n

u
Main Course
Contents

Formulae of the Chapter

Numerical Examples from Board Exams,
Problems on Higher Order Thinking Skills
14
Guidelines to NCERT Exercises
Bank of Board Questions
VSAQ, SAQ, LAQ

u Answers
to Bank of Board Questions SEMICONDUCTOR
ELECTRONICS

M ain Course Contents

1. What are electronic devices ? What is the basic difference between vacuum tubes and solid-state
electronic devices ? Give the advantages of the latter over the former devices.
Ans. Electronic devices. Any device whose action is based on the controlled flow of electrons
through it is called an electronic device. The branch of physics that deals with the study of these
electronic devices is called electronics. The electronic devices are of two
types:
() Vacuum tubes. These include vacuum diode, triode, tetrode, etc. In a vacuum tube,
electrons obtained from a heated cathode are controlled by varying voltages between its different
electrodes.7 hese devices are bulky, consume high power, operate generally at high voltages, have
limited life and low reliability.
() Solid-state electronic devices. In such devices, the charge carriers flow through
solid-state semiconductors. These devices include junction diodes, transistors and integrated
Circuits. These are small in size, consume low power, operate at low voltages, have long life and
high reliability.
2. How are solids classified on the basis of their resistivity values ? Give two distinguishingfeatures of
semiconductors.
Ans. Classification of solids on the basis of theirresistivity values:
A. Metals. They have very low resistivity or high conductivity.
p 102-10*Am; G 102-10 Sm
B. Insulators. have
They high resistivity or low conductivity.
p10°m; a 10 Sm
Emicomductors. They possess resistivity or conductivity intermediate to metals and insulators.

p 10-10 Am; o 10-10 Sm

853
 PH1

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FAST
semiconductenductors are as follows:
of the
MOVE

features
854 the distinguishing.
higherresis.
sistivity than metals
much
have a
of resistivity (a) that is
of
coefficient
bo
negaturive an
i c o n d u c t o r s

temperature
a
tors decreases rapidly with
temperatthanm
Semiconductors hav
ave semiconductor

of
the resistivity
is the number density n ofcharge o arriers
That considerablei
lower

3.
high.
Semionductors havea
the basis of their
al
chemical composition oeta u
Give some exampj
iconductors on
semicon

ur
classify
can
How
f ech tupe s e m i c o n d u c t o r s
on the basis of t theirchemical. position:
Classification
of
Ans
semiconductors:
Si and Ge.
A. Elemental are
: Examples
semiconductors
B. Compound etc.
GaAs, CdSe, InP,
Inorganic: CdS, polythiophene, etc.
Polypyrrole, polyaniline,
() Organic polymers:
bands in solids. On the basis ofenergy band diagrams. dicti.
4. Explainthe formation ofenergy semiconductor. [Haryana 04; Himachal 08, 09.
S
(i) a metal, (ii) an insulator and (iü) a
D0,0
isolated atom, the electrons
bands in solids. In an
Ans, Formation of energy
interatomic interactions in a crystal, the eloPW
levels. But due to
defined discrete energy
have energies different from
those in isolated atoms, Fach
outer shells are forced to a continuous band.
splitsinto a number of energy levels forming
Consider a single crystal of silicon
having N atoms. Each atom has electronic
configuration:1s 2s2p° 3s 3p. At large Forbidden
interatomic separations (r=d) in the outer
energy gapP
shells, N energy levels of 3 s-type are filled
with 2 N electrons while N energy levels of C.B
3p-type are filled with 2 N electrons and
remaining 2 N energy levels of 3p-type are
empty. V.B.
As teratomic separation reduces
(r=c<d), the valence electrons of
neigh-
bouring atoms begin to interact. The
energies of 3s and 3p levels get modified. We
have now N different levels Crystal lattice spacing
of 3s-type and
3N different levels of
gap between 3s-and
3p-type. The energy
3p-levels decreases. We
have a very large number a b
(4 N) of closely Interatomic spacing, r
spaced energy levels in a small very
range which form an energy 1gure 14.1 Formation of enerqy bands in lcou
energy band.
Asr reduces
a set of further (r =b> a), the energy gap between
continuously distributed 4N energy levels. 3s-and 3p-levels disappe Weha
At
equilibrium
separated from the bandseparation
of 2 N
(r=a) the band of 2N
filled energy levels
An enormously large numberempty energy
of energy levelslevels (vaie gap
closely spaced in a very small en8evels
an
energy band. The allowed
(conduction band) by ar
range
consi
exist. These energy bands are 141l energy
forbidden regions are called separated by regions in which energ
l e v e l scann

occupied by the valence electrons is band gaps or whicr ct energ energy

called the called the energy gaps. The highe a l l o w e db a n d

onduction band. valence band and the

next empiy
 CHAPTER 14:
SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS 855
nistinction between metals, insulators and
semiconductors on the basis of band theory.
a Metals. In metals, either the conduction band is partially filled
the valence and conduction bands (in Li, Na, K, etc.) or
Here E =0.
partly overlap. (in Be, Mg, Zn, etc.)
This makes available a
large
number of free electrons for electric
conduction. So
metals have high conductivity or low resistivity
Partially filled
conduction band
Overlapping
conduction band
Filled valence
Filled valence band
band
(i) (i)
(a)

Empty
conduction Empty
band conduction
E> 3 eV band

Filled
Filled
valence
valence band
band

(b) (c)

Figure 14.2 Energy band diagrams for (a) metals (b) insulators and (c) semiconductors.

