Principles of electro mechanical energy conversion :

Energy neither be created nor destroyed but can be converted from one form to the other
form.
Here in the rotating electrical machines the energy conversion is done from either
mechanical to electrical or electrical to mechanical
For this energy conversion process the medium is taken as magnetic field medium since
it stores the much more amount of energy when compared to electric field

Energy flow diagram in dc motor:

dWe  dWm  dWf …… motor

Energy flow diagram in DC Generator:

dWm  dWe  dWf …… Generator

Singly excited system:
Consider a singly excited linear actuator as shown below.
Let,
1. The winding resistance is R.
2. At a certain time instant t, we record that the terminal voltage applied to the
excitation winding is v volt.
3. The excitation winding current is i Ampere
4. The position of the movable plunger is x
5. The force acting on the plunger is F with the reference direction chosen in the
positive direction of the x axis, as shown in the diagram.
After a time interval dt, we notice that the plunger has moved for a distance dx under the
action of the force F.
The mechanical work done by the force acting on the plunger during this time interval is

A singly excited linear actuator

The amount of electrical energy that has been transferred into the magnetic field and
converted into the mechanical work during this time interval can be calculated by
subtracting the power loss dissipated in the winding resistance from the total power fed
into the excitation winding as
dWe  dWm  dWf …… motor
As per KVL
e  v  ir ,
d
Also from fundamentals induced emf in the coil is e  N
dt
edt  Nd  eidt  Nid  (v  ir )idt  Nid
 (v  ir )idt  Nid  (vi  i 2 r )dt  Nid  Fd
Thus,
dWe  eidt  Fd  id (N )  id ()
Total electrical energy input is transformed to the magnetic field for energy storage as i
hence,  dWe   id ()  We  i
The energy to the magnetic field medium is shared as field energy Wf and co energy Wf’
From the knowledge of the magnetic systems the field
energy and co energy is given by
From the linear relations the
1
The field energy is W f (, x)  i(, x)
2
1
The co-energy is W f (i, x)  i(i, x)
'

The mechanical work done is given by the product of the

force (Ff)on the plunger and displacement(dx) of the plunger and is equal to dWm.
Thus,
dWm  F f dx  dWe  dW f  id  dW f
Finally
F f dx  id  dW f
In the above expression, the systems are of two types namely, Voltage excited system and
current excited systems.
Case-1: Current excited system
As the mechanical work done by the plunger is F f dx  id  dW f
Here,
The flux linkages is a function of (i, x) that is ψ( i ,x )
d(i, x) d(i, x)
Thus d(i, x)  i  x
i x
dW f (i, x) dW f (i, x)
and dW f (i, x)  i  x
i x
Substituting the above two equations in the mechanical work done formula it becomes
  d(i, x) d(i, x)   dW f (i, x) dW f (i, x) 
F f dx  i i  x    i  x 
 i x   i x 
 d(i, x) dW f (i, x)   d(i, x) dW f (i, x) 
F f dx   i  x  
  i  i

 x  x    i 
As di part is zero, there is no coefficient hence Ff is given by he coefficient of dx
 d(i, x) dW f (i, x) 
F f   i  

  x x 

F f  i(i, x)  W f (i, x) 
x
W f ' (i, x)
Ff  …… Expression for force with current excited system
x
Case-2: Voltage excited system
As the mechanical work done by the plunger is F f dx  id  dW f
Here, the current (i) changes as flux linkages ( ) and disploacement (x) changes.
Therefore i (ψ, x) and Wf (ψ, x)
dW f (, x) dW f (, x)
Thus dW f (, x)    x
 x
Substituting the above equation in the mechanical work done formula it is
 dW f (, x) dW f (, x) 
F f dx  id     x 
    x 
 dW f (, x)  dW f (, x)
F f dx   i   
 x
   x
As dψ part is zero, since there is no coefficient hence Ff is given by the coefficient of dx
as
dW f (, x)
F f  () …… Expression for force with voltage excited system
x
Summary of singly excited system
1. Electrical energy input: dWe = eidt = F dΦ = id
1 2
2. Field energy = W f 
2 L( x)
1
3. Co-energy = W f '  L( x)i 2
2
dW f (, x)
4. Mechanical Force F f  ()
x
W f ' (i, x)
5. Mechanical Force F f 
x
 Doubly excited system:
 Consider the doubly excited system as a synchronous motor having the coils on both
stator and rotor as shown in the below figure
 Let v1,e1,i1 ψ1 and v2,e2,i2,ψ2 are the parameters related to coil1 and coil2 respectively.
 θr be the angle between the stator and rotor magnetic axis.
 be the angular velocity of the rotor initially without rotation of the rotor.
 Te is the torque developed on the rotor when it rotates.
 L1, L2 are the self inductances of coil 1 and coil2, M12=M21 are the mutual inductances
between the coils 1 and 2.
 These inductances are constant when the rotor is stationary or else variables when the
rotor is rotating
 Also the field energy Wf is same irrespective to the rotor condition whether stationary or
rotating
Case-1:
Let the rotor is static and hence there is no mechanical work done. Therefore, dWe = dWf
From case-1 find the value of the field energy, which can be used in case-2 with rotor
rotating.
Electrical energy input dWe is
dWe  e1i1dt e2 i2 dt  i1d1  i2 d2
dWe  i1d ( L1i1  M12i2 )  i2 d ( L2i2  M12i1 )
dWe  i1L1di1  M12i1di2  i2 L2 di2  M12i2 di1
dWe  i1L1di1  i2 L2 di2  M12 i1di2  i2 di1 
dWe  i1L1di1  i2 L2 di2  M12 di1i2   dW f
For getting the field energy Wf integrate the dWf equation on both sides
i1 i2 i1i2

 dW f   i1 L1di1   i2 L2 di2   M 12 di1i2 

0 0 0

1 2 1 2
Wf  i1 L1  i2 L2  M 12i1i2 …………Eq.1
2 2
Case -2:
Let the rotor rotates with rad/sec due to a torque of Te and moves from initial by dθr
degrees.
Then , the mechanical work done is
dθ
dWm=Pm dt=ωt e dt= r Te dt  dθrTe
dt
As the energy balance equation is dWe= dWm+ dWf
Here, electrical energy input with rotation is given by
dWe  e1i1dt e2 i2 dt  i1d1  i2 d2
dWe  i1d ( L1i1  M12i2 )  i2 d ( L2i2  M12i1 )
dWe  i1L1di1  M12i1di2  i2 L2 di2  M12i2 di1  i1 dL1  i2i1dM12  i2 dL2  i2i1dM12
2 2
..Eq(2)
Also, from Eq.(1) the dWf is the differentiation to the Wf
1 2 1 2
dW f  i1 L1di1  i1 dL1  i2 dL2  i2 L2 di2  M 12i1di2  M 12i2 di1  i1i2 dM 12 ..Eq(3)
2 2
Therefore, dWm = dWe - dWf i.e Eq(2)-Eq(3)
1 2 1 2
dWm  i1 dL1  i2 dL2  i1i2 dM 12
2 2
1 2 1 2
Te d r  i1 dL1  i2 dL2  i1i2 dM 12
2 2
1 2 dL1 1 2 dL2 dM 12
Te  i1  i2  i1i2 ……..Eq(4)
2 d r 2 d r d r
WORKING PRINCIPLE OF DC GENERATOR:

1. DC Generator is an electro mechanical energy conversion device used to convert

mechanical energy to electrical energy.
2. It works as per Faradays laws of electromagnetic induction which states that

I Law: “Whenever the conductor cuts the magnetic flux a dynamical emf is induced
in the conductor”
II Law: “The magnitude of the emf induced is directly proportional to the rate of
change of flux linkages”

3. Fleming’s right hand rule is used to obtain the direction of the current in the coil of the
DC Generator.
Simple loop dc generator:
The simple loop dc generator is assumed to
have the following parts as shown in Fig (a)
 Two permanent magnets (North pole and
South pole)
 A single turn rectangular coil(placed on the
shaft)
 Two Slip rings
 Two brushes
 External load

The rectangular coil is assumed to be rotated in clockwise with an angular velocity of ω

rad/sec.
The working operation of the simple loop generator is explained over one complete rotation
of the coil for 3600 is shown in the below figure at different positions of the coil.
At 0 degrees Position (A):
1. This position is also known as the “Neutral Plane”;
2. In this position the loop is parallel to the magnetic lines of flux
3. In this position there is maximum flux passing through the coil.
4. No EMF is induced in the coil because of no “Change in flux through the loop”.
At 90 degrees Position (B):
1. After the loop has been rotated 90 degrees clockwise through the magnetic field the
flux linkage through it now becomes zero.
2. But the rate of change of flux through it was maximum,
3. This results in an induced EMF which climbs from zero to its peak value.
At 180 degrees Position (C):
1. Once again the coil is rotated 90 degrees clockwise resulting in the completion of a
180 degrees cycle.
2. Here the loop is perpendicular to the magnetic lines of force
3. This means that there is maximum flux density through it resulting the EMF to falls
back to zero.
At 270 degrees Position (D):
1. At 270 degrees the flux linkage through the loop is once again zero,
2. but the rate of change of flux is maximum.
 3. In this position, the EMF induced goes up to its peak value, but this time it’s in the
reverse direction.
At 360 degrees Position(A):
1. The loop is rotated through another 90 degrees such that it has completed a rotation of
360 degrees.
2. The flux linkage through it is maximum and the voltage decreases back to zero.

 Hence, it is
observed
that the nature of the emf induced in the armature coil is alternating quantity (i.e,
positive voltage during first half cycle and negative voltage during second half cycle)
 Thus, to convert the induced alternating ac to dc nature the Commutator (or) split
rings are used in the place of the slip rings of a simple loop generator.

Action of Commutator:
 The Commutator is a mechanical rectifier used to convert
AC to DC
 Here, the split rings or Commutator segments (s1 and s2) are
placed instead of slip rings
 The split rings or commutator are made out of conducting
cylinder, which is cut into two halves or segments insulated from
each other by a thin sheet of mica.
 Brushes B1 and B2 are mounted on two Commutator segments
having + and - polarities
At θ = 900position :
 Conductor AB is under South Pole and Conductor CD are under North Pole, with coil
rotating in clock wise direction.
 Using Flemings right hand rule, the current in the conductor AB is from B-A and in
conductor CD is from D-C
 Therefore the current flow is in the path of A – S1 - B1 – M – L - B2 - S2 – D – C – B - A
At θ = 2700position :
 Conductor AB is under North Pole and Conductor CD are under South Pole, with coil
rotating in clock wise direction.
 Using Flemings right hand rule, the current in the conductor AB is from A-B and in
conductor CD is from C-D
 Therefore the current flow is in the path of A – B – C - D- S2- B1 – M – L - B2 – S1- A

 Thus using the Commutator, the current in the load is unidirectional from M to L at all
positions i.e current in coil is alternating and current in Resistance R is unidirectional
(pulsating DC)
CONSTRUCTION OF DC GENERATOR
A DC generator has the following parts
1. Yoke (or) Magnetic frame 2. Pole core and pole shoe
3. Field winding (or) Pole coils 4. Armature Core
5. Armature winding 6. Commutator 7. Brushes 8. Bearing

Yoke:
 Yoke or the outer frame of DC generator serves
two purposes,
1. It holds the magnetic pole cores of the
generator and acts as cover of the
generator.
2. It carries the magnetic field flux.
 Yoke is made of cast iron for small rating
generators, due to the cheaper in cost but heavier
than steel.
 Yoke is made of lighter cast steel or rolled steel for larger rating generators , where
weight of the machine is concerned.
Pole core and pole shoe

 The field magnets consist of pole cores and

pole shoes.
 The pole core is fixed to the inner periphery of
the yoke by means of bolts through the yoke
and into the pole body.
 The pole core carries the field winding and
there are two types of construction
One: Solid pole core, where it is made of
a single piece of cast iron or cast steel.
Two: Laminated pole core, where it made of numbers of thin, limitations of
annealed steel which are riveted together.
 The thickness of the lamination is in the range of 0.04" to 0.01".
  The pole shoes serve two purposes:
1. They spread out the flux in the air gap and also, being of larger cross-section,
reduce the reluctance of the magnetic path
2. They support the exciting coils (or field coils)
Field winding (or) Pole coils
 The function of the field system is to produce uniform magnetic field within which the
armature rotates.
 Field coils are mounted on the poles and carry the dc exciting current.
 The field coils are connected in such a way that adjacent poles have opposite polarity.
 The m.m.f. developed by the field coils produces a magnetic flux that passes through
the pole pieces, the air gap, the armature and the frame.
 Practical d.c. machines have air gaps ranging from 0.5 mm to 1.5 mm.
 By reducing the length of air gap, we can reduce the size of field coils
Armature Core
 The armature core consists of slotted soft-iron
laminations (about 0.4 to 0.6 mm thick) that
are stacked to form a cylindrical core as
shown in adjacent figure.
 The purpose of laminating the core is to
reduce the eddy current loss.
 Thinner the lamination, greater is the
resistance offered to the induced e.m.f.,
smaller the current and hence lesser the I²R
loss in the core.
 The laminations are slotted to accommodate and provide mechanical security to the
armature winding and to give shorter air gap for the flux to cross between the pole
face and the armature “teeth”.
Armature winding
 The slots of the armature core hold insulated
conductors that are connected in a suitable manner.
This is known as armature winding.
 This is the winding in which “working” emf is
induced. The armature conductors are connected in
series-parallel; the conductors being connected in
series so as to increase the voltage and in parallel paths so as to increase the current.
 The armature winding of a D.C. machine is a closed-circuit winding; the conductors
being connected in a symmetrical manner forming a closed loop or series of closed
loops.
 There are two types of armature winding based on the connection to the Commutator
they are (a) Lap winding and (b) Wave winding
Commutator
 A Commutator is a mechanical rectifier
which converts the alternating voltage
generated in the armature winding into
direct voltage across the brushes
 The Commutator is made of copper
segments insulated from each other by mica
sheets and mounted on the shaft of the
machine
  The armature conductors are soldered to the Commutator segments in a suitable
manner to give rise to the armature winding
Brushes
 The function of the brushes in DC generator is to collect current from Commutator
segments.
 The brushes are made of carbon and rest on the Commutator.
 The brush pressure is adjusted by means of adjustable springs.

Bearing of DC Generator

 For small machine, ball bearing is used and for heavy duty DC generator, roller
bearing is used.
 The bearing must always be lubricated properly for smooth operation and long life of
generator.

