances. New wireless
reservation that conventional sight glasses are the weakest capabilities can be found in the latest transmitters’ signals,
link of any installation. They are therefore being rapidly allowing them to be sent over tremendous distances with
replaced by more advanced technologies. virtually no degradation.
Other level‐detection devices include those based on As for the more advanced measurement technologies (e.g.,
specific gravity, the physical property most commonly used ultrasonic, radar and laser), the more sophisticated digital
to sense the level surface. A simple float having a specific encoding formats require digital computer intelligence to
gravity between those of the process fluid and the headspace format the codes. Combining this requirement with the need
vapor will float at the surface, accurately following its rises for advanced communication capabilities and digital
and falls. Hydrostatic head measurements have also been calibration schemes explains the trend toward embedding
widely used to infer level. microprocessor‐based computer in virtually all level
When more complex physical principles are involved, measurement products (see Figure 1).
emerging technologies often use computers to perform the
calculations. This requires sending data in a machine‐
readable format from the sensor to the control or monitoring
system. Useful transducer output signal formats for
computer automation are current loops, analog voltages and
digital signals. Analog voltages are simple to setup and deal
with, but may have serious noise and interference issues.
Established Level‐Sensing Technologies
Throughout this article we assume the density of the vapor
in the headspace (typically air) to be negligible compares with
that of process fluid. We will assume also that there is only
one, uniform process fluid in the tank. Some of these
technologies can be used for multilevel applications where two
or more immiscible fluids share a vessel.
2. Floats. Floats work on simple principle of placing a
buoyant object with a specific gravity intermediate between
those of the process fluid and the headspace vapor into the
tank, then attaching a mechanical device to read out its
position. The float sinks to the bottom of the headspace vapor
and floats on top of the process fluid. While the float itself is a
basic solution to the problem of locating a liquid’s surface,
reading a floats position (i.e., making an actual level
measurement) is still problematic. Early float systems used
mechanical components such as cables, tapes, pulleys and Figure 3: Bubblers sense process fluid depth by measuring the
hydrostatic pressure near the bottom of the storage vessel.
gears to communicate level. Magnet‐equipped floats are
popular today.
solid material (the displacer) is suspended in the vessel. The
displacer’s density is always greater than that of the process
fluid (it will sink in the process fluid) and it must extend from
the lowest level required to at least the highest level to be
measured. As the process fluid level rises, the column
displaces a volume of fluid equal to the column’s cross‐
sectional area multiplied by the process fluid level in the
displacer. A buoyant force equal to this displaced volume
multiplied by the process fluid density pushes upward on the
displacer, reducing the force needed to support it against
the pull of gravity. The transducer, which is linked to the
transmitter, monitors and relates this change in force to
level.
A bubbler‐type level sensor is shown in Figure 3. This
technology is used in vessels that operate under
atmospheric pressure. A dip tube having its open end near
the vessel open carries a purge gas (typically air, although an
inert gas such as dry nitrogen may be used when there is
danger of contamination of or an oxidative reaction with the
process fluid) into the tank. As gas flows down to the dip’s
Figure 2: Displacement level gauges operate on Archimedes’
principle. The force needed to support a column of material tube outlet, the pressure in the tube rises until it overcomes
(displacer) decreases by the weight of the process fluid displaced. the hydrostatic pressure produced by the liquid level at the
A force transducer measures the support force and reports it as outlet. The pressure equals the process fluid’s density
analog signal. multiplied by its depth from the end of the dip tube to the
surface and is monitored by a pressure transducer connected
Early float level transmitters provided a simulated analog or to the tube.
discrete level measurement using a network of resistors and
multiple reed switches, meaning that the transmitter’s output
changes in discrete steps. Unlike continuous level‐measuring
devices, they cannot discriminate level values between steps.
3. Hydrostatic Devices. Displacers, bubblers and differential‐
pressure transmitters are all hydrostatic measurement devices.