(i) Insulators. Here the conduction band is empty and the valence band is filled. The
forbidden energy gap is large (E, >3 eV) Electrons cannot be excited from the
valence band to the conduction band even by applying a strong electric field.
Therefore, no electrical conduction is possible.
For diamond, E, =6 eV.
(iin) Semiconductors. The empty conduction band is separated from the filled valence band
by a small energy gap (E, <3 eV) Some electrons of the valence band easily get
thermally excited to the conduction band and conduct electricity. can So
semiconductors acquire small conductivity even at room temperature.

For Si, E, =1.17 eV and for Ge, E, =0.74 eV.

5. Define Fermi level and Fermi energy.

The highest energy level in the conduction band filled up with
Ans. Fermi level and Fermi energy.
Fermi level is called
electrons at absolute zero is called Ferni level and the energy cortesponding to the
Femi Energy.
valence band model, erplain the mechanism of
6. What intrinsic semiconductors ? On the basis of
are
How do holes act as positive charge carriers ?
conduction in intrinsic semiconductors.
Or
Punjab 06C]
in intrinsic semiconductors.
Describe the process of conduction
is
Ans. Intrinsic semiconductors.
The pure semiconductors in which the electrical conductioity
no in1purity
and consequenthy created holes and in which
Tetally governed by the thermally excited electrons and their conductivity is
uroms are added to increase their conductivity are
called intrinsic semiconductors
called intrinsic conductivity.
 PHYSICS-XII

WITH
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MO
S50
semiconductors. In a crystal of o o r .
Valence bond model
of intrinsic
Ge atoms, as shown
sh in nium, each Ge
Fig. 14.3. Such
bonded to four
neighbouring a al
is tetrahedrally
bonds intact
exists at low
temperature. structure y
all
increases, the
As the temperature
the valence electrons
thermal energy of
increases. As shown
in 14.4, an electron
Fig.
from the covalent bond
'

may break away

This
and becomes frer to conduct electricity.
the
electron leaves behind a vacancy in
covalent bond (at site 1). This vacancy of an
electron with an effective positive electronic

charge is called ahole. It behaves as an

apparentfree particle with a charge +e .

As each free electron creates one

hole, so in an intrinsic semiconductor, the
number density of free electrons (n,) is
equal to the number density of holes (,)
and each is equal to the intrinsic charge
Fiqure 14.3 Covalent bonding in Si or Ge. The
carrier concentration (1,)
symbol+4 represents inner core of Ge or Si.
All bonds are intact at low temperature.
Electrical conduction in an intrinsic semiconductor is due to
shows a hole at site 1. An electron at site 2 of the
electron-hole pairs. Fig. 14
After such a jump, a hole is created at site 2 neighbouring
covalent bond may jump to the site
and site 1 gets l
Fig. 14.5. occupied by an electron as
Apparently, the hole has moved from site 1 to site 2. Under the action of an in shown
electric field, the holes move in the appliei
direction of the electric field
in the reverse direction
from one atom to
(due to
jumping of bound electrons
another). So they act as
rise to a hole current
I;. The thermally generated free electrons positive charge carriers and give
Current ,. The total current is give rise to an independent electron
I=Electron current + hole current
=, +

Thermally generated
free electron

Hole at
site 1
(electron
vacancy)
O Site 1
Site 1
..

Site 2
Site 2

' +4

Figure 14.4 Generation of a hole at

liberation of a free electron duesite 1 and
thermal energy at
to Figure 14.5 Apparent movemeneo f a
moderate
temperature. nole in an intrinsic
semiconductor
 CHAPTEk 14
SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS 857
Ske and explain the energy band diagram of intrinsic semiconductors.
7.
Energy band diagram of intrinsic semiconductor. At T =0
Ans,
K, the valence band of a
imnductor is completely filled with electrons while the conduction band is
iconducto.

Eig. 14.6(). Hence an intrinsic semiconductor

Fig. 14.60
empty, as shown in
behave: like an insulator at T =0 K. At higher
nperatures (T K) some electrons of the
E
valence band gain sutficient thermal energy
and jump to the conduction band, creating an E
equal number of holes in the valence band.
These thermally excited electrons occupy the
lowest possible energy levels in the
conduction band. Therefore, the energy band
diagram of an intrinsic semiconductor at () at T= 0 K (i)at T> 0K
T>OK is of the type shown in Fig. 14.6(). (behaves like insulator)
Clearly, the number of electrons in
Figure 14.6 Energy band diagrams of
conduction band is equal to the number of intrinsic semiconductors.
holes in valence band.

8. What are the limitations of intrinsic semiconductors when we use them for developing semiconductor
devices?
[Punjab 031
Ans. Limitations of intrinsic semiconductors in developing semiconductor devices
1. Intrinsic semiconductors have low intrinsic charge carrier concentration (of hole and
electrons) =10° m"°. So they have low electrical conductivity.
2. As intrinsic charge carriers are
always thermally generated, so
flexibility is not
available to control their number.
3. For intrinsic semiconductors, n, =
n, .