EMF EQUATION OF DC GENERATOR:

Let,
E = Average emf induced in volts
Z = No. of armature conductors
N = Speed of the rotor in RPM
P = No. of the poles
A = No. of parallel paths
Φ = Flux per pole in Weber’s

As per Faradays second Law,

 The magnitude of the emf induced is directly proportional to the rate of change of flux
linkages
d d d d
e = e N = ek N , In SI unit system k =1, e  N
dt dt dt dt
d
 Emf per conductor is e 
dt
Where,
 d = total flux in the airgap that cuts the conductor for one revolution.
As (P) No. of poles and each pole produces the  flux, then d = P
 dt = time taken by the conductor to cut the flux of d
60
i.e The time taken for the armature coil to complete one rotation dt  sec
N
Thus,
 P PN
 e 
 60  60
 
N
 As there are (A) No. of parallel paths with ‘Z’ No. of conductors, then the emf per
parallel path is given by

PN  Z  ZN P
e *   *
60  A  60 A
ZN P
 Therefore, average value of the emf induced is E  *
60 A
 The No. of parallel paths in the armature winding depends on the type of the armature
windings
For Wave connected Armature (A=2)
ZN P
E *
60 2
For Lap connected Armature (A=P)
ZN P
E *
60 P

TYPES OF DC GENERATORS :
 Based on the excitation given to the field winding, the dc generators are classified in to two
types
a. Separately excited dc generator
b. Self excited dc generator
SEPARATELY EXCITED DC GENERATOR:
1. In a separately excited generator field winding is energized from a separate voltage source in
order to produce flux in the machine and is shown in the below figure.

2. The flux produced will be proportional to the field

current in unsaturated condition of the poles.
3. The armature conductors when rotated in this field will
cuts the magnetic flux and generates the emf (Eg).
4. The emf will circulate the current against the armature
resistance (Ra), brushes and to the load.
5. Applying KVL to the armature loop the Eg is
E g  V  I a Ra  Vbrush
PL Vf
Ia  IL and IL  and If 
V Rf
 SELF EXCITED DC GENERATOR:
1. In self excited generator field winding is energized from the armature induced emf and there
is an electrical connection in between this armature and field winding.
2. There are three possibilities of connecting the field winding to the armature they are
a. Shunt generator
b. Series generator
c. Compound generator
i. Long shunt compound generator
ii. Short shunt compound generator
DC SHUNT GENERATOR
1. In the dc shunt generator the field winding
circuit is connected in parallel to the armature
circuit and as well as to the load.
2. The armature current is divided in to the field
and the load as If and IL.
3. The shunt field winding has more number of
turns with thin wire, so that resistance of the
field will be in the range of hundreds and was
designed to withstand for the rated voltage.
4. Applying KVL to the armature loop the Eg is
E g  V  I a Ra  Vbrush
PL V
Ia  IL  I f and IL  and If 
V Rf
DC SERIES GENERATOR
1. In the dc series generator the field winding circuit is
connected in series to the armature circuit and as well as to
the load.
2. Here the armature current is equal to the series field current
and also equal to the load.
5. The series field winding has less number of turns with thick
wire, so that resistance of the field will be in the smaller
values and was designed to carry the rated current.
6. Applying KVL to the armature loop the Eg is
Eg  V  I a Ra  Rse   Vbrush
PL
I a  I L  I se and IL 
V
DC COMPOUND GENERATORS
1. A compound generator has two field coils wound over the field poles.
2. The coil having large number of turns and thinner cross sectional area is called the shunt field
coil and the other coil having few numbers of turns and large cross sectional area is called the
series field coil.
3. Based on the series field winding connected to the armature the compound generators are
classified as long shunt generator and short shunt generator
  SHORT SHUNT GENERATOR
1. In a short shunt dc compound generator, the series
field is connected in series to the load and shunt
field winding is connected in parallel to the
armature and the series combination of the load and
series winding.
2. Thus, the series field current will depend on the
load variations which will effect in further the shunt
field current.
3. Applying KVL to the armature loop the Eg is
Eg  V  I a Ra  I L Rse  Vbrush
PL V  I L Rse
I a  I L  I se and IL  and If 
V Rf

 LONG SHUNT GENERATOR

1. In a long shunt dc compound generator, the series
field is connected in series to the armature and
shunt field winding is connected in parallel to the
armature and to the load.
2. Applying KVL to the armature loop the Eg is
Eg  V  I a Ra  Rse   Vbrush
PL
I a  I L  I se and IL  and
V
V
If 
Rf
 Also, the dc compound generators are further classified into two types based on the
compounding of the series flux to the shunt flux. They are cumulatively compounded and
differentially compounded generators
 In the cumulatively compound generator, the series flux aids to the shunt field flux and the
net flux increases, whereas in the differentially compounded generators the series flux
opposes the shunt field flux and the net resultant flux decreases.
 The below figure shows the arrangement of the series and shunt field coils iin the pole core in
both cumulative and differentially compounded generators.
 Characteristics of dc generators :
There are three characteristics to be analyzed for any type of the dc generator, they are
1. Open circuit characteristics (or) No-Load characteristics (or) Magnetization
characteristics (E0 Vs If)
2. Internal characteristics (Eg Vs Ia)
3. External or Load characteristics (V Vs IL)

OCC or No-Load Characteristics of Separately excited DC Generator :

1. OCC is the characteristics drawn between open circuit voltage (E0) for various field currents
(If ) at constant speed.
2. In this generator field winding is excited from a separate source Vf as shown in above circuit,
hence field current is independent of armature terminal voltage
3. The generator is driven by a prime mover at rated speed, say constant speed N rpm.
4. With switch S in opened condition, field coil is excited via a potential divider connection
from a separate d.c source and field current is gradually increased by moving the wiper from
minimum position gradually.
5. The field current will establish the flux per pole Φ.
6. The voltmeter V connected across the armature terminals of the machine will record the
 PZ 
generated emf  E  *N  k *N  . Where k is a constant of the machine.
 60 A 
7. As field current is increased, E0 will increase.
8. E0 versus I plot at constant speed N rpm is shown in below figure.
f

9. It may be noted that even when there is no field current, a small voltage (OD) is generated
due to residual flux and the small voltage is called residual voltage.
10. If field current is increased, φ increases linearly initially and O.C.C follows a straight line.
11. However, when saturation sets in, φ practically becomes constant and hence Eg too becomes
constant.
12. In other words, O.C.C follows the B-H characteristic, hence this characteristic is sometimes
also called the magnetization characteristic of the machine.
 Procedure to draw OCC at different speeds
1. It is important to note that if O.C.C is known at a certain speed N1, O.C.C at another speed N2
can easily be predicted from the emf equation E  k *N
2. Emf at speed N1 rpm for a field current of If,
producing the flux Φ is E1 and is given by
E1  k *N1
3. Emf at speed N2 rpm for the same field current of If,
producing the flux Φ is E2 and is given by
E2  k *N 2
4. Therefore, the emf E2 at speed N2 is
E2 k *N 2 E N N
  2  2  E2  E1  2
E1 k *N1 E1 N1 N1
EMF BULID P PROCESS IN A SELF EXCITED DC GENERATOR:
1. For the buildup of emf in the self excited dc generator, the poles or magnets must have
residual flux in them.
2. Therefore, if the generator is driven at rated speed of N rpm, then a small voltage (kφresN)
will be induced across the armature.
3. This small voltage will be directly applied across the
field circuit since it is connected in parallel with the
armature.
4. Hence a small field current flows producing additional
flux.
5. If it so happens that this additional flux aids the already
existing residual flux, total flux now becomes more and
generating more voltage.
6. This more voltage will drive more field current generating more voltage.
7. Both field current and armature generated voltage grow cumulatively.
8. This process will be explained clearly from the plot shown above
9. Initially voltage induced due to residual flux is observed from O.C.C as Od.
10. The field current thus produced can be obtained from field circuit resistance line and given by
Op. With this Op filed current the flux is increased and correspondingly the induced voltage
 also increases from Od to Oq and so on. In this way voltage build up process continues along
the stair case.
OCC or No-Load Characteristics of self excited DC shunt Generator :

1. The OCC of the shunt generator is obtained in a similar way to the dc separately excited
generator by disconnecting its field winding from the
armature and connecting it to a separate dc source
2. Therefore, the OCC curve at rated speed N rpm is shown
in the above figure, with Od as residual voltage and
increases gradually.
3. Later, the Rf line is drawn which is a straight line passing
through the origin having a slope of its value Rf
4. This Rf line intersects the OCC at point M and gives the
rated voltage of the generator.
5. If the Rf value is increased then its slope increases and the
voltage generated by the generator reduces and if the value
of the Rf is such that it becomes the tangential to the given
OCC, then the field resistance is called critical field
resistance(Rf critical).
6. At this critical field resistance, the emf or voltage of the
generator will be very small and it doesn’t generates any
voltage if the Rf selected is greater than the Rfc
7. Thus, Rf must be always less than the Rfc
8. Similarly, for the Rf < Rfc, if the speed decreases then also the voltage generated by the
generator reduces.
9. Thus the generator doesn’t generates any voltage at a speed called critical speed for which the
 given Rf line will become the tangent for the OCC drawn at Nc and is shown in the fig.
10. If the speed of the generator is made to run less than its critical speed then no emf will be
induced, so the speed must be always greater than the critical speed.
Conditions to build up the emf in the generator:

1. The magnets in the machine must have the residual flux.

2. Field winding connection should be such that the residual flux is strengthened by the field
current in the coil. If due to this, no voltage is being built up, reverse the field terminal
connection.

3. Total field circuit resistance must be less than the critical field resistance.

4. Speed of the generator must be greater than the critical speed.

Unit -2
Working principle of dc motor
A dc motor is a electro mechanical energy conversion device that converts electrical energy into
mechanical energy.
Its operation is based on the principle that “when a current carrying conductor is placed in a
magnetic field, the conductor experiences a mechanical force”.
The direction of the force is given by Fleming’s left hand rule which states that “ Stretch the first
three fingers of left hand mutually perpendicular to each other in such a way that central finger
indicates the direction of the current in the conductor, fore finger in the direction of the magnetic
field, then the thumb indicates the direction of the force developed on the conductor
The magnitude of the force developed on the conductor is F = BIL Sinθ
Back EMF:
When the armature of a d.c. motor rotates under the influence of
the driving torque, the armature conductors move through the
magnetic field and hence an e.m.f. is induced in them as per
Faradays laws of electromagnetic induction.
This induced e.m.f. acts in opposite direction to the applied
voltage V (Lenz’s law) and is known as back or counter e.m.f. Eb .
Significance of Back E.M.F
The presence of back e.m.f. makes the d.c. motor a self-
regulating machine i.e., it makes the motor to draw as much armature current as is just sufficient
to develop the torque required by the load. Back e.m.f. in a d.c. motor regulates the flow of
armature current i.e., it automatically changes the armature current to meet the load requirement.
Armature Torque of a DC Motor
Torque is the turning and twisting moment of a force about an axis and is measured by the
product of force (F) and radius (r) at right angle to which the force acts i.e T = F*r
Let
T = Torque developed on the rotor of the motor in Nm
Φ = Flux per pole in weber
Z = No. of the armature conductors
Ia= Armature current in A
P = No. of poles
A = No. of Parallel paths
r = radius of the pulley in mts
Work done by the pulley, W= Force * distance = F * 2πr
work done F  2r F  2r  N 2N 2NT
Power = P    (F * r)   T  P  T
time 60 / N 60 60 60
As, power developed in the armature is the gross mechanical power and is given by
P  E g I a , therefore Eg I a  T
ZN  P  2NT ZN  P 
 I a   Eg   
60  A  60 60  A 
Z  P 
 I a  T
2  A 
Z  P 
T   I a
2  A 
1 P
T ZI a
2 A
Also, from the fundamentals, the gross torque or armature torque is
P  T  Eb I a  T
Eb I a Eb I a * 60  60  Eb I a EI P
T    *  9.55 b a  9.55 m
 2N  2  N N N
Also, the shaft torque or useful torque is
Psh  Tsh
Psh Pm  Mechloss  60  P P
Tsh      * sh  9.55 sh
   2  N N
Therefore,
T  I a
Torque relations in a dc motor
T2 2 I a 2

T2 1 I a1
Speed of a DC Motor
 Therefore,
In a dc motor speed is directly proportional to back emf, Eb and inversely proportional to flux, φ.
Armature reaction:
 The effect of armature MMF or flux on the main field MMF or flux is called as armature
reaction.
 Actually, the armature flux so produced has two undesirable effects on
main field flux.
 Demagnetization effect leads to Net reduction in the main field flux
 Cross magnetizing effect results in Distortion of the main field flux
 Reduction in main field flux per pole due to demagnetization effect reduces the generated
voltage (Eg=PΦZN/60A) in dc generator and reduces the torque (Ta=KΦIa) developed in
armature of dc motor as flux appears in expressions of both Eg and Ta
 The distortion of main flux due to cross magnetizing effect leads to sparking at the brushes.
Detailed explanation of armature reaction
Case:1 (No load with poles excited)
 Consider, no current is flowing in the armature conductors and only the field winding is
energized (as shown in the figure 1).
 In this case, magnetic flux lines of the field poles are uniform and symmetrical to the polar axis.
 The 'Magnetic Neutral Axis' (M.N.A.) coincides with the 'Geometric Neutral Axis' (G.N.A.).
 MNA (Magnetic Neutral Axis) may be defined as the axis along which no emf is
generated in the armature conductors as they move parallel to the flux lines.
 Brushes are always placed along the MNA because reversal of current in the armature
conductors takes place along this axis.
 GNA (Geometrical Neutral Axis) may be defined as the axis which is perpendicular to
the stator field axis.
 Thus, the main field mmf Φf directs towards right side and is perpendicular to GNA or MNA or
Brush axis.
 Case:2 (on load with poles un - excited)
 Figure 2 shows armature flux lines due to the armature current on loading of the machine. With
field poles are de-energized.
 Here, the armature field mmf Φa directs towards down and lies on GNA or MNA or Brush axis.

Case:3 (Machine on load and poles excited)

 Now, when a DC machine is running on load and poles excited, both the fluxes (flux due to the
armature conductors and flux due to the field winding) will present at a time.
 The armature flux superimposes with the main field flux and, hence, disturbs the main field flux
(as shown in figure 3).
 This effect is called as armature reaction in DC machines which redirects the main field flux
such a way that the flux was crowded at the trailing pole tips but weakened or thinned out at the
leading pole tips (the pole tip which is first met during rotation by armature conductors is known
as the leading pole tip and the other as trailing pole tip).

 Therefore, this tends to form a resultant flux line (ΦR) which makes an angle of θ from the main
field mmf (ΦF)
 This makes MNA to shift from GNA by an angle θ
 The direction of the shift of brush axis or MNA is same as that of the rotation of the armature in
the case of generator and is opposite to the rotation of the armature in the case of motor
 The magnitude of the brush shift θ is directly proportional to the amount of the load on the
machine.
Effect of brush shift or MNA shift:
 Due to brush shift, the m.m.f. FA of the armature is also rotated through the same angle q.
 It is because some of the conductors which were earlier under N-pole now come under S-pole
and vice-versa.
 The result is that armature m.m.f. FA will no longer be vertically downward but will be rotated
in the direction of rotation through an angle q as shown in below Fig.
 Now FA can be resolved into rectangular components Fc and Fd.

