Activity 1

OBJECTIVE MATERIAL REQUIRED

To verify that the relation R in the set A piece of plywood, some pieces of
L of all lines in a plane, defined by wires (8), nails, white paper, glue etc.
R = {(l, m) : l ⊥ m} is symmetric but
neither reflexive nor transitive.

METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION
Take a piece of plywood and paste a white paper on it. Fix the wires randomly
on the plywood with the help of nails such that some of them are parallel,
some are perpendicular to each other and some are inclined as shown in
Fig.1.

DEMONSTRATION
1. Let the wires represent the lines l1, l2, ..., l8.
2. l1 is perpendicular to each of the lines l2, l3, l4. [see Fig. 1]
 3. l6 is perpendicular to l7.
4. l2 is parallel to l3, l3 is parallel to l4 and l5 is parallel to l8.
5. (l1, l2), (l1, l3), (l1, l4), (l6, l7) ∈ R

OBSERVATION
1. In Fig. 1, no line is perpendicular to itself, so the relation
R = {( l, m) : l ⊥ m} ______ reflexive (is/is not).
2. In Fig. 1, l1 ⊥ l2 . Is l2 ⊥ l1 ? ______ (Yes/No)

∴ ( l1, l2) ∈ R ⇒ ( l2, l1) ______ R (∉/∈)

Similarly, l3 ⊥ l1 . Is l1 ⊥ l3? _______ (Yes/No)

∴ ( l3, l1) ∈ R ⇒ ( l1, l3) ______ R (∉/∈)

Also, l6 ⊥ l7. Is l7 ⊥ l6? _______ (Yes/No)

∴ ( l6, l7) ∈ R ⇒ ( l7, l6) ______ R (∉/∈)

∴ The relation R .... symmetric (is/is not)

3. In Fig. 1, l2 ⊥ l1 and l1⊥ l3 . Is l2 ⊥ l3? ... (Yes/No)

i.e., (l2, l1) ∈ R and (l1 , l3) ∈ R ⇒ (l2, l3) ______ R (∉/∈)

∴ The relation R .... transitive (is/is not).

APPLICATION NOTE
This activity can be used to check whether a 1. In this case, the relation is
given relation is an equivalence relation or not an equivalence relation.
not. 2. The activity can be repeated
by taking some more wire in
different positions.

102 Laboratory Manual

Activity 2
OBJECTIVE MATERIAL REQUIRED
To verify that the relation R in the set A piece of plywood, some pieces of
L of all lines in a plane, defined by wire (8), plywood, nails, white paper,
R = {( l, m) : l || m} is an equivalence glue.
relation.

METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION
Take a piece of plywood of convenient size and paste a white paper on it. Fix
the wires randomly on the plywood with the help of nails such that some of
them are parallel, some are perpendicular to each other and some are inclined
as shown in Fig. 2.

DEMONSTRATION
1. Let the wires represent the lines l1, l2, ..., l8.
2. l1 is perpendicular to each of the lines l2, l3, l4 (see Fig. 2).
 3. l6 is perpendicular to l7.
4. l2 is parallel to l3, l3 is parallel to l4 and l5 is parallel to l8.
5. (l2, l3), (l3, l4), (l5, l8), ∈ R

OBSERVATION
1. In Fig. 2, every line is parallel to itself. So the relation R = {( l, m) : l || m}
.... reflexive relation (is/is not)
2. In Fig. 2, observe that l2
l3 . Is l3 ... l2? (|| / || )
So, (l2, l3) ∈ R ⇒ (l3, l2) ... R (∉/∈)
Similarly, l3 || l4. Is l4 ...l3? (|| / || )
So, (l3, l4) ∈ R ⇒ (l4, l3) ... R (∉/∈)
and (l5, l8) ∈ R ⇒ (l8, l5) ... R (∉/∈)

∴ The relation R ... symmetric relation (is/is not)

3. In Fig. 2, observe that l2 || l3 and l3 || l4. Is l2 ... l4 ? (|| / || )
So, (l2, l3) ∈ R and (l3, l4) ∈ R ⇒ (l2, l4) ... R (∈/∉)

Similarly, l3 || l4 and l4 || l2. Is l3 ... l2 ? (|| / || )

So, (l3, l4) ∈ R, (l4, l2) ∈ R ⇒ (l3, l2) ... R (∈,∉)
Thus, the relation R ... transitive relation (is/is not)
Hence, the relation R is reflexive, symmetric and transitive. So, R is an
equivalence relation.