They cannot have predominant hole or electron

conduction. This puts a limit to the usefulness of such materials.
9. What is doping ? State the necessary conditions for doping. What are the various methods of
doping? [Punjab 11]
Doping. The processofdeliberate additionofa desirable impurity to a pure semiconductor sa
to increase its conductivity is called doping. The impurity atoms added are called dopants and the
Semiconductors doped with the inmpurity atoms are called extrinsic or doped semiconductors.
Essential requirements for a doping process
1. The semiconductor material should be of very high purity, 99.9999% or more.
2. The dopant atom should neatly replace the semiconductor atom.
3. The size of the dopant atom should be almost the same as that of the semiconductor
atom. For this the atoms of third and fifth group of the periodic table are most suitable.
4. The dopant atoms should not distort the crystal lattice.
5. The concentration of dopant atoms should be small, about 1 part per million.

Methods of doping:
 PHYSICS-XII

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FAST
MOVE

858 ****

tetruvelent crystals of . Si ?
used m dopng
the tuo doypants
are
10. What dopants:
types of also
As, Sb and P. These
Ans.
Two T are
called donors.
such as
Pentaralent dopants
() In, B and Al. These are
are also called
also called
Trialent dopyants
such as
acceptors.
(
? Mention their two types
11.
What are extrinsic
semicomductors
limachal 0%; Purih
semiconductors. A
semiconductor obtained by doping a puro

Ans. Extrinsic conductivity is called an ev.

atoms so as to incrense its
acceptor or donor impurity
semiconductors are of trwo types:
nicomdur
Extrinsic
obtained byv donin.
1. type semiconductors.
These are the semiconductors
ing Ge o S
pentavalent dopants.
2. ptype semiconductors.
These are the semiconductors
obtained by dopino.
obtained
doping Ge or Siw
trivalent dopants.

semiconductor can be converted into (i) n-type and (i) p-type semicnw
12. Explain how an intrinsic onducto
Give one example of each and their energy
band diagrams. Punjab 11; CBSE D
Ans. 1. Formation of n-type semiconductor. This semiconductor is obtained by donin.
tetravalent semiconductor Si (or Ge) with pentavalent inmpurities such as As, P or Sb of gron oping
oup
the periodic table. As shown in Fig. 14.7, when a pentavalent impurity atom. substitutes #
tetravalent Si atom, it uses four of its five valence electrons in forming four covalent bondswi
neighbouring Si atoms while the fifth electron is loosely bound to the impurity atom. A very smal
amount of ionisation energy (=001eV for Ge and 0. 05 eV for Si) is required to detach this electhn
At room temperature, the thermal energy
is enough to set free this electron. The

dopant atom gets converted into an

ionised +ve core. As each pentavalent

impurity atom donates one extra electron
.
for conduction, it is called a donor These Unbonded

semiconductors have free electrons free

electron
contributed by donors and generated by donatedby
pentavalent

the thermal process while the holes are

(+5 valency
only due to thermal generation. Hence, atom

the electrons are the

majority charge carriers
and holes are the
minority charge carriers
As most of the current is carried
negatively charged electrons, so the
by the . .
semiconductors doped with donor type
impurities are known as Formation of n-type semiconductor uy
n-type Fhgure 14.7
semiconductors doping tetravelent Si with pentavalent impunuy
For-type such semiconductors, n, >> n,h
For energy band
diagram of r-type semiconductor, see Fig. 14.9(a) on
page o 0.
2. Formation of t
p-type semiconductor. Such a semiconductor is obtained oping

tetravalent semiconductor Si (or Ge) with trivalent DyhoWn

impurities such as In, B, Al or Ga ith
Fig. 14.8, the impurity atom uses its three valence electrons wi thre
in forming covalent
bon
neighbouring Si atoms and one covalent bond with neighbouring Si atom is left ncomplete'du
a
tothe deficiency of one electron. An electron from incot
the neighbouring Si-Si covalent
into this vacant bond, creating a
vacancy or hole in that bond. This hole is now
bonhe e for

ava
 CHAPTER 14
SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS 859
nduction. The ivalent impurity atom
becomes
tively charged when all its
valence
e bonds get filled. The trivalent
inmpurityatom is called an acceptor because it
hole whicl can accept an electron
creates a
om the neighbourin bond. Obviously,
are holes created by the
there
acceptor
oms in addition to the thermally
atoms

generatec holes while the free electrons

due to thermal generation. Hence,
Hole .

areonly
holes are the majority charge carriers and leciron
dectrons are the minority charge carriers.
The semiconductors doped with acceptor
type impurities are called
p-type
. O.
semiconductors, because most of the current
in these semiconductors is carried by holes Figure 14.8 Formation of p-type semiconductor by
which have effective positive charge. doping tetravelent Si with trivalent impurity.
For ptype semiconductors, 1, >>n
For energy band diagram of ptype semiconductor, see Fig. 14.9(6) on page 860.