 The component Fd is in direct opposition to the main m.m.f. OFm and is called the
demagnetizing or weakening component of armature reaction, which reduces the main
field flux.
 The component Fc is at right angles to the main m.m.f. OFm and is called the cross
magnetizing or distorting component of armature reaction, which distorts the main field.
Demagnetizing and Cross-Magnetizing Conductors
 Consider a 2-pole generator with brushes shifted (lead) qm mechanical degrees from G.N.A.
 The armature conductors qm degrees on either side of G.N.A. produce flux in direct opposition
to main flux as shown in Fig(a)(i).
 Thus the conductors lying within angles AOC = BOD = 2qm at the top and bottom of the
armature produce demagnetizing effect.
 These are called demagnetizing armature conductors and constitute the demagnetizing ampere-
turns of armature reaction
 The armature conductors lying between angles AOD and COB is at right angles to the main flux
as shown Fig(a)(ii).
 As these conductors produce the cross-magnetizing (or) distortion effect they are called cross-
magnetizing conductors and constitute the cross-magnetizing ampere-turns of armature reaction.
 Calculation of Demagnetizing Ampere-Turns Per Pole (ATd/Pole)
Let
Z = total number of armature conductors
I = current in each armature conductor
= Ia/2 ... for simplex wave winding
= Ia/P ... for simplex lap winding
θm = forward lead in mechanical degrees

 Calculation of cross magnetizing Ampere-Turns Per Pole (ATc/Pole)

Total armature reaction ampere-turns per pole

As Demagnetizing ampere-turns per pole is given by

Cross-magnetizing ampere-turns/pole are

 Commutation:
“The process by which current in the short circuited coil is reversed while it crosses the
MNA is called commutation”.
 The brief period during which coil remains short circuited is known as commutation period (Tc)
 If the current reversal is completed by the end of commutation period, it is called ideal
commutation.
 If the current reversal is not completed by the end of commutation period, it is called poor or bad
commutation and results the sparking between the brush and the commutator segments.

Detailed process of commutation

 In Fig. (B) (i), the brush is in contact with segment 1 of the commutator. The commutator
segment 1 conducts a current of 40 A to the brush; 20 A from coil A and 20 A from the adjacent
coil as shown. The coil A has yet to undergo commutation.
 As the armature rotates, the brush will make contact with segment 2 and thus short-circuits the
coil A as shown in Fig. (B) (ii). There are now two parallel paths into the brush as long as the
short-circuit of coil A exists. Fig. (B) (ii) shows the instant when the brush is one-fourth on
segment 2 and three-fourth on segment 1. For this condition, the resistance of the path through
segment 2 is three times the resistance of the path through segment 1. The brush again conducts a
current of 40 A; 30 A through segment 1 and 10 A through segment 2. Note that current in coil A
(the coil undergoing commutation) is reduced from 20 A to 10 A.
 Fig. (B) (iii) shows the instant when the brush is one-half on segment 2 and one-half on segment
1. The brush again conducts 40 A; 20 A through segment 1 and 20 A through segment 2 (Q now
the resistances of the two parallel paths are equal). Note that now. current in coil A is zero.
 Fig. (B) (iv) shows the instant when the brush is three-fourth on segment 2 and one-fourth on
segment 1. The brush conducts a current of 40 A; 30 A through segment 2 and 10 A through
segment 1. Note that current in coil A is 10 A but in the reverse direction to that before the start
of commutation.
 Fig. (2.7) (v) shows the instant when the brush is in contact only with segment 2. The brush
again conducts 40 A; 20 A from coil A and 20 A from the adjacent coil to coil A. Note that now
current in coil A is 20 A but in the reverse direction. Thus the coil A has undergone
commutation.
 Each coil undergoes commutation in this way as it passes the brush axis. Note that during
commutation, the coil under consideration remains short circuited by the brush.
 Adjacent Fig shows the current-time graph of the
coil A undergoing commutation.
 +20A is the current in coil A before commutation
(right to left : AB line in graph)
 -20A is the current in coil A after commutation
(left to right : CD line in graph)
  B to C is the reversal of current in coil A happened completely during commutation
period and is known as ideal commutation.
 For good commutation there is no sparking between the brush and the commutator

Poor commutation
 As the armature coils have appreciable inductance. the current in the coil when undergoing
commutation changes, self-induced e.m.f. is produced in the coil and is generally called
reactance voltage.
 This reactance voltage opposes the change of current in the coil undergoing commutation.
 The result is that the change of current in the coil undergoing commutation occurs more slowly
than it would be under ideal commutation.
 The straight line BC represents the ideal commutation whereas the curve BE represents the
change in current when self-inductance of the coil is taken into account. Note that current CE (=
8A in Fig. below) is flowing from the commutator segment 1 to the brush and this results in
sparking.
 The sparking results in overheating of commutator brush contact and causing damage to both.
 Below Fig illustrates how sparking takes place between the commutator segment and the brush.
At the end of commutation or short-circuit period, the current in coil A is reversed to a value of
12 A (instead of 20 A) due to inductance of the coil.
 When the brush breaks contact with segment 1, the remaining 8 A current jumps from segment 1
to the brush through air causing sparking between segment 1 and the brush.
 The reactance voltage in the short circuited coil under commutation is given by

Where Tc is the time of commutation and is given by

Here, Wb = brush width in cm;

Wm = mica thickness in cm;
v = peripheral speed of commutator in cm/s
Methods of Improving Commutation
 Improving commutation means to make current reversal in the short-circuited coil as sparkless as
possible.
 The following are the two principal methods of improving commutation:
(i) Resistance commutation and (ii) E.M.F. commutation
Resistance Commutation:
 In this method the contact resistance between the brush and the commutator is made large, and
then current would divide in the inverse ratio of contact resistances (as for any two resistances in
parallel).
 This Resistance Commutation is achieved by using carbon brushes (instead of Cu brushes) which
have high contact resistance.
 It may be noted that the main cause of sparking during commutation is the production of
reactance voltage and carbon brushes cannot prevent it.
 Nevertheless, the carbon brushes do help in improving commutation.

The other minor advantages of carbon brushes are:

(i) The carbon lubricates and polishes the commutator.
(ii) If sparking occurs, it damages the commutator less than with copper brushes and the
damage to the brush itself is of little importance.
 E.M.F. commutation
 In this method, an arrangement is made to neutralize the reactance voltage by producing a
reversing voltage in the coil undergoing commutation.
 If the reversing voltage is equal to the reactance voltage, the effect of the latter is completely
wiped out and can get sparkless commutation.
 The reversing voltage may be produced in the following two ways:
(i) By brush shifting
(ii) By using interpoles or compoles
By brush shifting:
 In this method, the brushes are given sufficient forward lead (for a generator) to bring the short-
circuited coil under the influence of the next pole of opposite polarity.
 Since the short-circuited coil is now in the reversing field, the reversing voltage produced
cancels the reactance voltage.
This method suffers from the following drawbacks:
(a) The reactance voltage depends upon armature current. Therefore, the brush shift will
depend on the magnitude of armature current which keeps on changing. This necessitates
frequent shifting of brushes.
(b) The greater the armature current, the greater must be the forward lead for a generator. This
increases the demagnetizing effect of armature reaction and further weakens the main
field.
By using interpoles or compoles
 The best way to produce reversing voltage to neutralize the
reactance voltage is by using interpoles or compoles.
 These are small poles fixed to the yoke and spaced mid-
way between the main poles
 They are wound with comparatively few turns and
connected in series with the armature so that they carry
armature current.
 Their polarity is the same as the next main pole ahead in
the direction of rotation for a generator
Functions of Interpoles: The interpoles perform the following two functions:
I function of the interpole:
 As their polarity is the same as the main pole ahead (for a generator), they induce an
e.m.f. in the coil (undergoing commutation) which opposes reactance voltage. This leads
to sparkless commutation.
 The e.m.f. induced by compoles is known as commutating or reversing e.m.f.
 Since the interpoles carry the armature current and the reactance voltage is also
proportional to armature current, the neutralization of reactance voltage is automatic.
 II function of the interpole:
 The m.m.f. of the compoles neutralizes the cross-magnetizing effect of armature reaction
in small region in the space between the main poles.
 It is because the two m.m.f.s oppose each other in this region.
Compensating Windings
 The cross-magnetizing effect of armature reaction may cause trouble in d.c. machines subjected
to large fluctuations in load.
 In order to neutralize the crossmagnetizing effect of armature reaction, a compensating winding
is used.
 A compensating winding is an auxiliary winding embedded in slots in the pole faces as shown
in Fig.
 It is connected in series with armature in a manner so that the direction of current through the
compensating conductors in any one pole face will be opposite to the direction of the current
through the adjacent armature conductors
Calculation of number of compensating conductors/ pole face.
 Note that the current in the compensating conductors placed on the pole faces is the armature
current Ia whereas the current in armature conductors is Ia/A
Let Zc = No. of compensating conductors/pole face
Za = No. of active armature conductors
Ia = Total armature current
Ia/A = Current in each armature conductor

Calculation of AT/Pole for Compensating Winding

 Only the cross-magnetizing ampere-turns produced by conductors under the pole face are
effective in producing the distortion in the pole cores.
 If Z is the total number of armature conductors and P is the number of poles, then,
 Types of D.C. Motors
Based on the field winding excited from the armature the dc motors are of three types
1. DC Shunt motor
2. DC Series motor
3. DC compound motor
a. Long Shunt Compound motor
b. Short Shunt Compound motor
DC SHUNT MOTOR
1. In the dc shunt motor the field winding circuit is
connected in parallel to the armature circuit and as
well as to the line.
2. The line current IL is divided in to the field and the
armature as If and Ia.
3. The shunt field winding has more number of turns
with thin wire, so that resistance of the field will be
in the range of hundreds and was designed to
withstand for the rated voltage.
4. Applying KVL to the armature loop the Eg is
Eb  VL  I a Ra  Vbrush
PL V
Ia  IL  I f and IL  and If 
V Rf
DC SERIES MOTOR
1. In the dc series motor the field winding circuit is connected in series to the armature circuit and
as well as to the line.
2. Here the armature current is equal to the series field current
and also equal to the line.
4. The series field winding has less number of turns with
thick wire, so that resistance of the field will be in the
smaller values and was designed to carry the rated current.

5. Applying KVL to the armature loop the Eg is

Eb  VL  I a Ra  Rse   Vbrush
PL
I a  I L  I se and IL 
V
DC COMPOUND MOTORS
1. A compound motor has two field coils wound over the field poles.
2. The coil having large number of turns and thinner cross sectional area is called the shunt field
coil and the other coil having few numbers of turns and large cross sectional area is called the
series field coil.
3. Based on the series field winding connected to the armature the compound motors are classified
as long shunt motor and short shunt motor
 SHORT SHUNT MOTOR
1. In a short shunt dc compound motor, the series field is
connected in series to the line and shunt field winding
is connected in parallel to the armature and the series
combination of the line and series winding.
2. Thus, the series field current will depend on the line
variations which will effect in further the shunt field
current.
3. Applying KVL to the armature loop the Eg is
Eb  VL  I a Ra  I L Rse  Vbrush
PL
Ia  IL  I f and IL  and
V
VL  I L Rse
If 
Rf

 LONG SHUNT MOTOR

1. In a long shunt dc compound motor, the series field is
connected in series to the armature and shunt field winding is
connected in parallel to the armature and to the line.
2. Applying KVL to the armature loop the Eg is
Eb  VL  I a Ra  Rse   Vbrush
PL V
Ia  IL  I f and IL  and If 
V Rf
 Also, the dc compound motors are further classified into two types based on the compounding of
the series flux to the shunt flux. They are cumulatively compounded and differentially
compounded motors
 In the cumulatively compound motor, the series flux aids to the shunt field flux and the net flux
increases, whereas in the differentially compounded motors the series flux opposes the shunt
field flux and the net resultant flux decreases.
 The below figure shows the arrangement of the series and shunt field coils in the pole core in
both cumulative and differentially compounded motors.
Losses in dc machine

Power Stages in DC Generator:

The power stages in a d.c. generator are represented diagrammatically in below Fig.
A - B = Iron and friction losses
B - C = Copper losses
Overall efficiency, ɳc = C/A
Electrical efficiency, ɳe = C/B
Mechanical efficiency, ɳm = B/A

Power Stages in DC Motor:

The power stages in a d.c. motor are represented diagrammatically in below Fig.
A - B = Copper losses
B - C = Iron and friction losses

Overall efficiency, ɳc = C/A

Electrical efficiency, ɳe = B/A
Mechanical efficiency, ɳm = C/B
Condition for maximum efficiency for dc motor:
 Characteristics of dc motors:
(i) Torque and Armature current characteristic (TaVs Ia)
It is the curve between armature torque Ta and armature current Ia of a d.c. motor. It is also
known as electrical characteristic of the motor.
(ii) Speed and armature current characteristic (N Vs Ia)
It is the curve between speed N and armature current Ia of a d.c. motor. It is very important
characteristic as it is often the deciding factor in the selection of the motor for a particular
application.
(iii) Speed and torque characteristic (N Vs Ta)
It is the curve between speed N and armature torque Ta of a d.c. motor. It is also known as
mechanical characteristic.
Characteristics of Shunt Motors
Fig. below shows the connections of a d.c. shunt motor. The field current If is constant since the
field winding is directly connected to the supply voltage V which is assumed to be constant.
Hence, the flux in a shunt motor is approximately constant

(i) TaVs Ia Characteristic.

 We know that in a d.c. motor, Ta α Ia Since the motor is operating from a constant supply voltage,
flux Φ is constant Ta α ΦIa
 Ta/Ia characteristic is a straight line passing through the origin as shown in Fig. The shaft torque
(Tsh) is less than Ta and is shown by a dotted line.
 It is clear from the curve that a very large current is required to start a heavy load. Therefore, a
shunt motor should not be started on heavy load.
(ii) N Vs Ia Characteristic.
Eb
 The speed N of a. d.c. motor is given by Nα
φ
 The flux Φ and back e.m.f. Eb in a shunt motor are almost constant under normal conditions.
 Therefore, speed of a shunt motor will remain constant as the armature current varies
 Strictly speaking, when load is increased, (Eb=VL-IaRa) and Eb decrease due to the armature
resistance drop and armature reaction respectively.
 However, Eb decreases slightly so that the speed of the motor decreases slightly with load (line
AC).
 Characteristics of Series Motors:
 Fig. shows the connections of a series motor. Note that current passing through the field winding
is the same as that in the armature.
 If the mechanical load on the motor increases, the armature current also increases.
 Hence, the flux in a series motor increases with the increase in armature current and vice-versa.