Any change in temperature will therefore cause a shift in the
liquid’s specific gravity, as will changes in the pressure that
affects the specific gravity, as will changes in pressure that
affect the specific gravity of the vapor over the liquid. Both
result in reduced measurement accuracy. Displacers work on
the Archmedes’ principle. As shown in Figure 2, a column of
Vessel support structure and connecting piping must be
designed around the load cell’s requirements of a floating
substructure. The total weight of the vessel, piping and
connecting structure supported by the vessel will be
weighed by the load system in additional to the desired net
or product weight. This total weight often creates a very
poor turndown to the net weight, meaning that the net
weight is a very small percent age of total weight. Finally,
the supporting structure’s growth, caused by uneven
heating (e.g., morning to evening sunshine) may be
reflected as level, as can side load, wind load, rigid piping
and binding from overturn‐prevention hardware (for
bottom‐mounted load cells). In short, load cell weighing
system requirements must be a paramount consideration
throughout initial vessel support and piping design, or
performance is quickly degraded.
Figure 4: Differential pressure sensors monitor for the process fluid
level by measuring the total pressure difference between the fluid at
the bottom of the tank and the vessel pressure.
A differential pressure (DP) level sensor is shown in Figure 4.
The essential measurement is the difference between total
pressure at the bottom of the tank (hydrostatic head pressure of
the fluid plus static pressure in the vessel) and the static or head
pressure in the vessel. As with the bubbler, the hydrostatic
pressure difference equals the process fluid density multiplied
by the height of fluid in the vessel. The unit in Figure 4 uses
atmospheric pressure as a reference. A vent at the top keeps
headspace pressure equal the atmospheric pressure. Figure 5: Magnetic level gauges use a magnetically coupled
In contrast to bubblers, DP sensors can be used in unvented shuttle to locate a float’s position in the chamber.
(pressurized) vessels. All that is required is to connect the
reference port (the low‐pressure side) to a port in the vessel 5. Magnetic Level Gauges. These gauges (see Figure 5) are
above the maximum fill level. Liquidpurges or bubblers may still the preferred replacement for the sight glasses. They are
be required, depending on the process’s physical conditions similar to float devices, but they communicate the liquid
and/or the transmitter’s location relative to the process surface location magnetically. The float, carrying a set of
connections. strong permanent magnets, rides in an auxiliary column
4. Load Cells. A load cell or strain gauge device is essentially (float chamber) attached to the vessel by means of two
a mechanical support member or bracket equipped with one or process connections. This column confines the float
more sensors that detect small distortions in the support laterally so that it is always close to the chamber’s side wall.
member. As the force on the load cell changes, the bracket As the float rides up and down the fluid level, a magnetized
flexes slightly, causing output signal changes. Calibrated load shuttle or bar graph indication moves with it, showing the
cells have been made with force capacities ranging from position of the float and thereby providing the level
fractional ounces to tons. indication. The system can work only if the auxiliary
To measure level, the load cell must be incorporated into the column and chamber walls are made of non‐magnetic
vessel’s support structure. As process fluid fills the vessel, the material.
force on the load cell increases. Knowing the vessel’s geometry
(specifically, it’s cross‐sectional area) and the fluid’s specific
gravity, it is a simple matter to convert the load cell’s known
output into the fluid level.
While load cells are advantageous in many applications
because of their noncontact nature, they are expensive and the
Many manufactures provide float designs optimized for the temperature designs for liquid nitrogen and refrigerants.
specific gravity of the fluid being measured, whether butane, Numerous metals and alloys such as titanium, Incoloy and
propane, oil, acid, water, or interfaces between two fluids, as Monel are available for varying combinations of high‐
well as a large selection of float materials. temperature, high‐pressure, low‐specific‐gravity and
This means the gauges can handle high temperatures, high corrosive‐fluid applications. Today’s magnetic level gauges
pressures and corrosives fluids. Oversized float chambers and can also be outfitted with magnetostrictive and guided‐wave
high‐buoyancy floats are available for applications where radar transmitters to allow the gauge’s local indication to be
buildup is anticipated. converted into 4‐20 mA outputs and digital communication
that can be sent to a controller or control system.