13. Deduce the relation between different charge carrier concentrations for an extrinsic semiconductor.
What does this equation imply in regard to n-type and p-type semiconductors?
Ans. Thermodynamic relation between the number densities of electrons and holes for
an extrinsic semiconductor. When conduction electrons and holes are created in a semiconductor,
a process of destruction occurs simultaneously in which electrons and holes recombine with each
other. At equilibrium, the rate of generation of charge carriers is equal to the rate of destruction of
charge carriers.
For an extrinsic semiconductor,
Rate of recombination cn,n,
or, rate of recombination =

Rn," (1)
where R is a constant known as recombination coetficient.
For an intrinsic semiconductor, n, = ", =n,, so the equation (1) becomes

Rate of recombination = Rn,, .2)

As long as the lattice structure of the semiconductor remains the same, the rates of
recombination given by equations (1) and (2) for extrinsic and intrinsic semiconductors must be

equal. Hence

Rn,,=Rn, or .3)
The above equation implies the following facts about'+type and p-type semiconductors:
1, For an n-type semiconductor, n, is necessarily greater than n, and yet its product

with n, remains equal to ns. This is possible only

if
n, becomes less than n. This
in semiconductors.
implies that the number of holes gets suppressed ntype
2. Eor a p-type semiconductor, n, is necessarily greater
than
n, and yet its product with
Thus the
is possible only if n, becomes less than n,.
n remains equal to n. This semiconductor.
number of electrons is suppressed in a p-type

What is an intrinsic semiconductor ? How can this material be

converted into (i) p-type (ii) n-type
14. extrinsic semiconductor ? Explain with the help of energy band diagramns. [CBSE D O6]
 MOVE FAST WITH
PHYSIC.5-AI

860

senmiconductor, reter
answer to Q. 6 on page 855
Ans, For
intrinsic
band diagram of irtype conductor. In ietype semiconduc
Energy donor mall energy
impurity. A very sma uctors, the extta
very weakly attracted by the (=001 evev Jste
to free this electron
from the donor impurity. When freed, this electron wuvill
possible energy level in the conduction band i.e., the energy of the donor electro
on is slightly
occupy the
than E. Thus the donor energy level Ep lies just below the bottom of the conduction b
Fig. 14.9(a). At room temperature this small energy gap is easily covered by thoi nd, as shoy
electrons. The conduction band has more electrons (than holesin in valence
valence therma es
contributed both by thermal excitation and donor impurities.
as t band)
vavet

- Ep

0.01 eV
0.01 -0.05 eV

O0-

(a) b)
Figure 14.9 (a) Energy band diagram of n-type
Fiqure 14.9 (6) Energy band diagram of p-type
semiconductor at T >0 K semiconductor at T>0 K
Energy band diagram of p-type semiconductors. In p-type semiconductors, each
impurity creates a hole which can be easily filled by an electron of Si-Si covalent bond acept
small energy (=001-005 eV) is ie, a a
Hence the acceptor
required by an electron of the valence
band to move into thishok
energy level E lies slightly above the top of the valence
Fig. 14.9(6). At room temperature, many electrons of the valence band, as showni
band get excited to these acept
energy levels, leaving behind equal number of holes in the valence
current. Thus the valence band has band. These holes can condut
more holes than electrons
conduction band.
in the
15. What holes ? Give their
are
important characteristics. Punjab
Ans. Holes. The vacancy or absence
a hole. In terms of
band theory, whenever an
of an electron in the bond of acovalently bonded crystal sols
electron is removed
band of a
semiconductor, a vacancy is left behind in the valencefrom the completely tillea v
positive charge carrier and is band. This vacancy serves a
called a hole.
Characteristics of holes
1. A hole is
just a vacancy created by the removal of an electron ond ot
semiconductor. from a
covaleit
2. It has the same
mass as the
3. It is associated with a (removed) electron. d

4. The
positive charge of magnitude e.
energy of a hole is higher, the
farther below it is from the top of the
band
Fig
16. Explain the variation of conductivity of a semiconductor vale in
with
temperature. Haryana eas
Or PSL
Explain the variation of resistivity with temperature in CBSEFR
kn
pure semiconductors. IsCE
[ISCE 97C;
97C
Ans. Variation of conductivity of a ctivityo f

semiconductor is given by semiconductor with temperature. The

conaue

As the temperature increases, the mobilities holes decreas d

, andu, of electrons and
to the increase in their collision frequency. But due to the small energy gap of semiconau
 CHAPIER 14
SEMICONDUCIOR ELECTRONICS 861
morea n d
more lactrons
electrons [n a eIKT from
[noces*' | the valence band cross over to the
carrier concentrations,
in carrier concentrati
1, and , is so large that the
conduction
band.
the increasee
The
, and, hasno influence. The overall effect is
that the
decrease in the values of
ases with the increase of temperature. conductivity increases or the resistivity
What is a pnjunction? Expla1, With the help of a diagram, how (i)
harrier is formed in a
p-1 junction diode. On what depletion layer, and (ii) potential
factors does the magnitude of
symbol for pn junction diode. potential
pn junction diode depend ? Give the circuit barrier of a
a

[Punjab 06; CBSE OD 09, 11 D

Ans. p-njunction. It is single crystal of Ge
a
or Si doped in sucha manner that one half portion of it
s s semiconductor and the other half as n-type
Ptype
semiconductor.
We take a thin p-type silicon (p-Si)
semiconductor wafer
nentavalent impurity. A part ot the p-Si wafer gets converted and into
add to it a small
quantity of
+Si wafer. The wafer now
contains p-region and +region with metallurgical
junction between the two regions.
Formation of depletion region and potential barrier in
junction is formed, the majority charge carriers
a
p-n junction. As soon as a pn
begin
concentration to the regions of lower concentrations. Thus the
to diffuse from the
regions of higher
electrons from the
into the p-region and where
they combine with the holes and get neutralised. n-region diffuse
from the p-region diffuse into the Similarly, the holes
n-region
neutralised. This process is called electron-hole
where they combine with the
electrons and get
recombination.
The p-region near the
junction is left with
immobile -ve ions and Fictitious battery
n-region near the
junction is left with + ve ions, as shown in Electron
Acceptor ion Junction Donor ion
Fig. 14.10. The small region in the
vicinity the
junction which is depleted of free charge carriersof and Hole o;
has only immobile ions
is called the depletion
layer.
The accumulation of negative charges in
the
p-region and positive charges in the n-region
Sets up a
potential difference across the junction.
his acts
barrier and is called barrier
as a