Ta/Ia Characteristic of DC Series motor:

 We know that Ta αΦIa
 Upto magnetic saturation, Φ α Ia so that Ta α Ia2
 After magnetic saturation, Φ is constant so that Ta α Ia
 Thus upto magnetic saturation, the armature torque is directly proportional to the square of
armature current. If Ia is doubled, Ta is almost quadrupled.
 Therefore, Ta/Ia curve upto magnetic saturation is a parabola (portion OA in Fig above.).
However, after magnetic saturation, torque is directly proportional to the armature current.
Therefore, Ta/Ia curve after magnetic saturation is a straight line (portion AB of the curve).
 It may be seen that in the initial portion of the curve (i.e. upto magnetic saturation), Ta α Ia2
 This means that starting torque of a d.c. series motor will be very high as compared to a shunt
motor (where that Ta α Ia).
 Thus, upto magnetic saturation, the N/Ia curve follows the hyperbolic path as shown in Fig.
 After saturation, the flux becomes constant and so does the speed.

(iii) N/Ta Characteristic of DC Series motor:

 The N/Ta characteristic of a series motor is shown in above Fig.
 It is clear that series motor develops high torque at low speed and vice-versa.
 It is because an increase in torque requires an increase in armature current, which is also the field
current.
 The result is that flux is strengthened and hence the speed drops (N α 1/Φ). Reverse happens
should the torque be low.
Compound Motors:
A compound motor has both series field and
shunt field. The shunt field is always stronger
than the series field.
Compound motors are of two types:
(i) Cumulative-compound motors in which
series field aids the shunt field.
(ii) Differential-compound motors in which
series field opposes the shunt field.
Differential compound motors are rarely used due to their poor torque characteristics at heavy
loads.
Ta/Ia Characteristics of DC Compound motor:
 As the load increases, the series field increases but shunt field strength remains constant.
Consequently, total flux is increased and hence the armature torque.
 It may be noted that torque of a cumulative-compound motor is greater than that of shunt motor
for a given armature current due to series field

(ii) N/Ia Characteristics of DC compound motors.

 As explained above, as the load increases, the flux per pole also increases. Consequently, the
speed (N α1/Φ) of the motor tails as the load increases.
 It may be noted that as the load is added, the increased amount of flux causes the speed to
decrease more than does the speed of a shunt motor.
 Thus the speed regulation of a cumulative compound motor is poorer than that of a shunt motor.

N/Ta Characteristics of DC compound motor:

Fig. above shows N/Ta characteristic of a cumulative compound motor. For a given armature
current, the torque of a cumulative compound motor is more than that of a shunt motor but less
than that of a series motor.
Comparison of Three Types of Motors

(i) The speed regulation of a shunt motor is better than that of a series motor.
However, speed regulation of a cumulative compound motor lies between shunt and series
motors.
(ii) For a given armature current, the starting torque of a series motor is more than that of a shunt
motor. However, the starting torque of a cumulative compound motor lies between series and
shunt motors
(iii) Both shunt and cumulative compound motors have definite no-load speed. However, a series
motor has dangerously high speed at no-load.
 Applications of D.C. Motors
1. Shunt motors
The characteristics of a shunt motor is an approximately constant speed motor. It is, used
(i) where the speed is required to remain almost constant from no-load to full-load
Industrial use: Lathes, drills, boring mills, shapers, spinning and weaving machines etc.
2. Series motors
It is a variable speed motor i.e., speed is low at high torque and vice-versa. It is used
(i) where large starting torque is required e.g., in elevators and electric Traction
(ii) where the load is subjected to heavy fluctuations and the speed is automatically required to
reduce at high torques and vice-versa
Industrial use: Electric traction, cranes, elevators, air compressors, vacuum cleaners, hair
drier, sewing machines etc.
3. Compound motors
Differential-compound motors are rarely used because of their poor torque characteristics.
However, cumulative-compound motors are used where a fairly constant speed is required with
irregular loads or suddenly applied heavy loads.
Industrial use: Presses, shears, reciprocating machines etc.
Characteristics of DC Generator:
There are three characteristics for a dc generator, they are
1. Open circuit characteristics - OCC (or) Magnetization Characteristics (or) No load
characteristics (E0 vs If)
2. Internal Characteristics (Eg vs Ia)
3. External Characteristics (VL vs IL)
DC Shunt Generator:
OCC of DC Shunt Generator (E0 vs If):

 The OCC is drawn at constant speed and the

intersection of Rf line with drawn OCC gives the
open circuit voltage E0
 Rfc is the critical field resistance which is the
tangent line for the OCC drawn at a given speed.
 Nc is the critical speed for which the Rf of the shunt
generator will becomes as Rfc
Internal Characteristics of shunt generator (Eg vs Ia):
 At no-load the voltage is Eg=E0
 Speed is constant for all the operating conditions
 As the load increases the armature reaction effect
increases there by the armature reaction drop is
observed in the E0 and the reduced voltage is called
Eg
 This drop is small and can be considered as almost
constant voltage.
 External Characteristics of shunt generator (VL vs IL):

 At no-load the voltage is Eg=E0

 Speed is constant for all the operating conditions
 As the load increases the armature reaction effect increases there by the armature reaction
drop is observed in the E0 and the reduced voltage is called Eg
 In addition to this the IaRa drop increases with increase in the load and hence the voltage
drops, therefore the shunt generator characteristics are drooping characteristics.
 This drop is small and can be considered as almost constant voltage with field regulators.
DC Series Generator:
The flux in the series generator is directly proportional to the armature current i.e., load
At no-load Ia=0 Eg is small voltage due to the residual flux.
As the load increases the voltage increases in proportion to
the field and the curves of OCC, Internal and external are
shown in the figure.
Therefore, the series generator characteristics are raising
characteristics.
DC Compound Generator:

The dc compound generators are three types

1. Over compound :
In over compound at full load operating
condition the VL> VLrated
2. Under compound:
In under compound at full load
operating condition the VL< VLrated
3. Level or Flat compound:
In level compound at full load operating
condition the VL= VLrated
 The adjacent figure shows the external characteristics of all the generators taking the reference
as the full load voltage and full load current respectively.
 Unit -3 Electrical machines – I
Necessity of starter:
 The function of the starter is to limit the starting current in the motor.
V  Eb
 The current drawn by the motor armature is given by I a  where
Ra
V is the supply voltage, E b is the back emf and R a is the armature
resistance of the motor.
 At starting, when motor is at rest there is no back emf in the armature
(since Eb α N)
 Now the total supply voltage is applied across the stationary armature and
it will draw a very large current because of small armature resistance.
 Consider the case of 440 V, 5 HP (3.73 KW) motor having a cold armature resistance of 0.25 
and full load current of 50A.
 If this motor is started from the line directly, it will draw a starting current of Fehler! = 1760 A
which is Fehler! = 35.2 times its full-load current.
 This excessive current will blow out the fuses and damages the commutator and brushes. To
avoid this, a resistance is placed in series to the armature for the time duration until the motor
pickups the speed.
 Once the motor pickups the speed, the back emf is developed and the current was limited by the
small voltage (VL-Eb) applied to the armature against the small resistance.
 Thus, the starter is used to limit this starting current by inserting the resistance only at the
starting time.
 There are three types of starters used namely
a) 3 point starter b) Four point starter c) Two point starter
Three Point Starter
 The 3 terminals of the three point starter are marked A, B and C.
 First terminal A is connected to the handle arm (L) through the overload release (OLR) from the
supply terminals
 Second terminal B is connected to the field winding of the motor through the Hold ON coil from
the stud 1 of the external resistance placed in series to the armature.
 Third terminal C is connected to the armature by inserting the external resistance.
 The handle initially is at OFF position and when the supply is given, to start the motor the handle
is dragged towards the stud 1.
 This position of the handle divides the line current into two paths one path to the armature
through the current limiting resistance and second path to the field winding.
 Thus the current is limited by this resistance placed in series with the armature. Also as the speed
picksup, the handle was dragged over the studs from off position to ON position.
 At this ON position all the external resistance is removed from the armature and the spring on
the other side of the handle develops the restraining torque with the spring placed.
 The soft iron piece (S) on the handle is attracted by the hold on coil in normal running conditions
 The resistance that was removed from the armature circuit will be added to the field circuit.
 Thus the field current is reduced, to overcome the drawback of weakening of the flux the field
winding terminal is connected from the brass arc placed below the studs and is shown in the
figure
 Hold ON coil (or) No Volt Release (NVR)
 The Normal function of the HOLD-ON coil is to hold on the arm in then full running position
when the motor is in normal operation.
 When the supply failure (or) disconnection, it is de-energised, so that handle is released from the
hold on coil and pulled back by the spring to the OFF position.
 The Hold ON coil protects the motor from dangerous speed when field circuit opens.
Over Load Release (OLR)
 It consists of an electro-magnet connected in the supply line.
 If motor becomes over loaded, then D is lifted and short circuits the electro-magnet. Hence arm
is released and returns to OFF position.
Disadvantage of three point starter:
 To control the speed of motor, a field rheostat is connected in the field circuit.The motor speed is
increased by decreasing the flux (N  I/). There is a difficulty that if too much resistance is
added by the field rheostat, then field current is reduced very much so that the current in the
hold on coil is unable to create enough Electromagnetic pull to overcome the spring tension.
Hence arm is pulled back to OFF position.
 Therefore the shunt motor with this three point starter is not suitable for adjustable speed drive
applications.

Four Point Starter:

It is connected to a long shunt compound motor then
compared to the three-point starter, one change is the
HOLD-ON coil has been connected across the line through a
protecting resistance.
When the aim touches stud No. 1, then the line current will
divide into three parts.
1. One part passes through starting resistance RS, series field
and motor armature which limits the starting current.
2. The second part passes through the shunt field and its field
rheostat R h and
3. The third part passes through the HOLD-ON coil and
current-protecting resistance R. It should be particularly noted that with this arrangement any
change of current in the shunt field circuit does not affect the current passing through the
HOLD-ON coil because the two circuits are independent of each other. It means the electro-
 magnetic pull exterted by the HOLD-ON coil will always be sufficient and will prevent the
spring from restoring the starting aim to OFF position no matter how the field Rheostat (or)
regulator is adjusted.
Designing formulas for the 3 point starter:
I1 R1 R2 R3 R4 R
    ..... n1  K
I 2 R2 R3 R4 R5 Ra
R1  K n 1 Ra
V V
K n 1  and K n 
I max Ra I min Ra
log( V / Ra I max )
n  1
log K
Ex: A 220 V shunt motor has an armature resistance of
0.5 . The armature current at starting must not exceed 40A. If the number of sections is 6,
calculate the values of the resistor steps to be used in this starter.
Since the number of starter sections is specified, we will use the relation.
Fehler! = KFehler! (or) R 1 = R a K n – 1
 R 1 = Fehler! = 5.5 , R a = 0.4 , n – 1 = 6  n = 7
6 log10 K = log1013.75 = 1.1383, K = 1.548
 R 1 = R a K n – 1  5.5 = 0.4 K6 (or) K6 = 13.75
 R 2 = Fehler! = Fehler! = 3.553 
 R 3 = Fehler! = Fehler! = 2.295 
R4 = Fehler! = 1.482 
R5 = Fehler! = 0.958 
R6 = Fehler! = 0.619 
Resistance of 1 section = R 1 – R 2
st
= 5.5 – 3.553 = 1.947 
2nd section = R 2 – R 3 = 3.553 – 2.295 = 1.258 
3rd section = 2.295 – 1.482 = 0.813  = R 3 – R 4
4th section = R 4 – R 5 = 1.482 – 0.956 = 0.524 
5th section = R 5 – R6 = 0.958 – 0.619 = 0.339 
6th section = R6 – R a = 0.619 – 0.4 = 0.219 

Speed control of DC motors:

The speed of a d.c. motor is given by:
Eb V I R
N or N L a where R is Ra for shunt motor and (Ra + Rse). for series motor
 
From the above expression,
The speed of a d.c. motor is controlled
(i) By varying the flux per pole (f) known as flux control method.
(ii) By varying the Ra and is known as armature control method.
(iii) By varying the applied voltage V and is known as voltage control method.
 Speed Control of D.C. Shunt Motor
a) Field control method:

 In this field control method the variable is flux (f)

 The rheostat is placed in series to the field winding, as the field resistance increases the field
current decreases and this weakens the flux
 The weakening of the flux increases the speed since speed is inversely proportional to the flux.
 Thus using the field control, above base speeds can be controlled.
 This method is also known as constant power method or variable torque method.
Advantages
 This is an easy and convenient method.
 It is an inexpensive method since very little power is wasted in the shunt field rheostat due to
relatively small value of If
 The speed control exercised by this method is independent of load on the machine.
Disadvantages
 Only speeds higher than the normal speed can be obtained.
 There is a limit to the maximum speed obtainable by this method. It is because if the flux is too
much weakened, commutation becomes poorer.
b) Armature control method

 In this armature resistance control method the variable is Ra

 The rheostat is placed in series to the armature winding, as the Ra increases the IaRa drop
increases and this decreases the speed.
 The decreasing of the back emf decreases the speed since speed is directly proportional to Eb.
 Thus using the Ra control method, below base speeds can be controlled.
 This method is also known as constant torque method or variable power method.
Disadvantages
 A large amount of power is wasted in the controller resistance since it carries full armature
current Ia.
 The speed varies widely with load since the speed depends upon the voltage drop in the
controller resistance and hence on the armature current demanded by the load.
 The output and efficiency of the motor are reduced.
 This method results in poor speed regulation.
c) Voltage control method by Ward-Leonard system
 This method is used to get the wide range of speed control 10:1.
 As the speed of the motor is directly proportional to the applied voltage to the armature, thus by
applying the variable voltage the speed is controlled.
 The armature of the shunt motor M (whose speed is to be controlled) is connected directly to a
d.c. generator G driven by a constant-speed a.c. motor A.
 The field of the shunt motor is supplied from a constant-voltage exciter E.
 The field of the generator G is also supplied from the exciter E.
 The voltage of the generator G can be varied by means of its field regulator.
 By reversing the field current of generator G by controller FC, the voltage applied to the motor
may be reversed.
Advantages
 The speed of the motor can be adjusted through a wide range without resistance losses which
results in high efficiency.
 The motor can be brought to a standstill quickly, simply by rapidly reducing the voltage of
generator G.
 The disadvantage of the method is that a special motor-generator set is required for each motor
and the losses in this set are high if the motor is operating under light loads for long periods.
Speed Control of D.C. Series Motor
a) Flux control method
In this method, the flux produced by the series motor is varied
and hence the speed.
The variation of flux can be achieved in the following ways:
(i) Field diverters.
 In this method, a variable resistance (called field diverter) is
connected in parallel with series field winding as shown in Fig.
 Its effect is to shunt some portion of the line current from the
series field winding, thus weakening the field and increasing the
speed (Nα1/Φ).
 This method can only provide speeds above the normal speed.
The series field diverter method is often employed in traction
work.

ii) Armature diverter.