APPLICATION NOTE
This activity is useful in understanding the This activity can be repeated
concept of an equivalence relation. by taking some more wires
in different positions.

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Activity 3
OBJECTIVE MATERIAL REQUIRED
To demonstrate a function which is Cardboard, nails, strings, adhesive
not one-one but is onto. and plastic strips.

METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION
1. Paste a plastic strip on the left hand side of the cardboard and fix three nails
on it as shown in the Fig.3.1. Name the nails on the strip as 1, 2 and 3.
2. Paste another strip on the right hand side of the cardboard and fix two nails in
the plastic strip as shown in Fig.3.2. Name the nails on the strip as a and b.
3. Join nails on the left strip to the nails on the right strip as shown in Fig. 3.3.

DEMONSTRATION
1. Take the set X = {1, 2, 3}
2. Take the set Y = {a, b}
3. Join (correspondence) elements of X to the elements of Y as shown in Fig. 3.3

OBSERVATION
1. The image of the element 1 of X in Y is __________.
The image of the element 2 of X in Y is __________.
 The image of the element 3 of X in Y is __________.

So, Fig. 3.3 represents a __________ .

2. Every element in X has a _________ image in Y. So, the function is
_________(one-one/not one-one).
3. The pre-image of each element of Y in X _________ (exists/does not exist).
So, the function is ________ (onto/not onto).

APPLICATION NOTE
Demonstrate the same
This activity can be used to demonstrate the
activity by changing the
concept of one-one and onto function.
number of the elements of
the sets X and Y.

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Activity 4
OBJECTIVE MATERIAL REQUIRED
To demonstrate a function which is Cardboard, nails, strings, adhesive
one-one but not onto. and plastic strips.

METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION
1. Paste a plastic strip on the left hand side of the cardboard and fix two nails
in it as shown in the Fig. 4.1. Name the nails as a and b.
2. Paste another strip on the right hand side of the cardboard and fix three
nails on it as shown in the Fig. 4.2. Name the nails on the right strip as
1, 2 and 3.
3. Join nails on the left strip to the nails on the right strip as shown in the Fig. 4.3.

DEMONSTRATION
1. Take the set X = {a, b}
2. Take the set Y = {1, 2, 3}.
3. Join elements of X to the elements of Y as shown in Fig. 4.3.
OBSERVATION
1. The image of the element a of X in Y is ______________.

The image of the element b of X in Y is ______________.

So, the Fig. 4.3 represents a _____________________.

2. Every element in X has a _________ image in Y. So, the function is
_____________ (one-one/not one-one).
3. The pre-image of the element 1 of Y in X __________ (exists/does not
exist). So, the function is __________ (onto/not onto).

Thus, Fig. 4.3 represents a function which is _________ but not onto.

APPLICATION
This activity can be used to demonstrate the concept of one-one but not onto
function.

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Activity 5
OBJECTIVE MATERIAL REQUIRED
To find analytically the limit of a Paper, pencil, calculator.
function f (x) at x = c and also to check
the continuity of the function at that
point.

METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION

 x 2 – 16 
 , x ≠ 4
1. Consider the function given by f ( x) =  x – 4 
 10, x = 4 


2. Take some points on the left and some points on the right side of c (= 4)
which are very near to c.
3. Find the corresponding values of f (x) for each of the points considered in
step 2 above.
4. Record the values of points on the left and right side of c as x and the
corresponding values of f (x) in a form of a table.

DEMONSTRATION
1. The values of x and f (x) are recorded as follows:

Table 1 : For points on the left of c (= 4).

x 3.9 3.99 3.999 3.9999 3.99999 3.999999 3.9999999

f (x) 7.9 7.99 7.999 7.9999 7.99999 7.999999 7.9999999

 2. Table 2: For points on the right of c (= 4).

x 4.1 4.01 4.001 4.0001 4.00001 4.000001 4.0000001

f (x) 8.1 8.01 8.001 8.0001 8.00001 8.000001 8.0000001

OBSERVATION
1. The value of f (x) is approaching to ________, as x → 4 from the left.
2. The value of f (x) is approaching to ________, as x → 4 from the right.