Porential V which opposes the further diffusion

or p-type
electrons and holes across the n-type
barrier potential sets
junction. The Depletion layer
up a barrier field EpR in the Figure 14.10 Formation of
direction from depletion layer
n-region to
p-region. in a p-n junction.
Thebarrier potential Va
and depends on (i) the nature of the
semiconductor, (ii) temperature,
(ii) the amount of
doping
Circuit symbol for a
p-n junction. The circuit symbol ot a pn junction diode is shown in
5 14.11. The
direction of the arrow is from p-region to region. The arrow
which the indicates the direction
conventional current can flow
easily (when the diode is forM rd bi Anode O-
 PHYSICS-XII
862 MOVE FAST WITH

Ans. Working of a p-n junction. An external potential difference can be

be applied to:
junction in two ways:
() Forward biasing. If the positive terminal of a battery is connected to the p-side a.
ide and the
terminal to the n-side, then the p-n junction is said to be forward biased.
negat.
As shown in Fig. 14.12(a), here the applied voltage V opposes the barrier voltao
rier voltage V,
result of this A
()the effective barrier potential decreases to (Vg V) and hence the
the enerEy bar
across the junction decreases,

P-n

mA
(a) (6)
Figure 14.12 (a) Reduced depletion layer, (b) Symbolic representation, for a forward biased p-n
junctinm
(i) the majority charge carries i.e., holes from
p-side and electrons from r+side
flow .towards the
junction, begin
(in) the diffusion of electrons and holes into the
depletion layer decreases its width, arg
(iv)
the effective resistance the p-n
junction decreases.
across
When V exceeds VR the
set up a large current
majority charge carriers start flowing easily across the junctiona:
(>mA), called forward current, in the circuit. The current increases
increase in applied
voltage. with the
(ii) Reverse biasing. lf the positive terminal of a battery is connected to the n-side and
terminal to the p-side, then the p-n junction is said to be reverse biased. negut

p-n

R
R
M
(a)
(b)
Figure 14.13
(a) Increased depletion layer, (b)
Symbolic representation, for a reverse on.
As shown in Fig. biasedp-njua
14.13(a), the applied voltage V and the barrier
direction. As a result of this potential V are in n re sane
(i) the barrier
potential increases to (VR + V) and hence the
energy barrier a
Cross

junction increases,
(ii) the majority charge carriers move away from the the width oft
depletion layer, junction, increasing the w
(ii) the resistance of the p-n
junction becomes very large, and
(io) no current flows across the junction due to
majority charge carriers. a r g e carriersha
However, at room temperature there are
always present some minority charge cani
holes in n-region and electrons in
p-region. The reverse biasing
pushes them towaras
the minority chialg

e v e r s e c u r r e n t
is small (=uA)

Erwlain briefly with the help of a circuit diagram, how V-I characteristics of a p-n junction diode are
19. and () reverse bias. Draw the shape of the curves obtained. CBSE D 05]
ohtained in (i) forward bias,
obt
current
a p-n junction diode. A graph showing the variation of
Ans. V- I characteristics of
with the voltage applied across it is called the voltage-current or
V-I
dauine through a p-n junction
a p-n junction
characteristic of
for studying
Forward bias characteristic. Fig. 14.14 shows the experimental arrangement
1.
curve of a p-n junction when it is forward biased. A battery is
connected across the
he characteristic
For different values of voltages, the valuue
nt iunction diode through a potentiometer (or rheostat).
between V and I, as shown in Fig. 14.15. This voltage-current
af current is noted. A graph is plotted
called forward characteristic
graph is
Voltmeter (V)

80
70
Si-diode
A/
Pn 60

Milliammeter 2 50
40
AV

(mA)
30
Rheostat
10
(potentiometer)
Switch
Cut-in Volts
voltage V(Forward bias)

14. 14 Circuit for studying V-I characteristic Figure 14.15 Forward characteristic of
Figure
of a forward biased diode. a junction diode.

Important features of the graph. (i) The V-l graph is not a straight line i.e., a junction diode does
not obey Ohm's law.
(i) Initially, the current increases very slowly almost negligibly, till the voltage across the
diode crosses a certain value, called the threshold-voltage or cut-in voltage Before this voltage, the
depletion layer plays a dominant role in controlling the motion of charge carriers.
(ii) Afterthe cut-in voltage, the diode current increases rapidly (exponentially), even for.
very small increase in the diode bias voltage. The resistance across the junction becomes quite low.
2. Reverse bias characteristic. Fig. 14.16 shows the experimental arrangement for studying8
Characteristic curve of a p-n junction when it is reverse biased. Here a microammeter is used to
measure the small currents through the reverse biased diode. A V-I graph of the type shown in
Fig. 14.17 is obtained. It is called reverse characteristic of the junction diode.
Voltmeter (V) Breakdown
voltage V(Reverse bias)
2