 In order to obtain speeds below the normal speed, a variable
resistance (called armature diverter) is connected in parallel
with the armature as shown in Fig.
 The diverter shunts some of the line current, thus reducing the
armature current.
 Now for a given load, if Ia is decreased, the flux Φ must
increase (TαΦIa).
 Since (Nα1/Φ). The motor speed is decreased.
 By adjusting the armature diverter, any speed lower than the normal speed can be obtained.
iii) Tapped field control.
 In this method, the flux is reduced by decreasing the number of
turns of the series field winding as shown in Fig, and hence
speed is increased
 The switch S can short circuit any part of the field winding,
thus decreasing the flux and raising the speed.
 With full turns of the field winding, the motor runs at normal
speed and as the field turns are cut out; speeds higher than
normal speed are achieved.
iv) Paralleling field coils.
This method is usually employed in the case of fan motors. By regrouping the field coils as
shown in Fig below, several fixed speeds can be obtained.

b) Armature-resistance control:
 In this method, a variable resistance is directly connected in
series with the supply to the complete motor as shown in
Fig.
 This reduces the voltage available across the armature and
hence the speed falls.
 By changing the value of variable resistance, any speed
below the normal speed can be obtained.
 This is the most common method employed to control the
speed of d.c. series motors.
 Although this method has poor speed regulation, this has no significance for series motors
because they are used in varying speed applications.
 The loss of power in the series resistance for many applications of series motors is not too
serious since in these applications.

Testing of DC machines:
Testing of DC machines can be broadly classified as
i) Direct method of Testing
ii) Indirect method of testing
Direct method of testing:
In this method, the DC machine is loaded directly by means of a brake applied to water cooled
pulley coupled to the shaft of the machine. The input and output are measured and efficiency is
output
determined by  
input
It is not practically possible to arrange loads for machines of large capacity.
Indirect method of testing:
In this method, the losses are determined without actual loading the machine. If the losses are
known, then efficiency can be determined. Swinburne’s test, Hopkinson’s test and retardation
tests are commonly used on shunt motors.

This method of testing can be used for small motors only because for a large motor it is difficult
to arrange for dissipation of heat generated at the brake.

(ii)Swinburne’s Test:
This test is a no load test and hence cannot be performed on
series motor.
The circuit connection is shown in Figure
 The machine is run on no load at rated speed which is adjusted by the shunt field resistance.
Advantages
1. Economical, because no load input power is sufficient to perform the test
2. Efficiency can be pre-determined
3. As it is a no load test, it cannot be done on a dc series motor
Disadvantages
1. Change in iron loss from no load to full load is not taken into account. (Because of armature
reaction, flux is distorted which increases iron losses).
2. Stray load loss cannot be determined by this test and hence efficiency is over estimated.
3. Temperature rise of the machine cannot be determined.
4. The test does not indicate whether commutation would be satisfactory when the machine is
loaded.

Hopkinson’s Or Regenerative Or Back

To Back Test:
 This is a regenerative test in which two
identical DC shunt machines are coupled
mechanically and tested simultaneously.
 One of the machines is run as a generator, while the other as motor supplied by the generator.
 The set therefore draws only losses in the machines.
 The circuit connection is shown in below Figure.
 The machine is started as motor and its shunt field resistance is varied to run the motor at its
rated speed.
 The voltage of the generator is made equal to supply voltage by varying the shunt field resistance
of the generator which is indicated by the zero reading of the voltmeter connected across the
switch.
 By adjusting the field currents of the machines, the machines can be made to operate at any
desired load with in the rated capacity of the machines
Advantages:
 The two machines are tested under loaded conditions so that stray load losses are accounted.
 Power required for the test is small as compared to the full load powers of the two machines.
Therefore economical for long duration tests like “Heat run tests”.
 Temperature rise and commutation qualities can be observed.
 By merely adjusting the field currents of the two machines the two machines can be loaded
easily and the load test can be conducted over the complete load range in a short time.
Disadvantages:
 Availability of two identical machines
 Both machines are not loaded equally and this is crucial in smaller machines.
 There is no way of separating iron losses of the two machines which are different because of
different excitations.
 Since field currents are varied widely to get full load, the set speed will be greater than rated
values.

The efficiency can be determined as follows:

ALTERNATIVE CONNECTION:
 The Figure shows an alternate circuit connection for this test.
In this connection the shunt field windings are directly connected across the lines. Hence the
input current is excluding the field currents.

The efficiency is determined as follows:

Retardation or running down test:

 This method is applicable to shunt motors and generators
and is used for finding the stray losses.
 If armature and shunt copper losses are known for a given
load, efficiency can be calculated.
 Machine is speeded up slightly beyond its rated speed and
then supply is cut off from the armature while keeping the
field excited.
 Armature will slow down and its kinetic energy is needed to
meet rotational losses. i.e., friction and windage losses.
Separation of losses:

A+C, A+C’, B+D and B+D’ values are obtained

from the graph and hence A,B,C and D constants
can be calculated.
Thus with these constants at any speed the loss are
given by
 Unit – 4
1. Explain the Working principle of transformer

1. The basic working principle of a

transformer is mutual induction
between two windings linked by
common magnetic flux.
2. The primary and secondary coils
are electrically separated but
magnetically linked to each other.
3. When, primary winding is
connected to a source of alternating
voltage, alternating magnetic flux is
produced around the winding.
4. The core provides magnetic path for
the flux, to get linked with the
secondary winding. Most of the flux gets linked with the secondary winding which is called as
'useful flux' or main 'flux', and the flux which does not get linked with secondary winding is
called as 'leakage flux'.
5. As the flux produced is alternating (the direction of it is continuously changing), EMF gets
induced in the secondary winding according to Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction. This
induced emf is called 'mutually induced emf', and the frequency of mutually induced emf is same
as that of supplied emf. Thus, in a transformer the frequency is same on both sides.
6. If the secondary winding is closed circuit, then mutually induced makes the current flow through
it, and hence the electrical energy is transferred from one circuit (primary) to another circuit
(secondary).
2. Derive the EMF Equation of a Transformer
Let
ϕm = Maximum value of flux in Weber
f = Supply frequency in Hz
N1 = Number of turns in the primary winding
N2 = Number of turns in the secondary winding
Φ = flux per turn in Weber
As per the faradays laws,

The average value of the emf induced is directly proportional to the rate of change of flux.
 The flux changes from + ϕm to – ϕm in half a cycle of 1/2f seconds.
 Flux increases from its zero value to maximum value ϕm in one quarter of the cycle i.e. in
¼ of the timeperiod.
d  m  0
 Average rate of change of flux is   4m f volts
dt 1
4f
 Therefore the average e.m.f per turn is 4 m f
Rmsvalue
 As  Formfactor  1.11 for sinusoidal varying quatities
Averagevalue
  Hence, RMS value of e.m.f/turn is 1.11* 4 m f  4.44 m f
 RMS value of e.m.f in the primary and secondary winding. =( e.m.f/turn) * No:of turns
 Therefore Emf induced in primary winding having N1turns is E1  4.44m fN1
 Emf induced in secondary winding having N2 turns is E2  4.44m fN 2
3. Explain the Construction of Transformer
1. The simple construction of a transformer, need two coils having mutual inductance and a
laminated steel core.
2. The two coils are insulated from each other and from the
steel core.
3. The device will also need some suitable container for the
assembled core and windings, a medium with which the
core and its windings from its container can be insulated.
4. In order to insulate and to bring out the terminals of the
winding from the tank, bushings made of porcelain are
used.
5. In all transformers, the core is made of transformer sheet
steel laminations assembled to provide a continuous
magnetic path with minimum of air-gap included.
6. The steel should have high permeability and low hysteresis loss. For this to happen, the steel
should be made of high silicon content and must also be heat treated.
7. By effectively laminating the core, the eddy-current losses can be reduced. The lamination can
be done with the help of a light coat of core plate varnish or lay an oxide layer on the surface.
For a frequency of 50 Hertz, the thickness of the lamination varies from 0.35mm to 0.5mm for a
frequency of 25 Hertz.
8. To reduce the leakage fluxes in the transformer the windings of the primary and secondary coils
are interleaved in the core type and sandwiched coils in the shell type.
9. To reduce the volume of the cu wire the core used must be the stepped core or cruciform core.
4. Compare and distinguish the types of transformers
There are two major types of transformers based on construction. They are
1. Core type and 2. Shell type

S.No Core type Transformer Shell type transformer

1 The winding encircles the core The core encircles the winding
2 The cylindrical type of coils are used Generally multilayer disc type or sandwiched
coils coils are used
3 As windings are distributed, the natural As windings are surrounded by the core, the
cooling is more effective natural cooling does not exists.
4 The coils can be easily removed from For removing any winding for maintenance,
the maintenance point of view a large number of laminations are to be
removed. This is difficult.
5 The construction is preferred for low The construction is used for very high
voltage transformers voltage transformers
6 It has a single magnetic core It has a double magnetic core
7 In a single phase type there are two In a single phase type the core has three
limbs limbs
 5. Explain the operation of Transformer on No Load.
Ideal transformer at No-Load:
1. The transformer operating at no load, is equivalent to the secondary winding kept open circuited,
which means current in the secondary is zero.
2. When primary winding is excited at its rated voltage it draws a current Im called magnetizing
current which is 2 to 10% of the rated current. This generates the magnetic flux in the core by
primary mmf N1Im
3. As the transformer is ideal, the core loss and cu loss are zero. And the net current taken is to
create the mmf or flux of alternating nature.
4. This alternating flux induces the emf’s E1 and E2 in the coils which lags the flux by 900
5. The Im is inphase to the flux and the applied voltage leads to the Im by 900 being the coil with
pure inductive type.
6. Hence, emf’s E1 and E2 in the coils are inphase to each other and lags the flux by 900

Ideal Transformer at No-Load

Transformer at No-Load:
1. The transformer in the practical case draws an additional current Iw to the magnetizing current Im
and total current from the supply mains is I0 which lags to the applied voltage by an angle Φ0
2. There are two components of the current in I0 namely
i. Active (or) power (or) Watt full component of the current Iw which is in phase to the voltage,
and generates the core loss in the transformer
ii. Reactive (or) Watt less (or) magnetizing component of the current Im which lags to the
voltage by 900, and magnetizes the core in the transformer
3. Also, the no-load input power of the transformer is the iron loss (since the cu loss are small at
no-load)
4. The no load angle (Φ0) depends upon the losses in the transformer and is nearly equal to 900. So
that the power factor is very low and varies from 0.1 to 0.15 lagging.
 6.

6. Explain the operation of Transformer on Load without leakage impedances of the coils.

1. When an electrical load is connected to the secondary winding of a transformer a current flows in
the secondary winding.
2. This secondary current is due to the induced secondary voltage, set up by the magnetic flux Φ in
the core from the primary current(I0) and the main flux direction is from primary coil to
secondary coil (clockwise)

3. The secondary current, I2 which is determined by the characteristics of the load, creates an
secondary or load mmf (N2I2) and a secondary magnetic field, Φ2 is established in the
transformer core which flows in the exact opposite direction to the main primary field, Φ1. i.e Φ2
is in anti clock wise.
4. These two magnetic fields oppose each other resulting in a combined magnetic field of less
magnetic strength than the single field produced by the primary winding alone when the
secondary circuit was open circuited.
5. This in turn decreases the primary induced emf and leads to the increase in primary current
I1=I0+I21.
6. This additional I21 current is called load component current in the primary and will be in such a
way to balance the load mmf by this mmf on the primary
i.e N2I2=N1I21 therefore I21= I2K where, K = N2/N1
7. This N1I2 will produce a flux Φ21 equal and opposite to Φ2. These fluxes will now be cancelled
1

and the net flux in the core will be Φ1 even under the loading conditions.
8. For lagging load: I12 = I02 + (I21)2 + 2I0I21cos(Φ0~ Φ2)
9. As the flux remains constant from no-load to load, the iron loss will be same from no-load to
load.
7. Explain the operation of transformer with leakage impedances of the coils
1. Below figure shows the schematic diagram, equivalent circuit and phasor diagram of the
transformer with the leakage impedances of the coils.

Let,
R1=Resistance of primary coil in Ω R2=Resistance of secondary coil in Ω
X1=Reactance of primary coil in Ω X2=Reactance of secondary coil in Ω
Z1=impedance of primary coil in Ω Z2=impedance of secondary coil in Ω
E1=emf induced in primary coil E2=emf induced in secondary coil
V1=applied voltage to primary coil V2= Load or terminal voltage of transformer
I1Z1 = I1(R1+jX1) = Primary leakage impedance drop
I2Z2 = I2(R2+jX2) = Secondary leakage impedance drop
The magnetic core of the transformer is electrically represented with the parallel combination of
R0 and X0 carrying the currents of Iw and Im respectively and is placed across the primary coil.
Currents Analysis of the transformer in equivalent circuit
Currents in the transformer at No-load:
V V  Im 
Iw  1 Im  1 I 02  I w2  I m2 I 0  I w2  I m2 0  tan 1  
R0 X0  Iw 
Currents in the transformer with load

I1  I 0   0   I 21  2 
Where I 21  I 2  K and K 2
N
N1
   
I1  I 0 cos0  I 21 cos2  j I 0 sin 0   I 21 sin 2  - for lag and + for lead
Primary phase angle (Φ1)
1  I 0 sin 0   I 2 sin  2  
1
1  tan    and primary power factor is cosΦ1
 I 0 cos 0  I 1
2 cos  2 
Voltages Analysis of the transformer in equivalent circuit
Primary induced emf

E1  V10  I11  Z1 

E1  V1  j 0  I1 cos1  jI1 sin1  R1  jX 1 

Using transformation ratio E2=E1*K
Knowing the E2 and applying KVL to the secondary loop the load voltage is
V2  E2  I 2 Z 2

V2  E2  'I 2   2 Z 2 V2  E2  'I 2   2 ( R2  jX 2 )
8. Explain the equivalent circuits referred to both primary and secondary of the
transformer
The equivalent circuit of the transformer referred to primary is shown in the below figure in
which the winding parameters of the secondary are transformed and was referred to primary
based on the voltage balancing principle before and after the transformation.
Secondary Resistance referred to primary:
V V VI VI V R  V1 I 2 1  V
R21  1  1  2 2   1 2  2  22    also 2  R2
I1 I1 V2 I 2 V2 I1 I 2 K  V2 I1 K  I2
R
 R21  22 Thus, it is the secondary resistance referred to primary
K
Secondary Reactance referred to primary:
V V VI VI V X  V1 I 2 1  V
X 21  1  1  2 2   1 2  2  22    also 2  X 2
I1 I1 V2 I 2 V2 I1 I 2 K  V2 I1 K  I2
X
 X 21  22 Thus, it is the secondary reactance referred to primary
K
Secondary Impedance referred to primary:
V V VI VI V Z  V1 I 2 1  V
Z 21  1  1  2 2   1 2  2  22    also 2  Z 2
I1 I1 V2 I 2 V2 I1 I 2 K  V2 I1 K  I2
Z
 Z 21  22 Thus, it is the secondary impedance referred to primary
K

To have simplified calculations the equivalent circuit is modified as bringing the core branch
towards the supply voltage instead of having in between the primary and secondary parameters