3. So, lim f ( x ) = ________ and lim+ f ( x ) = ________.

x→ 4 x →4

4. Therefore, lim f ( x ) = ________ , f (4) = ________.

x →4

5. Is lim f ( x ) = f (4) ________ ? (Yes/No)

x →4

6. Since f ( c ) ≠ lim f ( x) , so, the function is ________ at x = 4 (continuous/

x →c
not continuous).

APPLICATION
This activity is useful in understanding the concept of limit and continuity of a
function at a point.

Mathematics 123
Activity 6
OBJECTIVE MATERIAL REQUIRED
To understand the concepts of Pieces of wire of different lengths,
decreasing and increasing functions. piece of plywood of suitable size,
white paper, adhesive, geometry
box, trigonometric tables.
METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION
1. Take a piece of plywood of a convenient size and paste a white paper on it.
2. Take two pieces of wires of length say 20 cm each and fix them on the white
paper to represent x-axis and y-axis.
3. Take two more pieces of wire each of suitable length and bend them in the
shape of curves representing two functions and fix them on the paper as
shown in the Fig. 13.

4. Take two straight wires each of suitable length for the purpose of showing
tangents to the curves at different points on them.

DEMONSTRATION
1. Take one straight wire and place it on the curve (on the left) such that it is
 tangent to the curve at the point say P1 and making an angle α1 with the
positive direction of x-axis.
2. α1 is an obtuse angle, so tanα1 is negative, i.e., the slope of the tangent at P1
(derivative of the function at P1) is negative.
3. Take another two points say P2 and P3 on the same curve, and make tangents,
using the same wire, at P2 and P3 making angles α2 and α3, respectively with
the positive direction of x-axis.
4. Here again α2 and α3 are obtuse angles and therefore slopes of the tangents
tan α2 and tan α3 are both negative, i.e., derivatives of the function at P2 and
P3 are negative.
5. The function given by the curve (on the left) is a decreasing function.
6. On the curve (on the right), take three point Q1, Q2, Q3, and using the other
straight wires, form tangents at each of these points making angles β1, β2,
β3, respectively with the positive direction of x-axis, as shown in the figure.
β1, β2, β3 are all acute angles.
So, the derivatives of the function at these points are positive. Thus, the
function given by this curve (on the right) is an increasing function.

OBSERVATION
1. α1 = _______ , > 90° α2 = _______ > _______, α3 = _______> _______,
tan α1 = _______, (negative) tan α2 = _______, ( _______ ), tan α3 =
_______, ( _______). Thus the function is _______.
2. β1 = _______< 90°, β2 = _______, < _______, β3 = _______ , < _______

tan β1 = _______ , (positive), tan β2 = _______, ( _______ ), tan β3 =

_______( _______ ). Thus, the function is _______.

APPLICATION
This activity may be useful in explaining the concepts of decreasing and
increasing functions.

Mathematics 133
Activity 7
OBJECTIVE MATERIAL REQUIRED
To understand the concepts of local A piece of plywood, wires,
maxima, local minima and point of adhesive, white paper.
inflection.

METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION
1. Take a piece of plywood of a convenient size and paste a white paper on it.
2. Take two pieces of wires each of length 40 cm and fix them on the paper on
plywood in the form of x-axis and y-axis.
3. Take another wire of suitable length and bend it in the shape of curve. Fix
this curved wire on the white paper pasted on plywood, as shown in Fig. 14.
 4. Take five more wires each of length say 2 cm and fix them at the points A, C,
B, P and D as shown in figure.

DEMONSTRATION
1. In the figure, wires at the points A, B, C and D represent tangents to the
curve and are parallel to the axis. The slopes of tangents at these points are
zero, i.e., the value of the first derivative at these points is zero. The tangent
at P intersects the curve.
2. At the points A and B, sign of the first derivative changes from negative to
positive. So, they are the points of local minima.
3. At the point C and D, sign of the first derivative changes from positive to
negative. So, they are the points of local maxima.
4. At the point P, sign of first derivative does not change. So, it is a point of
inflection.