Pn
Microammeter -0.5
A) Reverse - 1.0

conduction
Rheostat 1.S
(potentiometer) Breakdown
Switch
region
 called i7se saturation curreit, It is due to lmost remains constant Dlas
the drift of
1ased, a ve
with bias, very small au
(ii) When the reverse
voltage across the
charge carriersTHThis small currey
minority charge
p-n junction reaches a sufficiently acro the uncti
the reverse current high value,
large value. This
suddenly increases to a
of the
junction
diode
voltage at which breakdown 80 Ge-diode
breakdown voltage or occurs is called Zener 70
peak-inverse voltage of the 60F
diode. 50
40
Figure 14.18 shows the V(Reverse bias) 30
characteristic of a p-n complete V-I -2
20
a
unidirectional current junction. Obviously, it is
-1 100F

diode offers characteristic. A

very small resistancejunction
a -0.5 2
forward biased and has a when - 1.5 -
Volts
when reverse biased very large resistance
ie., the diode can - 1.5 Cut-in VForward
voltage bias
Breakdown
current well
only in one direction.conduct Microampere
property is used to convert a.c. This (uA)
conversion of a.c. into d.c. is into d.c. The
called Figure 14.18 Complete
20.
rectification. of a
junction diode.
V-I
characteristic
Define dynamic resistance of a
Ans. junction diode.
Dynamic resistance
defined as the ratio of
of the small change
a
junction diode. The [Haryana 99
given by
in
aplied voltage AV to thedynamic or ac-resistance of the diode
=
AV corresponding change in current Al s

AI
21. What is a
rectifier ? Explain, why
Ans. Rectifier. The junction diode acts as a
rectifier
process of [ISCE 96; Haryana
rectification and the device used for this converting an
alternating current into a direct current is call
process is called
rectifier
Principle of
rectifier.
a
When
resistance and when it is a
p-n junction diode is
reverse biased, it has forward biased, it offers a
one direction.
This unidirectional a
high resistance i.e., it conducts low
property of current well ony
signal is fed to a
diode, the diode is
a diode enables it to be used as a rectifier.
forwa:d biased
flows through it.
Thus the signal During
the during the positive half cycle and Wnen
negative half cycle, the diode a current
gets rectified. is reverse biased and it does not eu
onduct
22. With the cona
help of a circuit diagram,
rectifier. Draw the waveforms explain how a pn junction diode can be used as u alfwame
of input and output
voltages.
Ans. ISCE 94; Himachal 04 ; 06, 14
Junction
connected to the a.c. mains
diode
half-waveas a Haryana 06C ;CBSE
and rectifier. The primary coil of Isformer is
and load resistance the secondary the
R,.
coil is connected in
series with the diode
junc
Transformer

.C.
input

Figure 14.19 Half-wave rectifier circuit.

 Lhinds

CHAPTER 14
SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS
- 865
aeking,
Wo When a.c. is supplied
to the
lternating voltage
desired alter across A and B.
primary, the secondary of the
transformer supplies
During the positive half
and the end.Bis negative. The diode Dis forward biased and a cycle of a.c., the end A is
bositive

age increases or decreases, the

voltag current I flows through
As he input current I also increases or R,.
output volta (=IR;) across the load R decreases and so does
Outpu voltage is of same
acros
R
waveform as the positive half wave of the
Input a.c.
input. During the negative half cycle, the
end Abecomes negative and Bpositive. The
diode is reverse biased and no current
flows. No voltage appears across R,. So Output
only the half wave is rectified, as shownh in voltage
Fig. 14.20. This process is called half-wave
rectification and the arrangement used is
Figure 14.20 Waveforms of input a.c. and
output
called a half-wave rectifier voltage obtained from a half-wave rectifier.
23. Draw a circuit diagram of afull-wave rectifier. Explain its working
waveforms indicating clearly the functions of the two diodes principle. Draw the input/output,
used.
[Haryana 02; Punjab 02, 04; CBSE D 08, OD 08, 11]
Ans. Junction diode as a full wave
rectifier. The input a.c. signal is fed to the Centre-tap
transformer
primary coil P of the transformer. The two
ends A and B of the
secondary S are
connected to the p-ends of diodes
D, and D,. The secondary is tapped at its S
R
central point T which is connected to the
n-ends of the two diodes D
the loadthrough
resistance Ri, as shown in Fig. 14.21. Figure 14.21 Full wave rectifier circuit.