In this simplified circuit the total resistance, reactance and impedances referred to primary are
 R2 X Z
 Req1  R1  R21  R1  2
 X eq1  X 1  X 21  X 1  22  Z eq1  Z1  Z 21  Z1  22
K K K
Similarly, the equivalent circuit referred to secondary of the transformer is shown below with
their formulas
Primary Resistance referred to secondary:
V V VI VI V  V2 I1  V
R11  2  2  1 1   2 1  1  K 2 R1    K also 1  R1
I 2 I 2 V1 I1 V1 I 2 I1  V1 I 2  I1
 R11  R1 K 2 Thus, it is the primary resistance referred to secondary
Primary Reactance referred to secondary:
V V VI VI V  V2 I1  V
X 11  2  2  1 1   2 1  1  K 2 X 1    K also 1  X 1
I 2 I 2 V1 I1 V1 I 2 I1  V1 I 2  I1
 X 11  X 1 K 2 Thus, it is the primary reactance referred to secondary
Primary Impedance referred to secondary:
V V VI VI V  V2 I1  V
Z11  2  2  1 1   2 1  1  K 2 Z1    K also 1  Z1
I 2 I 2 V1 I1 V1 I 2 I1  V1 I 2  I1
 Z11  Z1 K 2 Thus, it is the primary impedance referred to secondary
 Req 2  R2  R11  R2  R1 K 2  X eq 2  X 2  X 11  X 2  X 1 K 2  Z eq 2  Z 2  Z11  Z 2  Z1 K 2

9. Derive the expression for voltage regulation and efficiency of the transformer
Definition of voltage regulation : Voltage regulation is defined as the percentage change in the
output voltage from no-load to full-load expressed in full load voltage.
 Derivation of voltage regulation for the lagging power factor load,
assuming the angle between OC and OD as very small, and neglected it, OD is nearly equal to
OC (E2 > V2)
E2  OC  OA  AB  BC , E2  OC  V2  I 2 Req 2 cos  I 2 X eq 2 sin
Thus, the % voltage regulation is
E2  V2 V2  I 2 Req 2 cos  I 2 X eq 2 sin  V2 I 2 Req 2 cos  I 2 X eq 2 sin
*100  100  100
V2 V2 V2

Derivation of voltage regulation for the leading power factor load,

Similarly, from the phasor diagram of the leading pf load , (E2 < V2)

Here

EF = DE sinθ = I2X2 sinθ

AB = AE cosθ = I2R2 cosθ

OA = V2 and OD = E2

assuming the angle between OA and OD as very small, and neglected it, OD is nearly equal to
OC (E2 < V2)
V2 - E2 = OA – OC = CA = CB – AB, thus V2 = E2+CB - AB
Thus, the % voltage regulation is
E2  V2 E - E - CB  AB I 2 Req 2 cos  I 2 X eq 2 sin
*100  2 2 100  100
V2 V2 V2
Therefore,

I 2 Req 2 cos  I 2 X eq 2 sin

%regulation 100 (+ ) for lagging pf and (-) for leading pf
V2
 The Efficiency of the transformer is defined as the ratio of power output to the input power.
Where,
V2 = Secondary terminal voltage
I2 = Full load secondary current in A
Cosϕ2 = power factor of the load
Pi = Iron losses
= hysteresis losses + eddy current loss
Pc = Full load copper losses = I22Req

Also, the efficiency at any amount of load(x) is given by

outputinwatts xVA cos
  100
inputinwatts xVA cos  Wi  x 2WFLCu
Condition for maximum efficiency in the transformer:

outputinwatts V2 I 2 cos 1 1
   
inputinwatts V2 I 2 cos  Wi  I 22 re 2 Wi I r Wi I r2
 1 1  2 e22 e2

V2 I 2 cos V2 I 2 cos V2 I 2 cos V2 cos

To get the maximum efficiency the denominator must be small, therefore condition to be the
denominator minimum is

 Wi I r 
d 1   2 e 2 
 V2 I 2 cos V2 cos   0
dI 2
 Wi I r 
d 1   2 e 2 
 V2 I 2 cos V2 cos   0   () Wi   re 2 
     0

 V2 I 2 cos   V2 cos 
2
dI 2

re 2 Wi Wi
 re 2  I 22 re 2  Wi
V2 cos V2 I 22 cos I 22
Therefore the condition for obtaining the maximum efficiency is the variable loss I 22 re 2 must be  
equal to the constant loss Wi .
W 
Also, the load current at which the maximum efficiency occurs is I 2 max   i 
 re 2 
Multiplying both sides with 1000 *V2

W  W 
1000* V2 * I 2 max  1000* V2 *  i  Load KVA max  1000* V2 *  i 
 re 2   re 2 

I 2Full load  Wi   W 
Load KVA max  1000* V2 *   Load KVA max  1000 * V2 * I 2Full load  2 i 
I 2Full load  re 2   2Full load e 2 
I r

 W 
Load KVA max  Full load KVA  2 i 
 2Full load e 2 
I r
 Wi 
The Load KVA at which maximum efficiency Full load KVA  
 WcuFull load 

Wi
The Load KVA at which maximum efficiency Full load KVA
WcuFull load
’
 10. Explain the Separation of hysteresis and eddy current loss in a transformer
The core loss (or) iron loss (or) Magnetic loss in the transformer is of two types namely
a) Hysteresis loss (Ph) and b) Eddy current loss (Pe)
Thus the core loss (Pc) or (Wi) = Ph + Pe
The hysteresis loss Ph = Kh f Bmaxx and the eddy current loss Pe = Ke f2 Bmax2
Where
Kh and Ke are proportionality constants of hysteresis and eddy current loss respectively.
f = frequency of the alternating flux
Bmax = maximum flux density in the core
Wi = Ph + Pe = Kh f Bmaxx + Ke f2 Bmax2
Also, from the emf equation of the transformer
 1  V 
E  V  4.44 m fN  4.44Bm AC fN Bm    
 4.44 AC N  f 
x x x x
 1  V  V   1 
 The hysteresis loss Ph  K h f     Ph  K1 f   where K1  K h  
 4 . 44 AC N  f  f   4 . 44 AC N 
Ph  K1V x f 1 x and the value of x = 1.6  Ph  K1V 1.6 f 0.6
Thus, the hysteresis loss depends on both the applied voltage and frequency.
2
 where K  K  
2 2
 1  V  V
2
1
 The eddycurrent loss Pe  K e f  2
   Pe  K 2 f 
2
 2 e

 4.44 AC N  f  f   4.44 AC N 
 Ph  K 2V 2 And thus, the eddy current loss depends on only applied voltage.

The total core loss is  Pc  K1V 1.6 f 0.6  K 2V 2

11. Explain in detail about the all day efficiency in a single phase transformer
 There are two types of transformers used in power lines namely, Power transformers and
Distribution transformers
 The Power transformers are disconnected during the light load periods from the primary, so they
are designed to have maximum efficiency at the rated or full load KVA.
 The Distribution transformers are used to supply the utility voltage to the consumer point and
these transformers are connected throughout the day to the primary which presents the core loss
in the transformer irrespective to the load present on the secondary.
 Thus these distribution transformers are designed to have low value of coreloss, since coreloss is
low, the load at which maximum efficiency occurs is also low, i.e the maximum efficiency of the
transformer will be at either at half of the load.
 Therefore the performance of the distribution transformers is not judged by the full load
efficiency which will be usually less than its maximum efficiency.
 As the distribution transformers are connected to primary continuously throughout the period its
performance is therefore determined from the energy efficiency
 The energy efficiency is defined as the ratio of the energy output for a certain period to the total
energy input for the same period. When this energy efficiency is calculated for a day of 24hours
then this energy efficiency is called All day efficiency.

energy output( KWh)

 allday 
energy output( KWh)  Wi * 24( KWh)  Wcu * Load present period( KWh)

Variation of voltage regulation and efficiency with respect to load and load powerfactors

Emf equation of transformer(Alternate method)

Let the flux be taken as reference varying sinusoidal and given by    m sin wt

As per faradays second law

d d m sin wt 
e / turn  ()    m w cos wt  m w sin(90  wt )  m w sin(wt  90)  m 2f sin(wt  90)
dt dt
e / turn  m 2f sin(wt  90)  e  m 2fN sin(wt  90)

and is in the form of

e  Emax sin(wt  90)  Emax  m 2fN  Erms  m 2fN  / 2  E  4.44m fN

E2 N 2
Thus, E1  4.44m fN1 and E2  4.44m fN 2   4.44m f  4.44Bm Ac f
E1 N1
 Unit – 5
Question no. 1 Explain OC and SC tests on a single phase transformer
Ans: Purpose of conducting OC and SC tests is to find
i) Equivalent circuit parameters ii) Efficiency iii) Regulation
Open Circuit Test:
1. The OC test is performed on LV side at rated voltage and HV side is kept opened.
2. As the test is conducted on LV side the meters selected will be at low range values like
smaller voltmeter, smaller ammeter and low pf wattmeter
3. As the no-load current is quite small about 2 to 5% of the rated current, the ammeter required
here will be smaller range even after on LV side which are designed for higher current values.
4. The voltmeter, ammeter and the wattmeter readings V0, I0 and W0 respectively are noted by
applying rated voltage on LV side.
5. The wattmeter will record the core loss because of noload input power.

Calculations from OC test readings:

R0, X0 and Iron loss are calculated
from the OC test results as
V V0
Core resistance R0  0 
I w I 0 cos 0
V V0
Magnetizing reactance X 0  0 
I m I 0 sin 0
P
Where cos 0  0
V0 I 0
and iron loss Wi = P0 (No load input power)

Short Circuit Test:

1. The SC test is performed on HV side at rated current and LV side is kept Shorted.
2. As the test is conducted on HV side the meters selected will be at low range values like smaller
voltmeter, smaller ammeter and unity pf wattmeter
3. As the voltage required to circulate the short circuit rated current is very small about 10 to 15%
of the rated HV voltage, so the voltmeter required here will be smaller range even the test is
conducted on HV side.
4. The voltmeter, ammeter and the wattmeter readings Vsc, Isc and Wsc respectively are noted by
passing rated current on HV side.
5. The wattmeter will record thecopper loss corresponding to the Isc.

Calculations from SC test readings:

re(HV), xe(HV) and cu loss are calculated
from the SC test results as
Equivalent resistance referred to HV side is
Psc
Rsc  2
 re ( HV )
I sc
Equivalent impedance referred to HV side is
Vsc
Z sc   z e ( HV )
I sc

Equivalent reactance referred to HV side is X sc  Z sc2  Rsc2  xe( HV )

The culoss is equal to the wattmeter reading Wsc

 Thus, the approximate equivalent circuit of the transformer can be drawn by the calculated
values of R0 and X0 on LV side and re(HV) and xe(HV) on HV side.
 The efficiency at any load is calculated from the losses Wi and Wcufl as
xVA cos 
x   100
xVA cos   Wi  x 2WFLCu
The regulation of the transformer is calculated from the re(HV) and xe(HV) as
I HV reHV cos   I HV xeHV sin 
%reg   100 where  is for lagging pf and  is for leading pf
VHV
 Question no. 2 Explain Sumpner’s test or back to back test
Ans: Purpose of Sumpner’s test or back to back test on transformer is to determine efficiency,
voltage regulation considering the heating under loaded conditions.
1. Two identical transformers are required to conduct the Sumpner's test
2. Both transformers are connected to supply such that one transformer is loaded on another.
3. Both Primaries are connected in parallel and both secondaries are connected in series
opposition which is checked by the voltmeter showing zero volts when the switch S is closed.

Procedure for sumpner’s test:

1. Both the emf's cancel each other, as transformers are identical. In this case, as per superposition
theorem, no current flows through secondary. And thus the no load test is simulated.
2. The current drawn from Voc is 2I0=Ioc and the input power measured by wattmeter Woc is equal
to iron losses of both transformers. i.e. iron loss per transformer Pi = Woc/2.
3. Now, a small voltage Vsc is injected into secondary with the help of a low voltage transformer.
4. The voltage Vsc is adjusted so that, the rated current Isc flows through the secondary. In this case,
both primaries and secondary’s carry rated current.
5. Thus short circuit test is simulated and wattmeter Wsc shows total full load copper losses of both
transformers. i.e. copper loss per transformer PCu = Wsc/2.
6. From above test results, the full load efficiency of each transformer is calculated and is given as
xVA cos 
%   100
Woc 2 Wsc
xVA cos   x
2 2
 Question no. 3 Explain the Separation of losses

 For a sine flux wave, the transformer core loss is given by

Pc  K h fBmx  K e f 2 Bm2
 The transformer core loss consists of hysteresis and eddy current loss.
Pc
 Core loss per cycle =  K h Bmx  K e fB m2
f
V P
 Here Bm  is observed as constant, therefore c  K1  K 2 f
f f
 For the given transformer conduct the test on it at various frequencies and note down the values
of Core loss per cycle (Pc/f)
 From the values of the test plot the graph and is shown in the adjacent Fig., where K1 and K2
constants are obtained.
 With constants K1 and K2 the core loss can be separated in to hysteresis and eddy current loss at
any desired frequency and is given as
Ph=K1f and Pe=K2f2
Question no.4 Write a short notes on 1-Φ Auto transformer
1. An auto transformer is a single winding transformer, i.e. both primary and secondary windings
are connected to each other both electrically and magnetically.
2. There is one common winding which forms both primary and secondary winding in which
voltage is varied by changing the position of secondary tapping on the body of the coil.
3. The primary VA is equal to secondary VA i.e V1I1 = V2I2
4. Here the primary VA V1I1 is transformed to secondary through both
induction and conduction principles
5. The primary winding consists of N1 turns from A to C and the secondary
has N2 turns
6. Thus the VA from the portion AB will be transformed inductively
towards secondary and The VA from the portion BC will be transformed
conductively to the secondary
7. The AB has (N1 – N2) turns with a current of I1 from A to B and the portion BC has N2 turns with
a current of (I2 – I1) from C to B
8. The primary mmf of the inductively transformed VA in the auto transformer is (N1 – N2) I1
which should be same to that of secondary mmf N2 (I2 – I1)
9. The primary mmf (N1 – N2) I1 = N1 I1 – N2 I1 = N2 I2 – N2 I1 since N1 I1 = N2 I2
= N2 (I2 – I1) equal to the secondary mmf
 Transformation ratio of the auto transformer is thus the ratio of N2 to the N1 – N2
N2
N2 N1 k
That is  
N1  N 2 N1  N 2 1  k
N1
 Inductively transformed VA
As the inductively transformed VA is equal to the (V1-V2)*I1 from the total VA V1I1 Then
inductivel y transformed VA V1  V2 I1 V1 I1  V2 I1 V
   1 2  1 k
Total input VA V1 I1 V1 I1 V1
 Conductively transformed VA
As the conductively transformed VA is equal to the subtraction of the inductively transformed
VA from the total VA. Therefore

conductively transformed VA  V1 I1  1  k V1 I1  kV1 I1 

conductively transformed VA
k
Total input VA
Question no.5 List out the advantages and applications of Autotransformers
1. Its efficiency is more when compared with the conventional one.
2. Its size is relatively very smaller.
3. Voltage regulation of autotransformer is much better.
4. Lower cost
5. Low requirements of excitation current.
6. Less copper is used in its design and construction
7. In conventional transformer the voltage step up or step down value is fixed while in
autotransformer, we can vary the output voltage as per out requirements and can smoothly
increase or decrease its value as per our requirement.
Applications:
1. Used in both Synchronous motors and induction motors.
2. Used in electrical apparatus testing labs since the voltage can be smoothly and continuously
varied.
3. They find application as boosters in AC feeders to increase the voltage levels. Then,
V2 N 2 I1
   K Note: The current in the section CB is vector difference of I2 and I1. But as
V1 N1 I 2
the two currents are practically in phase opposition, the resultant current is (I2-I1).
Question no.6 Explain the Equivalent circuit of an auto transformer
The equivalennnt circuit of the auto transformer referred to primary is given below with the
necessary mathematical equations and diagrams
V1 = Vab + V2
Therefore Vab is the transformed secondary voltage of an auto transformer with a turns ratio of
(N1-N2) : N2