OBSERVATION
1. Sign of the slope of the tangent (first derivative) at a point on the curve to
the immediate left of A is _______.
2. Sign of the slope of the tangent (first derivative) at a point on the curve to
the immediate right of A is_______.
3. Sign of the first derivative at a point on the curve to immediate left
of B is _______.
4. Sign of the first derivative at a point on the curve to immediate right
of B is _______.
5. Sign of the first derivative at a point on the curve to immediate left
of C is _______.
6. Sign of the first derivative at a point on the curve to immediate right
of C is _______.
7. Sign of the first derivative at a point on the curve to immediate left
of D is _______.

Mathematics 135
 8. Sign of the first derivative at a point on the curve to immediate right
of D is _______.
9. Sign of the first derivative at a point immediate left of P is _______ and
immediate right of P is_______.
10. A and B are points of local _______.
11. C and D are points of local _______.
12. P is a point of _______.

APPLICATION
1. This activity may help in explaining the concepts of points of local maxima,
local minima and inflection.
2. The concepts of maxima/minima are useful in problems of daily life such
as making of packages of maximum capacity at minimum cost.

136 Laboratory Manual

Activity 8
OBJECTIVE MATERIAL REQUIRED
To understand the concepts of Drawing board, white chart paper,
absolute maximum and minimum adhesive, geometry box, pencil and
values of a function in a given closed eraser, sketch pens, ruler, calculator.
interval through its graph.

Y
22
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
¢ 1.27
X X
2 3 1 1 O 1 1 3 2
2 2 2 2 2
4
¢
Y

Fig 15
METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION
1. Fix a white chart paper of convenient size on a drawing board using adhesive.
2. Draw two perpendicular lines on the squared paper as the two rectangular axes.
3. Graduate the two axes as shown in Fig.15.
4. Let the given function be f (x) = (4x2 – 9) (x2 – 1) in the interval [–2, 2].
5. Taking different values of x in [–2, 2], find the values of f (x) and plot the
ordered pairs (x, f (x)).
6. Obtain the graph of the function by joining the plotted points by a free hand
curve as shown in the figure.

DEMONSTRATION
1. Some ordered pairs satisfying f (x) are as follows:

x 0 ± 0.5 ± 1.0 1.25 1.27 ± 1.5 ±2

f (x) 9 6 0 – 1.55 –1.56 0 21

2. Plotting these points on the chart paper and joining the points by a free hand
curve, the curve obtained is shown in the figure.

OBSERVATION
1. The absolute maximum value of f (x) is ________ at x = ________.
2. Absolute minimum value of f (x) is ________ at x = _________.

APPLICATION
The activity is useful in explaining the concepts of absolute maximum / minimum
value of a function graphically.

138 Laboratory Manual

 NOTE
Consider f (x) = (4x2 – 9) (x2 – 1)
3
f (x) = 0 gives the values of x as ± and ±1 . Both these values of x lie in the
2
given closed interval [–2, 2].
f ′ (x) = (4x2 – 9) 2x + 8x (x2 – 1) = 16x3 – 26x = 2x (8x2 – 13)
13
f ′ (x) = 0 gives x = 0, x = ± = ± 1.27 . These two values of x lie in [–2, 2].
8
The function has local maxima/minima at x = 0 and x = ± 1.27, respectively.

Mathematics 139
Activity 9
OBJECTIVE MATERIAL REQUIRED
To construct an open box of maximum Chart papers, scissors, cellotape,
volume from a given rectangular sheet calculator.
by cutting equal squares from each
corner.

METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION
1. Take a rectangular chart paper of size 20 cm × 10 cm and name it as ABCD.
2. Cut four equal squares each of side x cm from each corner A, B, C and D.
3. Repeat the process by taking the same size of chart papers and different
values of x.
4. Make an open box by folding its flaps using cellotape/adhesive.