Working. At any instant, the voltages at the end A (input of D,) and end B(input of D,) of
the
secondary with respect to the centre tap T will be out of phase with each other.
Suppose during
the positive half cycle of a.c. input, the end Ais positive and the end Bis
the centre negative with respect to
tap T. Then the diode D, gets forward biased and conducts current along the
AD, XYTA, as indicated by the solid path
arrows. The diode | A.C. Input at A
D, is reverse biased and
does not conduct.
During the negative half
cycle, the end A becomes negative and the
end B becomes
positive with respect to the
centre tap
T. The diode
D, gets reverse
biased and does not conduct. The diode
DP, A.C. Input at B
Conducts current along the path
as
BD, XYTB,
indicated by broken arrows. As during
both half
cycles of input a.c. the current
through load R, flows in the same direction
Y ) so we get a pulsating d.c. voltage Output voltage |
ross Due to , Due to Due to j Due to
R, as shown in Fig. 14.22. Since D,
Output voltage across the load resistance RL
1S
obtained for both half cycles of input a.c.,
this
process is called full
and the
wave rectification
arrangement used is called full-wave
rectifier. Figure 14.22 Wavetorms of input a.c. and output voltage
obtained from a ful wave rectifier.
 diode ? symbol. (b) Sketch
Give its tch and
and Erle. the
24. (a) What is Zener Explain
liode. u. 1-v
diode. (c) Explain the cause of Zener breakdown in zener diode
What is char acteristi
Ans. (a) Zener diode. A junction diode specially internal field
the reverse breakdown region
designed to operate only in
P
Anode O
continuoushy (without geting damaged) is called a Zener
diode. The symbol of a Zener diode is shown in Fig. 14.23.
Figure 14.23
() 1-V characteristic of a Zener diode. The -V Symbol for
characteristic of a junction diode is shown in ig. 14.24.
When the applied reverse voltage (V) reduces to the (mA)
breakdown voltage (Vz) of the zener diode, the current
suddenly increases. Thus after the breakdown voltage
(V) a large change in the current can be produced by Reverse bias
almost insignificant change in the reverse bias voltage. In Forward bwa
other words, zener voltage remains constant, even
though current through the zener diode varies over a
wide range. This property of the zener diode is used for
regulating supply voltages.
(c) Cause of Zener breakdown. In a Zener diode, T (uA)
both p and +sides are heavily
doped with acceptor and Fiqure 14.24 I-V characteristic
donor impurities
respectively. Due to this the
depletion a Zener diode.
o
layer formed is very thin (<10*° m) Even a small reverse
bias voltage of 5 V sets up a
very high electric field of 5x10° Vm. This field is
pull valence electrons from the host atoms on the pside which are strong en
accelerated to I-side. T
electrons give rise to a large reverse current or
breakdown current. The emission of electrons
host atoms due to high electric fm
field is known as internal field emission or field ionisation, The breakáine
the diode due to internal
field emission is called Zener breakdown.
25. With circuit
a
diagram, explain how a zener diode can be used as a
voltage regulator.
Ans. Zener diode as a
CBSE OD 08D
voltage regulator: Principle. When a Zener diode is operated in the ner
breakdown region, the voltage across it remains
practically constant
large change in the reverse current. The use of Zener diode asa dc. (equal
to the breakdown
a wltage"
voltage regulator is based on this a
Working. Fig. 14.25 shows the circuit for using zener diode as a
zener diode is connected in voltage regulator. Hert
reverse bias to a source of
rectifier) through a dropping resistor R. Thus the fluctuating d.c. (e.g, the output
The output is obtained across voltage gets divided between R, and zener
the load resistance diov:
R,, connected in parallel with tne zt
If the input
voltage increases, the current through
R and Zener diode also increases. This increases
the
voltage drop across R, without any change in the
across the Zener diode. This
is because in the
voltage
breakdown
region, Zener voltage remains constant even
current through the Zener though the
diode changes. Unregulated
input voltage decreases, the current Similarly, and voltage (V.)
if the
Zener diode also decreases. through R, Kegulned

The voltage across

decreases without any R, voltage(

Zener diode. Thus

change in the
voltage across the
any increase/decrease of the
voltage results in, increase/decrease of the input
across R, without voltage drop diode as
a
any change in voltage across Zener Figure 14.25 Zener
diode. Hence the Zener diode acts as a voltage regulator.
voltage regulator.
 CHAPTER 14 SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS 867

What are photonic or opto-electronic junction devices ? Mention their different types.
26.
Ans, Photonic or Opto-electronic junction devices. Thep-n junctions can be designed so that current
G h them changes either by causing electron excitation by light photons, or conversely through electron
weitation by a suitable bas voltage resulting in the emission of light photons. These semiconducting devices
ealled plotonic or opto-electronic devices. In such devices, light photons play an important role in
the overall functioning of the device. The photonic p-n junction devices can be classified as follows:
() Photo-detectors used for detecting light signals eg, photodiodes and photoconducting cel.
(it) Photovoltaic devices which convert light energy into electricity e.g, solar cells.
(ii) Devices tor converting electrical energy into light e.g., light emitting diodes and
diode lasers.
27. What is a photodiode ? Draw the circuit diagram of an illuminated photodiode in reverse bias. How is
photodiode used to measure light intensity? ICBSE D 10]
Ans. Photodiode. It is a p-n junction diode
fabricated with a transparent window so that light can fall hv
Anode o - - Cathode
on its junction. ts symbolic representation is shown
Pn
in Fig. 14.26.

As shown in Fig. 14.27, a resistance R is con- Figure 14.26 Symbolic representation

of a photodiode.
nected in series with a reverse biased photodiode.
The voltage is kept slightly less than the breakdown voltage. When no light is incident on the
junction, a small reverse saturation current flows through the junction. This reverse current is due
to thermally generated electron-hole pairs and is called dark current. When the photodiode is
illuminated with light photons of energy hv greater than the energy gap E, of the semiconductor,
additional electron-hole pairs are generated in or near the depletion region due to the absorption of
photons. Due to the electric field of the junction, electrons get collected on -side and holes on
pside giving rise to an emf. This sets up a photocurrent in the circuit. The magnitude of the
photocurrent is proportional to the intensity of incident light.

