Lithosphere

-Consists of the earth’s crust and upper mantle

-The rigid outmost shell of planet Earth

-Floats above the mantle

-Amounts to about 85% of the total mass of the Earth.

Two types of crust;

-Oceanic crust- is thinner but denser (2.7 gm)

- found under the land continents

- mostly granic

-Continental crust-thick but less dense (3.0 gm)

-made up of basalt

Plates move 2.5 cm/year. Slowly but constantly

Plates move away from each other, towards each other, and slide from each other

Tectonics- Movement of the lithospheric plates/ tectonic plates/ plates.

Plate Tectonic- theory of moving plates.

- a movement of plate tectonic results in the formation of trenches, mountains and

volcano

- the movement of a lithospheric plate made of the upper mantle. They move

slowly but constantly. They move

Plate- are the rigid rocks

7 Major Plates

 Australian Plates
 North American Plate
 Eurasian Plate
 Pacific Plate
 South American
 Antarctic Plate
 Africa Plate

The rest are minors…

Seismic Waves- carry energy from an earthquake away from the focus through the earth’s interior and across the surface

Body Wave:

Primary waves (P-waves)- is pulse energy that travels quickly through the Earth and through

waves. It is a compressional wave because it moves vibrating

parallel to the direction the wave travel.

Secondary waves (S-waves/shear waves)- is pulse energy that travels slower than P-wave
 through the Earth and solid, can’t travel to liquid.

It is a transverse wave because it moves sway

side-to-side, in a rolling motion that shakes the

ground back and forth perpendicular to the

direction of the waves.

Surface Wave:

Love wave- named after A.E.H Love

Rayleigh wave – named after John William Strutt, Lord Rayleigh

Td- S-waves – P-waves =

Yugoslavian seismologist Andrija Mohorovičić (moh-haw-roh vuh-chich) found out that the velocity of seismic waves changes and
increases at a distance of about 50 kilometers below the Earth's surface. This led to the idea that there is a difference in density
between the Earth's outermost layer (crust) and the layer that lies below it (mantle). The boundary between these two layers is called
Mohorovičić discontinuity in honor of Mohorovičić, and is short termed Moho.

Faultline- break in the surface

Earthquake, epicenter, volcanoes, mountain ranges are located in same location at the edge of the continents.

Basis of the scientist in dividing the lithosphere

 Seismicity
 Volcanism
 Mountain formation

Types of Plate boundaries

Divergent- away from each other

Convergent- toward each other

Transform fault- sliding pass each other

Seismogram- recorded

Seismograph- recording device

Converging Plate Boundary- is a Destructive plate boundary causing the leading edge to melt.

Divergent Plate Boundary – is a Constructive plate boundary causing the time to go by the crack cause by a gap, filling the gap with
magma and repeating the process again and again.

A transform fault Plate Boundary- is a Conservative plate boundary. No destruction or no creation is made

Hawaii is a volcanic island. A magma plume is a column that emits magma/ constantly produces magma.

The coldest and oldest volcano is further from the hotspot and the hot and youngest is in the hotspot.

Convection Current reason why two plates move away from each other

Asthenosphere- A soft, weak, plastic-like material that facilitates the movement of plates

-Plasticity is are acquires its mobility to enough heat thus the addition of water from the inner

layer
 -ability to flow

-the ability to flow facilitates the moving of the mantel

Alfred Wegener- German geologist who discover that the plates move and he is famously known for his

Continental Drift Theory.

Continental Drift Theory

The continents were once part of the same landmass and have drifted very slowly to their current positions.
Pangea is a Latin name for ALL EARTH. Pangea is divided into two continents Laurasia and Gondwanaland.

Evidence
1
Fit of the continent/shape of the continent- just like Africa and South America they are both fit to each other
2
Fossils- Glossopteris a plant that can be found in all of the southern continents, a land reptile called lystrosaurus that can be found in
Africa, India, and Antarctica. Fossils of Cynognathus a reptile and Mesosaurus that is a freshwater reptile can be found in Africa and
South America.
3
Rock formations/ structures- Identical rocks and mountain structures have been found on either side of the ocean
4
Paleoclimate Data- remains of plants, and coal bed has been found in cold regions, and glacial evidence has been found in warm
regions.

Convection Current in the mantle because of the heat of the inner layers of the Eart, and is the force that drives the plates to move
around. The convection current moves in this process; Lighter (less dense), warm material rises while heavier (denser) cool material
sinks. It is this movement that creates circulation patterns known as convection currents in the atmosphere, in water, and in the mantle
of Earth. In the shortest/ or simplest term is when very hot materials are less dense so they will rise up and when cold materials is
denser so it will go down.

Ridge push- new seafloor pushing the old seafloor

Slab pull- the pulling force exerted by a cold, dense oceanic plate plunging into the mantle due to its own weight.

Pangea Placement

Africa is in the polar region while Antarctica is near the equator.

Alfred Wegener froze to death in Greenland due to his expedition to why the plate moved.

Two scientists proposed the theory of seafloor spreading in the early 1960s

 Harry Hess
 Robert Dietz

Gadgets that are used to explore the deep sea

 Sonars and Submersibles

Seafloor Spreading

Continents moved through unmoving oceans and larger, sturdier Continents broke through the oceanic crust.

Findings that support Seafloor spreading theory

1. Rocks are younger at the mid-ocean ridge.

In the Activity “Split and Separate!” the lines that are both must similar to each other represent positive and negative charge
Magnetic Reversal

It happens when the North Pole is transformed into the South Pole and the South Pole becomes the North Pole. This is due to a change
in direction of flow in the outer core.