DEMONSTRATION
1. When x = 1, Volume of the box = 144 cm3
2. When x = 1.5, Volume of the box = 178.5 cm3
 3. When x = 1.8, Volume of the box = 188.9 cm3.
4. When x = 2, Volume of the box = 192 cm3.
5. When x = 2.1, Volume of the box = 192.4 cm3.
6. When x = 2.2, Volume of the box = 192.2 cm3.
7. When x = 2.5, Volume of the box = 187.5 cm3.
8. When x = 3, Volume of the box = 168 cm3.
Clearly, volume of the box is maximum when x = 2.1.

OBSERVATION
1. V1 = Volume of the open box ( when x = 1.6) = .................
2. V2 = Volume of the open box ( when x = 1.9) = .................
3. V = Volume of the open box ( when x = 2.1) = .................
4. V3 = Volume of the open box ( when x = 2.2) = .................
5. V4 = Volume of the open box ( when x = 2.4) = .................
6. V5 = Volume of the open box ( when x = 3.2) = .................
7. Volume V1 is ____________ than volume V.
8. Volume V2 is ____________ than volume V.
9. Volume V3 is ____________ than volume V.
10. Volume V4 is ____________ than volume V.
11. Volume V5 is ____________ than volume V.

So, Volume of the open box is maximum when x = ________.

APPLICATION
This activity is useful in explaining the concepts of maxima/minima of functions.
It is also useful in making packages of maximum volume with minimum cost.

Mathematics 141
 NOTE
Let V denote the volume of the box.
Now V = (20 – 2x) (10 – 2x) x

or V = 200x – 60x2 + 4x3

dV
= 200 –120 x +12 x 2 . For maxima or minima, we have,
dx

dV
= 0 , i.e., 3x2 – 30x + 50 = 0
dx

30 ± 900 – 600
i.e., x = = 7.9 or 2.1
6

Reject x = 7.9.

d 2V
= –120 + 24 x
dx2

d 2V
When x = 2.1, is negative.
dx 2

Hence, V should be maximum at x = 2.1.

142 Laboratory Manual

Activity 10
OBJECTIVE MATERIAL REQUIRED
To verify geometrically that Geometry box, cardboard, white
paper, cutter, sketch pen, cellotape.
( )








c× a + b = c× a + c×b

METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION
1. Fix a white paper on the cardboard.
2. Draw a line segment OA (= 6 cm, say) and let it represent c .

3. Draw another line segment OB (= 4 cm, say) at an angle (say 60°) with OA.



Let OB = a
 



4. Draw BC (= 3 cm, say) making an angle (say 30°) with OA . Let BC = b
5. Draw perpendiculars BM, CL and BN.
6. Complete parallelograms OAPC, OAQB and BQPC.

DEMONSTRATION






1. OC = OB +BC = a + b , and let ∠COA = α .

( )







2. c × a + b = c a + b sin α = area of parallelogram OAPC.

3. c × a = area of parallelogram OAQB.



4. c × b = area of parallelogram BQPC.

5. Area of parallelogram OAPC = (OA) (CL)

= (OA) (LN + NC) = (OA) (BM + NC)

= (OA) (BM) + (OA) (NC)

= Area of parallelogram OAQB + Area of parallelogram BQPC




= c+a + c × b

So, c × ( a + b ) = c × b + c × b

Direction of each of these vectors c × (a + b ), c × a and c × b is perpendicular
to the same plane.








So, c × (a + b ) = c × a + c × b.

154 Laboratory Manual

OBSERVATION



c = OA = OA = _______



a + b = OC = OC = ______

CL = ______




c × ( a + b) = Area of parallelogram OAPC

= (OA) (CL) = _____________ sq. units (i)

c × a = Area of parallelogram OAQB

= (OA) (BM) = _____ × _____ = ______ (ii)

c × b = Area of parallelogram BQPC

= (OA) (CN) = _____ × _____ = ______ (iii)

From (i), (ii) and (iii),

Area of parallelogram OAPC = Area of parallelgram OAQB + Area of

Parallelgram ________.





Thus c × (a + b | = c × a + c × b

( )








c × a, c × b and c × a + b are all in the direction of _______ to the plane
of paper.

( )






Therefore c × a + b = c × a + ________.

Mathematics 155
APPLICATION
Through the activity, distributive property of vector multiplication over addition
can be explained.

NOTE
This activity can also be per-
formed by taking rectangles
instead of parallelograms.

156 Laboratory Manual