6. Capacitance Transmitters. These devices (see Figure 6)
operate on the fact that process fluids generally have
dielectric constants, ᶓ, significantly different from that or air,
which is very close to 1.0. Oils have dielectric constants from
1.8 to 5. Pure glycol is 37; aqueous solutions are between 50
and 80. This technology requires a change in capacitance
that varies with the liquid level, created by either an
insulated rod attached to the transmitter and the process
fluid, or an un‐insulated rod attached to the transmitter and
either the vessel wall or a reference probe. As the fluid level
rises and fills more of the space between the plates, the
overall capacitance rises proportionately. An electronic
circuit called a capacitance bridge measures the overall
capacitance and provides a continuous level measurement.
7. Modern Technologies. Perhaps the most significant
difference between earlier continuous liquid‐level measuring
technologies and those now gaining favor is the use of time‐
of‐flight (TOF) measurements to transducer the liquid level
into a conventional output. These devices typically operate
by measuring the distance between the liquid level and a
reference point at a sensor or transmitter near the top of the
vessel. The system typically generate a pulse wave at the
reference point, which travels through either the vapor
space or a conductor, reflects off the liquid surface, and
returns to a pickup at the reference point. An electronic
timing circuit measures the total travel time. Dividing the
travel time by twice the wave’s speed gives the distance to
the surface of the fluid. The technologies differ mainly in the
kind of pulse used to make the measurement. Ultrasound,
microwaves (radar), and light all have proven useful.
Figure 6: Capacitive level sensors measure the change in
capacitance between two plates produced by changes in level. Two
versions are available, one for fluids with high dielectric constants
(A) and another for those with low dielectric constants (B).
Chambers, flanges and process connections can be made
from engineered plastics such as Kynar or exotic alloys such as
Hastelloy C‐276. Special chamber configurations can handle
extreme conditions such as steam jacketing for liquid asphalt,
oversized chambers for flashing applications, and cryogenic
From this information, the float’s location is very precisely
determined and presented as a level signal by the
transmitter. Key advantages of this technology are that the
signal speed is known and constant with process variables
such as temperature and pressure, and the signal is not
affected by foam, beam divergence, or false echoes.
Another benefit is that the only moving part is the float that
rides up and down with the fluid’s surface.
9. Ultrasonic Level Transmitters. Ultrasonic level sensors
(see Figure 8, page 18) measure the distance between the
transducer and the surface using the time required for an
ultrasound pulse to travel from a transducer to the fluid
surface and back (TOF). These sensors use frequencies in the
tens of kilohertz range; transit times are ~6 ms/m. The speed
of sound (340 m/s in air at 15 degrees C, 1115 fps at 60
degrees F) depends on the mixture of gases in the headspace
and their temperature. While the sensor temperature is
compensated for (assuming that the sensor is at the same
temperature as the air in the headspace), this technology is
limited to atmospheric pressure measurements in air or
nitrogen.
Figure 7: Magnetostrictive level transmitters use the speed of a
torsional wave in a wire to produce a level measurement
8. Magnetostrictive Level Transmitters. The advantages of
using a magnet containing a float to determine liquid level have
already been established, and magnetostriction is a proven
technology for very precisely reading the float’s location.
Instead of mechanical links, magnetostrictive transmitters use
the speed of a torsional wave along a wire to find the float and
report its position.
In a magnetostrictive system (see Figure 7, page 18), the float
carries a series of permanent magnets. A sensor wire is
connected to a piezoceramic sensor at the transmitter and a
tension fixture is attached to the opposite end of the sensor
tube. The tube either runs through a hole in the center of the
float or is adjacent to the float outside of a nonmagnetic float .
chamber. Figure 8: Ultrasonic level transmitters use the speed of sound to
To locate the float, the transmitter sends a short current pulse calculate level.
down the senor wire, setting up a magnetic field along its entire
length. Simultaneously, a timing circuit is triggered ON. The
field interacts immediately with the field generated by the
magnets in the float. The overall effect is that during the brief
time the current flows, a torsional force is produced in the wire,
much like an ultrasonic vibration or wave, This force travels back
to the piezoceramic sensor at a characteristic speed. When the
sensor detects the tensional wave, it produces an electrical
signal that notifies the timing circuit that the wave has arrived
and stops the timing circuit. The timing circuit measures the
time interval (TOF) between the start of the current pulse and
the wave’s arrival.
variable in radar technology is the dielectric contact of liquid.