Vab = V2’ + transformed secondary leakage impedance drop + Primary leakage impedance drop
Vab  V2'  I1 (r1  jx1 )  ( I 2  I1 )(r2  jx 2 ) '
As voltages are directly proportional to turns and currents are inversely proportional to the turns
V2' N1  N 2 I I N  N2
 and 2 1  1
V2 N2 I1 N2

 N  N2   N  N2 
Now, Vab  V2  1   I 1 (r1  jx1 )  ( I 2  I 1 )(r2  jx 2 ) 1 
 N 2   N 2 
2
 N  N2   N  N2 
Vab  V2  1   I 1 (r1  jx1 )  I 1 (r2  jx 2 ) 1 
 N2   N2 

 N1  N 2  
  N1  N 2  
2
   
2


Vab  V2   
 I 1  r1  r2    
 j x1  x2 
N N
 

1 2
     
N 2  
 N2  
  N2 
   

 N  N2 
Vab  V2  1   
  I1 r1  r2'  j x1  x2' 
 N2 
 1 k 
Vab  V2   
  I 1 r1  r2  j x1  x2
' '
 
 k 

Therefore V1 = Vab + V2
 1 k 
V1  V2   ' ' 

  I 1 r1  r2   j x1  x2    V2
  k  

V
   

V1   2  V2  I 1 r1  r2'  j x1  x2'   V2
k 
V
  
V1  2  I 1 r1  r2'  j x1  x2'
k

Question no.7 Derive the expression for the saving of cu in auto transformer
 The weight of the copper in the transformer is directly proportional to the MMF in the coil.
 Therefore, the weight of the cu in an ordinary transformer the total MMF is N1I1 + N2I2
 The weight of the cu in an auto transformer is (N1 – N2 ) I1 + N2 (I2 – I1)
Weight of the cu in ordinary 2 winding transformer N1 I 1  N 2 I 2
 
Weight of the cu in auto transformer N1  N 2 I1  N 2 I 2  I1 
N2I2  1
1 1 k  
N1 I 1  N 2 I 2 N1 I 1  k 2 1
     
N1 I1  N 2 I1   N 2 I 2  N 2 I1   N 2 I1   N 2 I 2 N 2 I1  1  k   1  k  21  k  1  k
1    
 N1 I 1   N1 I 1 N1 I 1 
Weight of the cu in an auto transformer = (1-k) * Weight of the cu in an ordinary transformer\
 Saving of the copper in the auto transformer = W2wdg – W auto = W2wdg – [ (1-k) * W2wdg]
 Saving of the copper in the auto transformer = W2wdg – W2wdg + k W2wdg = k W2wdg
 Therefore, saving of cu in auto transformer is k times the cu used in 2 winding transformer.
 Question no.8 Give the Comparison of auto transformer with a two winding transformer

1. Ratings:
 The KVA rating of the auto transformer with primary V1 and I1 values are V1 I1
 The KVA rating of the auto transformer with transformation principle is the VA available in AC
winding as (V1 – V2) I1
KVA auto V1 I1 1
Therefore,  
KVA 2 wdg V1  V2 I1 1  K

2. Losses:

 The full load losses is same in both the auto transformer and 2 winding

 The per unit losses in the transformer is expressed in terms of rating of the transformer as
Per unit losses auto Full load losses KVA rating as 2 - wdg T/F
   1 K
Per unit losses 2 wdg KVA rating as auto T/F Full load losses

3. Impedance drop:

 The impedance drop is same in both the auto transformer and 2 winding

 The per unit impedance drop in the transformer is expressed in terms of rated voltage as
I1 z 1
Per unit impedance drop auto V1 V  V2
  1  1 K
Per unit impedance drop 2 wdg I1 z1 V1
V1  V2 
4. Regulation:
 Regulation of the transformer is directly proportional to impedance drop.
Regulation as auto transformer
 1 K
Regulation as 2 - wdg transformer
 SNo Auto transformer 2-winding transformer
A static device which transfers
A transformer having one winding, a part of
1 electrical energy using two isolated
which acts as primary and other as secondary
coils
Power transfer is partly by Induction and partly
2 Through induction completely
by conduction

3 Smaller in size Larger in size

4 Gives better voltage regulation Gives good voltage regulation

5 Less amount of cu is required More amount of cu is required

6 Low losses and high efficiency High losses and low efficiency
7 Self induction principle Mutual induction principle
8 Output voltage can be varied Output voltage is constant
9 More economical Less economical
Used as starters for induction motors, as voltage Used in power system for step up and
10
regulators in railways and in laboratories step down the voltages.

Question no.9 List the conditions for Parallel operation of two single phase transformers
Conditions for parallel operation of two single phase transformers
1. The Transformers must have the same voltage ratio i.e. with Primaries of Transformers
connected to the same supply; their Secondary’s must have the same voltage.
2. The equivalent leakage impedance in Ohm should be inversely proportional to their respective
KVA rating. In other words, we can say that all the Transformers should have their per unit
leakage impedance based on their own kVA rating equal.
xe
3. The ratio of equivalent leakage reactance to equivalent resistance i.e. should be same for the
re
two transformers.
4. The primaries and secondary’s of the transformers must be connected with the correct polarities.
 Question no.10 Explain the parallel operation of the two transformers at No load

The adjacent figure shows the parallel operation

connection of the two transformers at no-load and
Let
 Ea, Eb = secondary emfs of transformers A & B
 zea and zeb are the leakage impedances of the
transformers referred to secondary.
 ic is the circulating current in the secondary’s of
the two transformer
 V is the terminal voltage across the transformers
 There are two cases of the parallel operation of the two transformers namely with and without
equal voltage ratios.
Case:1 (Equal voltage ratios Ea = Eb at No- load)
 As the two secondary voltages are equal in magnitude, there is no potential difference and hence
there is no circulating current.
 Since No- Load operation the no load currents on the secondary’s Ia and Ib are zero.
 Therefore Ea = Eb i.e (Ea - Eb = 0)
and Ia = Ib = 0
Case:2 (Un equal voltage ratios Ea > Eb at No- load)
 As two secondary voltages are unequal in magnitude, then a
potential difference of (Ea - Eb ) rises to a circulating current ic
(lagging nature) against the leakage impedance (zea + zeb)
 Since it is of No- Load operation the no load currents on the
secondary’s Ia and Ib are zero.
 The KVL for the secondary’s loop is -Ea + ic zea+ ic zeb + Eb = 0
E a  Eb
and now ic (zea+ zeb) = Ea - Eb  ic  and
z ea  z eb

E a  Eb  x  xeb 
lags by   tan 1  ea
ic 
rea  reb   j xea  xeb   r  r 
 ea eb 
 Also, this circulating current ic aids to the Ea so that the voltage ic
zea is dropped from Ea and presents as V at the busbars.
 Also, this circulating current ic opposes to the Eb so that the voltage ic zeb is added to Eb and
presents as V at the busbars.
 The KVLs of the corresponding transformers are
 V  Ea  ic zea and V  Eb  ic zeb
 Thus, the circulating current will reduce the voltage of the transformer whose induced voltage is
more by subtracting the drop and this same circulating current will boost the voltage of the
transformer whose induced voltage is less.
Case:3(Equal voltage ratios Ea = Eb With load)
 With equal voltages on the secondary’s of the two transformers there is no circulating current
 Because of the transformers loaded Ia and Ib are the currents supplied by transformers A and B
 Below figure shows the circuit diagram of transformers in parallel with load at equal voltages

Then the KVLs for the two transformers is given by

V  Ea  I a zea V  Eb  I b zeb
As the terminal voltages are same therefore
Ea  I a zea  Eb  I b zeb
Since, the induced voltages are same i.e Ea = Eb , then the voltage drops across the leakage
impedances will also be same.
I a z eb 1000 *VI a z eb S a z eb
Therefore I a zea  I b zeb   
I b z ea 1000 *VI b z ea S b z ea
From the above relations
z eb z ea z eb z ea
Ia  I Ib  I Sa  S Sb  S
z ea  z eb z ea  z eb z ea  z eb z ea  z eb
Thus, the performance of this case depends on the leakage impedances
 xea xeb
Case a: │Zea│=│Zeb│and 
rea reb

 Let the impedance values are assumed to be same and the leakage impedance angles
a  b and a  b

 If the X/R ratios of the transformers are different, one transformer will be operating with a higher
power factor and the other transformer with a lower power factor that of total load.

 It means that kW load is not proportionally shared by them.

x x
Case b : │Zea│> │Zeb│and ea  eb
rea reb

 The two transformers with this case having unequal impedances and

equal load angles will share the load in such a way that, Transformer

having greater leakage impedance shares less KVA and lesser leakage

impedance shares more KVA.

 Therefore the transformers of different KVA ratings operating in

parallel is possible with their leakage impedances in ohms are inversely proportional to their

respective KVA ratings

Case:4(Un equal voltage ratios Ea > Eb With load)
 As two secondary voltages are unequal in magnitude, then a potential difference of (Ea - Eb )
rises to a circulating current ic (lagging nature) against the leakage impedance (zea + zeb)
 As with Loaded operation the load currents on the secondary’s are assumed to be equally shared
i.e two transformers will supply I/2 currents .
I I
 With circulating current, the currents handled by transformer is I a   ic and I b   ic
2 2
 The phasor sum of Ia and Ib is equal to the load current I
 The mathematical analysis is
V  Ea  I a zea  ( I a  I b )Z ….(1)

V  Eb  I b zeb  ( I a  I b )Z ….(2)
Equating eq’s (1) and (2)
Ea  I a zea  Eb  I b zeb  I a zea  I b zeb  Ea  Eb
I a z ea  Ea  Eb 
Ib 
z eb
Substitution of this Ib in eq .(1)
 I z   E a  Eb    I Zz E  Eb Z 
Ea  I a z ea   I a  a ea Z Ea  I a z ea   I a Z  a ea  a 
 z eb   z eb z eb 

Ea 
Ea  Eb Z  I Zz 
  I a z ea  I a Z  a ea  Ea 
Ea  Eb Z  Zz 
  z ea  Z  ea  I a
z eb  z eb  z eb  z eb 

Ea

Ea  Eb Z  Ia Ia 
Ea

E a  E b 
z ea  Z 
Zzea zea zeb  Zzeb  Zzea  z ea  Z 
Zzea  z ea z eb 
 z eb  z ea 

z eb z eb  Z 
Also Ia can be written as

Ia 
Ea z eb

Ea  Eb Z
zea zeb  Zzeb  Zzea  zea zeb  Zzeb  Zzea 

Ea zeb  Ea  Eb Z Eb z ea  Ea  Eb Z

Ia  Ib 
zea zeb  Z zea  zeb  Similarly z ea z eb  Z z ea  z eb 

And the total load current is Ia +Ib =I

Ea z eb  Eb z ea
I
z ea z eb  Z z ea  z eb 
And the terminal voltage is V = IZ
Ea z eb  Eb z ea
V
 z ea  z eb 
z ea z eb
Z

The circulating current ic is Ia - Ib and

is equal to the second terms in Ia and Ib

ic 
E a  E b 
 z ea z eb  also V = I Z
  z eb  z ea 
 Z 
 E  V Eb  V 
V   a  Z
 z ea z eb 

1 1 1  E a Eb
V      
and
 Z z ea z eb  z ea z eb
z eb z ea
Ia  I Ib  I
z ea  z eb z ea  z eb
 Unit -6
Star – Star connection:
Star-star connection is generally used for small, high-voltage transformers. Because of star
connection, number of required turns/phase is reduced (as phase voltage in star connection is
1/√3 times of line voltage only). Thus, the amount of insulation required is also reduced.
Advantages:
 There is no phase displacement between the primary and secondary voltages
 Star points on both sides make it possible to provide neutral connection
Disadvantages:
 If the load on the secondary side of the transformer is unbalanced, the phase voltages of load side
change unless the load star point is earthed. The difficulty of shifting neutral can be overcome by
connecting the primary star point to the star point of the generator.
 The primary of the transformer draws a magnetizing current which has third and fifth
harmonics. If neutral of primary winding is not connected to neutral of generator, the third
and fifth harmonics current cannot flow hence the flux in the core cannot be of sinusoidal wave
and, therefore, the voltages will be distorted. By connecting primary neutral to the generator
neutral, the path for return of these third and fifth harmonics current is provided and, therefore,
the trouble of distortion of voltages is overcome.
 Even if neutral point of primary is connected to neutral of generator or earthed, still if third
harmonic is present in the alternator voltage form, it will appear on secondary side. Though the
secondary line voltages do not contain third harmonic voltage; but the 3rd harmonic voltages are
additive in the neutral and causes the current in the neutral of tipple frequency (3rd harmonic)
which will cause interference to the nearby communication system. Thus harmonic phase
voltages may be high in-shell type 3-phase transformers
The star-star connection is rarely used owing to the difficulties associated with the exciting
current.