The reason is that the amount of reflected energy at
microwave (radar) frequencies is dependent on the dielectric
constant of the fluid, and if Er is low, most of the radar’s
energy enters or passes through. Water (Er=80) produces an
excellent reflection at the change or discontinuity in Er.
Guided wave radar (GWR) transmitters (see Figure 10) are
also very reliable and accurate. A rigid probe or flexible cable
antenna system guides the microwave down from the top of
the tank to the liquid level and back to the transmitter. As
with through‐air radar, a change from a lower to a higher Er
causes the reflection. Guided wave radar is 20X more
efficient that through‐air radar because the guide provides a
more focused energy path. Different antenna configurations
allow measurement down to ER=1.4 and lower. Moreover,
these systems can be installed either vertically, or in some
cases horizontally with the guide being bent up to 90 degree
angled, and provide a clear measurement signal.
GWR exhibits most of the advantages and few of the
liabilities of ultrasound, laser, and open‐air radar systems.
Radar’s wave speed is largely unaffected by vapor space gas
composition, temperature, or pressure. It works in a vacuum
with no recalibration needed, and can measure through most
foam layers. Confining the wave to follow a probe or cable
eliminates beam‐spread problems and false echoes from tank
walls and structures.
Figure 9: A laser transmitter uses a short burst of laser energy to
measure level.
10. Laser Level Transmitters. Designed for bulk solids, slurries
and opaque liquids such as dirty sumps, milk, and liquid styrene,
lasers operate on a principle very similar to that of ultrasonic
level sensors. Instead of using the speed of sound to find the
level, however, they use the speed of light (see Figure 9). A
laser transmitter at the top of a vessel fires a short pulse of light
down to the process liquid surface, which reflects it back to the
detector. A timing circuit measures the elapsed time (TOF) and
calculates the distance. The key is that lasers have virtually no
beam spread (0.2 degree beam divergence) and no false echoes,
and can be directed through space as small as 2 in.2 lasers are
precise, even in vapor and foam. They are ideal for use in
vessels with numerous obstructions and can measure distances
up to 1500 ft. For high‐temperature or high‐pressure
applications, such as in reactor vessels, lasers much be used in
conjunction with specialized sight windows to isolate the
Figure 10: Guided wave radar uses a waveguide to conduct
transmitter from the process. These glass windows to isolate
microwave energy and from the fluid surface.
the transmitter from the process. These glass windows much
pass the laser beam with minimal diffusion and attenuation and
must contain the process conditions.
11. Radar Level Transmitters. Through‐air radar systems beam
microwaves downward from either a horn or a rod antenna at
the top of a vessel. The signal reflects off the fluid surface back
to the antenna, and a timing circuit calculates the distance to
the fluid level by measuring the round‐trip time (TOP). The key
Summary
General trends across different measurement technologies
reflect market drivers. Refined digital electronics are making
level sensors and other measurement devices more user‐
friendly, more reliable, easier to set up, and less expensive.
Improved communication interfaces feed level measurement
date into a company’s existing control and/or information
system.
Today’s level sensors incorporate an increasing variety or
materials and alloys to combat harsh environments such as oils,
acids, and extremes of temperature and pressure. New
materials help process instruments fulfill specialized
requirements as well, such as assemblies made of PTFE jacketed
material for corrosive applications and electro polished 316
stainless steel for cleanliness requirements. Proves made of
these new materials allow contact transmitters to be used in
virtually any application.
The trend today is to replace mechanical and pressure‐based
measurement tools with systems that measure the distance to
the fluid surface by a timing measurement. Magnetostrictive,
ultrasonic guided‐wave radar and laser transmitters are among
the most versatile technologies available. Such systems use the
sharp change of theme physical parameter (density, dielectric
constant, and sonic or light reflection) at the process‐fluid
surface to identify the level.
These technologies make use of the latest electronic
techniques and incorporate embedded microprocessor‐based
digital computers for control, analysis, and communication
functions.
For more information please contact:
ABB Inc.
Level Measurement
18321 Swamp Road
Prairieville, Louisiana 70769 USA
Telephone: 1‐800‐735.5835 or +1 225‐673‐6100
E‐mail: [email protected]
www.abb.com/level