Delta – Delta Connection

Delta – Delta connection is generally used for large, high-current transformers. Because of delta
connection, the cross sectional area of the conductor is reduced (as phase current in delta
connection is 1/√3 times of line current only). Thus, the amount of cu required is also reduced.
Advantages:
 In order to get secondary voltage as sinusoidal, the magnetizing current of transformer must
contain a third harmonic component. The delta connection provides a closed path for circulation
 of third harmonic component of current. The flux remains sinusoidal which results in sinusoidal
voltages.
 If there is bank of single phase transformers connected in delta-delta fashion and if one of the
transformers is disabled then the supply can be continued with remaining two transformers of
course with reduced efficiency.
 Due to delta connection, phase voltage is same as line voltage hence winding have more number
of turns. But phase current is (1/√3) times the line current. Hence the cross-section of the
windings is very less. This makes the connection economical for low voltages transformers.
 Due to closed delta, third harmonic voltages are absent. The absence of star or neutral point
proves to be advantageous in some cases.
Disadvantages:
 Due to the absence of neutral point it is not suitable for three phase four wire system.
 More insulation is required and the voltage appearing between windings and core will be equal
to full line voltage in case of earth fault on one phase

Star – Delta connection:

Star – Delta connection is generally used for step down purposes, especially at the end of the
power transmission lines that is nearer to the load points
Advantages:
 The primary side is star connected. Hence fewer numbers of turns are required. This makes the
connection economical for large high voltage step down power transformers.
 The neutral available on the primary can be earthed to avoid distortion.
 The neutral point allows both types of loads (single phase or three phases) to be met.
 Large unbalanced loads can be handled satisfactory.
 The Y-D connection has no problem with third harmonic components due to circulating currents
in Delta. It is also more stable to unbalanced loads since the D partially redistributes any
imbalance that occurs.
 The delta connected winding carries third harmonic current due to which potential of neutral
point is stabilized. Some saving in cost of insulation is achieved if HV side is star connected. But
in practice the HV side is normally connected in delta so that the three phase loads like motors
 and single phase loads like lighting loads can be supplied by LV side using three phase four wire
system.
 As Grounding Transformer: In Power System Mostly grounded Y- ∆ transformer is used for no
other purpose than to provide a good ground source in ungrounded Delta system. Take, for
example, a distribution system supplied by ∆ connected (i.e., ungrounded) power source. . If it is
required to connect phase-to-ground loads to this system a grounding bank is connected to the
system.
Disadvantages:
 In this type of connection, the secondary voltage is not in phase with the primary. Hence it is not
possible to operate this connection in parallel with star-star or delta-delta connected transformer.
 One problem associated with this connection is that the secondary voltage is shifted by 300 with
respect to the primary voltage. This can cause problems when paralleling 3-phase transformers
since transformers secondary voltages must be in-phase to be paralleled. Therefore, we must pay
attention to these shifts.

Delta – Star connection:

Delta– Star connection is generally used for step up purposes, especially at the starting of the
power transmission lines that is nearer to the generating stations.
Advantages:
 Cross section area of winding is less at Primary side:
On primary side due to delta connection winding cross-section required is less.
 Used at Three phase four wire System:
On secondary side, neutral is available, due to which it can be used for 3-phase, 4 wire supply
system.
 No distortion of Secondary Voltage:
No distortion due to third harmonic components.
 Handled large unbalanced Load:
Large unbalanced loads can be handled without any difficulty.
 Grounding Isolation between Primary and Secondary:
Assuming that the neutral of the Y-connected secondary circuit is grounded, a load connected
phase-to-neutral or a phase-to-ground fault produces two equal and opposite currents in two
phases in the primary circuit without any neutral ground current in the primary circuit.
 Therefore, in contrast with the Y-Y connection, phase-to-ground faults or current unbalance in
the secondary circuit will not affect ground protective relaying applied to the primary circuit.
This feature enables proper coordination of protective devices and is a very important design
consideration.
The neutral of the Y grounded is sometimes referred to as a grounding bank, because it provides
a local source of ground current at the secondary that is isolated from the primary circuit.
 Harmonic Suppression:
The magnetizing current must contain odd harmonics for the induced voltages to be sinusoidal
and the third harmonic is the dominant harmonic component. In a three-phase system the third
harmonic currents of all three phases are in phase with each other because they are zero-
sequence currents. In the Y-Y transformer connection, the only path for third harmonic current is
through the neutral.
In the ∆ -Y connection, however, the third harmonic currents, being equal in amplitude and in
phase with each other, are able to circulate around the path formed by the ∆ connected winding.
The same thing is true for the other zero-sequence harmonics.
 Grounding Bank:
It provides a local source of ground current at the secondary that is isolated from the primary
circuit. For suppose an ungrounded generator supplies a simple radial system through ∆-Y
transformer with grounded Neutral at secondary as shown Figure. The generator can supply a
single-phase-to-neutral load through the -grounded Y transformer.
Disadvantages:
 In this type of connection, the secondary voltage is not in phase with the primary. Hence it is
not possible to operate this connection in parallel with star-star or delta-delta connected
transformer.
 If secondary of this transformer should be paralleled with secondary of another transformer
without phase shift, there would be a problem.

Open delta or V-V connection:

 If one of the transformers of a D – D is removed and 3-phase supply is connected to the
primaries, then three equal 3-phase voltages will be available at the secondary terminals on no-
load. This method of transforming 3-phase power by means of only two transformers is called
the open – D or V – V connection.
This open delta connection is employed
 When the three-phase load is too small to warrant the installation of full three-phase transformer
bank.
 When one of the transformers in a D – D bank is disabled, so that service is continued although
at reduced capacity, till the faulty transformer is repaired or a new one is substituted.
 When it is anticipated that in future the load will increase necessitating the closing of open delta.
 One important point to note is that the total load that can be carried by a V – V bank is not two-
third of the capacity of a D – D bank but it is only 57.7% of it. That is a reduction of 15%
(strictly, 15.5%) from its normal rating.
Example:
Suppose there is D – D bank of three 10-kVA transformers. When one transformer is removed,
then it runs in V – V. The total rating of the two transformers is 20 kVA. But the capacity of
the V – V bank is not the sum of the transformer kVA ratings but only 0.866 of it i.e. 20 ´ 0.866
= 17.32 (or 30 ´ 0.57 = 17.3 kVA). The fact that the ratio of V-capacity to D-capacity is 1/ 3 =
57.7% (or nearly 58%) instead of 66 .2 per cent can be proved as follows:

From the above diagram

V  V capacity 3VI 1
   0.577  58%
  Capacity 3V 3I 3
Therefore, V-V capacity = 57.7% of the Delta – Delta connection capacity.
It is obvious from above that when one transformer is removed from a D – D bank.
1. The bank capacity is reduced from 30 kVA to 30* 0.577 = 17.3 kVA and not to 20 kVA as
might be thought off-hand.
2. Only 86.6% of the rated capacity of the two remaining transformers is available (i.e. 20 *0.866
= 17.3 KVA). In other words, ratio of operating capacity to available capacity of an open-D is
0.866. This factor of 0.866 is sometimes called the utility factor.
3. Each transformer will supply 57.7% of load and not 50% when operating in V – V
However, it is worth noting that if three transformers in a D – D bank are delivering their rated
load and one transformer is removed, the overload on each of the two remaining transformers is
73.2% because
The disadvantages of this connection are :
1. The average power factor at which the V-bank operates is less than that of the load. This
power factor is actually 86.6% of the balanced load power factor. Another significant point to
note is that, except for a balanced unity power factor load, the two transformers in the V –
V bank operate at different power factors.
2. Secondary terminal voltages tend to become unbalanced to a great extent when the load is in-
creased, this happens even when the load is perfectly balanced.
It may, however, be noted that if two transformers are operating in V – V and loaded to rated
capacity (in the above example, to 17.3 kVA), the addition of a third transformer increases the
total capacity by 3 or 173.2% (i.e. to 30 kVA). It means that for an increase in cost of 50% for
the third transformer, the increase in capacity is 73.2% when converting from a V – V system to
a D – D system.
 Power Supplied by V – V Bank
When a V – V bank of two transformers supplies a balanced 3-phase load of power factor cos f,
then one transformer operates at a p.f. of cos (30° – Φ) and the other at cos (30° + Φ).
Consequently, the two transformers will not have the same voltage regulation.
Scott Connection:

 Scott connection is also known as the three phase to two phase converter.
Two phase supply is needed for following applications
o To supply power to two phase electric furnaces
o To interlink two phase and three phase system.
o To supply power to 2 phase source from three phase equipment and vice-versa.
Circuit Description:

 Two single phase transformers with suitable tapping on both side, are required for the scott
connection. They are
 Transformer 1: Main transformer with 50% tapping.
 Transformer 2: Teaser transformer with 86.6% tapping.
 Teaser transformer is connected between center tapping D and A.
 D is center tapping of main transformer and it connected across the line B and C of three phase
side. It has secondary bb’ and primary BC.
 3 phase input power is required for the scott connection. It provides two single phase outputs.
These output are at 90° out of phase and must not be connected in series or in parallel as it
creates a vector current on the primary side. Teaser transformer has secondary aa’ and primary
AD.
Fig shows the phasor diagram of the voltage across primary and secondary.
Mathematical Formulas:
The loads on the two single phase transformers are known as P2M , cosΦM and P2T , cosΦT on
main and teaser transformers respectively.
Calculate the load currents
P2 M P2T
I 2M  I 2T 
V2 cos  M V2 cos T
N 2 V2
Let , Transformation ratio of main transformer is K  
N1 V1
N2 V2
Transformation ratio of Teaser transformer is K T    1.15K
0.866 N1 0.866V1
Then, the primary side currents are

2
I 
I A  I1T  1.15KI 2T I B  I C  I1M  I1M  2
  1T  I1M  KI 2 M
 2 
 Problem on Scott connection:
In a Scott connection, calculate the values of line currents on the three phase side, if the loads on
2 phase side are 300 kW and 400 kW, both at 125 V and 0.707 p.f. and the three phase line
voltage is 3300 V. The 300 kW load is on the leading phase of the 2 phase side. Neglect the
losses.
Given Data:
Primary line voltage V1 = 3300 V
Secondary voltage V2= 125 V
Load on teaser secondary
P2T = 300 kW CosØT = 0.707 p.f.
Load on main secondary
P2M= 400 kW CosØM = 0.707 p.f.

To find: IR, IY & IB = ?

Solution:
Transformation ratio for main transformer, KM =V2 /V1 = 125/3300 = 0.0378
Transformation ratio for teaser transformer, KT = 1.15 x KM = 1.15 x 0.0378 = 0.0436
Secondary current in teaser transformer, I2T = (300 x 103) / (125 x 0.707) = 3394.62 A
Primary current in teaser transformer, = KT x I2T = 0.0436 x 3394.62 = 148 A
.
. . Line current, IR = 148 A
Secondary current in main transformer, I2M= (400 x 103) / (125 x 0.707) = 4526.16 A
Primary current in main transformer, I1M= KM . I2M = 0.0378 x 452.16 = 171.08 A
In addition to this I1M current each half of the primary winding of the main transformer carries
half of teaser primary current. i.e I1T /2 = 148/2 = 74 A
Total current carried = √((I1M)2 + (I1T /2)2) = √((171.08)2 + (74)2) = 186.39 A
... Line currents, IY = IB = 186.39 A
The three line currents are IR = 148 A, IY = 186.39 A, IB= 186.39 A
OFF Load Tap Changer:
 This type of Tap changer is used for
seasonal voltage variations
 As in summers load on HT increases
leads to drop in HT voltage so output
can be increased by using Transformer
Tap changer
 In Winters when load get reduced, HT
voltage restores to normal levels then
tap changer position can be done
according to value of HT Voltage.
There are six studs marked as 1-6. The winding is tapped at six points equal to no. of studs. The
tapping leads are connected to six corresponding marked stationary studs arranged in circle. The
face plate carrying six studs can be mounted anywhere on Transformer. The Rotatable arm R can
be rotated by means of Hand-wheel from outside transformer tank.
Winding taps are provided as per requirement if there are huge fluctuations in voltages then
%age of tap changer interval vary accordingly.
Let’s assume transformer winding is tapped at 2.5% interval, then with we can get following
tapings with Rotatable arm provided outside Transformer tank :-
At Studs 1,2 : Full winding of Transformer will remains in circuit
At studs 2,3 : 97.5% Transformer winding will remain in the circuit.
At Studs 3,4 : 95% of transformer winding will be in circuit
At Stud 4,5 : 92.5 % of Transformer winding will be in circuit
At Stud 5,6 : 90% of Transformer winding will be in circuit
Usually in Transformer for 11 KV HT voltage Transformer tapping will be on 3 No. and then
O/P voltage tapping will be done according to requirement and Variation in HT voltage.
Stop S fixes the final position and prevents the arm R from being rotated clockwise. In the
absence of Stop S the Arm R may be come in contact with Stud 1 and 6. In-Such case only lower
part of winding will be cut out of circuit which will leads to mechanical stress which is
completely undesirable.
There are following taps available in 11KV/433 V Transformer as below:-
11550 HT Voltage – 433 V
11275 HT Voltage- 433 V
11000 HT Voltage – 433 V
10725 HT Voltage- 433 V
10450 HT Voltage- 433 V
Initially Transformer tapping is places at 11KV i.e. 3 No. at Rotating Handle.
Due care required when shifting Tap is that Transformer must be disconnected from line
ON Load Tap Changer:
A tap changer designed to operate while the Transformer is charged is called On Load Tap
Changer (OLTC). On Load Tap Changer, OLTC is Make Before Break type which ensures that
no sparking will take place while operating OLTC. On Load Tap Changer (OLTC) is used for
short period or daily voltage regulation. During the operation of On Load Tap Changer, OLTC
following two things shall be taken care:
 The main circuit shall not be opened else heavy sparking will take place.
 No part of tapped winding shall be shorted.
The below figure shows the elementary form of On Load tap Changer, OLTC. As shown in the
figure the center tapped Reactor C prevents the tapped winding from getting short circuited. The
Transformer tappings are connected to the segments 1 to 5. Two fingers A and B are movable
and connected with the Centre Tapped Reactor through switches x and y and make contact with
any one of the segment 1 to 5 under normal operation.
 As clear from the figure, both the fingers A and B are connected with segment 1 and
switches x and y are closed, thereby whole winding is in circuit. As both the fingers are
 connected with the segment 1, half of the
current will flow from the lower part of
the Center tapped Reactor C and half of the
current will flow from upper part. As the
Reactor is wound in the same direction,
therefore mmf because of upper half of the
current and lower half of the current will
cancel out in Reactor. Therefore Reactor
will be behave like non inductive and will
not offer any impedance. Therefore, the
voltage drop in the center tapped Reactor
will be very small.
 Now to change the tapping of the
Transformer, following sequence of
operation will take place one by one. The
steps to be taken for changing the tap are
shown in figure below.

Step1: Open Switch y

The entire current now will flow through switch x and lower half of the Reactor C. It therefore
becomes highly inductive and there will be a large voltage drop across it. Reactor C shall be
designed to withstand full load current momentarily.
Step2: Move Finger B
As the Switch y is open therefore finger B is not carrying any current and can be moved to
segment 2 without any sparking.
Step3: Close Switch y
Now close Switch y. Now the Transformer winding between tap 1 and 2 get connected through
the Reactor C. As the impedance offered by the Reactor is high for current flowing only in one
direction, the circulating current through the Reactor, finger A and finger B will be very less. In
this manner the Reactor prevents the tapped winding from getting short circuited.
Step4: Open Switch x
Now the entire current will flow from the upper half portion of the Reactor causing a high
voltage drop across it.
Step5: Move Finger A
As the Switch x is open therefore finger A is not carrying any current and can be moved to
segment 2 without any sparking.
In this way, the winding between segment 1 and 2 is completely cut out. If further change in
voltage is required, above sequence of operation is repeated.