SS hv
A mA

Reverse bias

p-side n-side
A Volts

>h > HA
Figure 14.27 A reverse biased photodiode Figure 14.28 Reverse bias currents through a photodiode
illuminated with light. when illuminated with different intensities.
When a photodiode is illuminated with light photons of energy hv> E, , and increasing
intensities I1, I, Ia, etc, the value of reverse saturation current increases with the increase in
of the change in the
of incident light, as shown in Fig. 14.28. Hence, a measurement
intensity
reverse saturation current on illumination can give the values of light intensity.

than the current in the reverse bias

28. The current in the forward bias is known to be more (~ mA)
in reverse bias ? NCERT; CBSE D 12]
A). What is the reason then to operate the photodiode
reverse bias condition. Consider an type
Ans. A photodiode is preferably operated in
semiconduston tu carrier (eledtron) density is much larger than the minority hole densityy
ample_d

x 10 MOVE FAST WITH

PHYSICS-XII
2.0x 1 868
light
rage Now n>>p and An = Ap AnAP
S
That is, the fractional increase in majority carriers is much less than
minority carriers. Consequently, the fractional change due to the photo.
carrier dominated reverse bias current is more easily measurable than th Tactionalchangeincte
majority carrier dominated forward bias current. Hence, photodiodes theaw fractional
reverse bias condition for measuring light

29. Give some

intensity.
important uses of photodiodes.
preferably ue
Ans. Uses of photodiodes. A photodiode can turn its current
So it can be used ON and OFF
as fastest photodetector.
a
OFF in nanONe
The photodiodes are used for following
purposes
1. In detection of
optical signals.
2. In demodulation of
optical signals.
3. In
light-operated switches.
4. In
speed reading of computer punched cards.
5. In electronic
counters.
30. What isa
light emitting diode ? Drawa circuit
characteristics. diagram and explain its action.
Ans. Dramu
Light emitting diode (LED). It is a
spontaneously converts the biasing electrical heavily-doped forward-biased p-n junction
energy into optical energy,
LED is like infrared and
represented
shown, the shorter lead by either of the two visible lige
symbols shown
responds to or cathode side while the below. Its actual shape is
n
anode side.
-

longer lead corresponds to

Figure 14.29 LED

A p-n symbol and shape.
conductor likejunction made from a translucent
gallium arsenide or indium
provided with metallised semi
When it is forward contacts, as shown phosphide is
in Fig. 14.30.
light biased through series resistance
of the
photons are emitted from a
the R,
n-region. The series resistance non-metallised surface
through the LED R limits the
emitted by it. and hence controls the current
intensity of light
When the p-n
are sent
from junction is forward biased, Metallised

minority carriers)r-region > electrons

and holes pregion (where they are
contact

-region (where they are are sent from Figure 14.30 A forward biased LED.

carriers increases as minority carriers). pregion

either side near compared to the Near the
junction, the of minon

junction, the excess equilibrium concentration concentrat.

recombination, the
energy
slightly less than the band is released minority carriers
in the
(i.e., when
combine with the tn
is nobias).
ere
r i t y carriers
form of majoriy
When thephotons. Photons with ene6
gap are emitted. energy equalto
*
forward bias of the le is small
aiou
 CHAPIER 14 SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS 869

tensity of emittec light is smal. As the forward

curren increases, intensity of light increases and
aches a maximum. Further increase in forward
reach

rrent decreasesthe light intensity. 50

The general shape of the -V characteristics of an

0
IED is similar to that of a normal pnjunction diode, as
shown in Fig. 14.31. However, the barrier potential 30

changes slightly with the colour.

20
Two important features of LEDs are:
1. The colour of light emitted by an LED 10
depends on its band-gap energy.
2. The intensity of light emitted is deter 0 1 2
mined by the forward current conducted
Figure 14.31 1-V characteristics of LED
by the p-n junction.

31. What type of semiconducting materials are used in LEDs for obtaining visible and infrared
radiations?
Ans. Choice of the semiconductor material used in LED. The wavelength of visible light
ranges from 04 um to 07 jum (energy from 3 eV to 1.8 eV). For a semiconductor to emit visible ight,
the minimum band gap must be 1.8 eV. The compound semiconductor Gallium - Arsenide -
Phosphide (GaAs, P,) is used for making LEDs of different colours. GaAsos Po4 (E, » 19 ev) is
used for red LED. GaAs (E, =14 eV) is used for infrared LED.

32. Give some advantages of LEDs over conventional incandescent lamps. [CBSE D 04]
Ans. Advantages of LEDs over conventional incandescent lamps:
1. Low operational voltage and less power consumption.
2. Fast action and no warm up time required.

3. The bandwidth of emitted light is 100 Ato 500 A ie, the light is nearly monochromatic.
4. Long life and ruggedness.
5. Fast ON/OFF switching capability.
33. Give some important uses of LEDs.
Ans. Uses of LEDs:
1. Infrared LEDs are used in burglar-alarm systems.
2. In optical communication.
3. In image scanning circuits for picture phones.
4. LEDs are used as indicator lamps in radio receivers and other electronic equipment.
5. In remote controls.
6. In digital display lights of calculators, cash registers, digital clocks, etc.

34. What is a solar cell ? Briefly escribe the construction and working ofa typical p-n junction solar cel.
Give its V-I characteristic.
Ans. Solar cell. It is a junction diode which converts solar energy into electricity and is based on
photovoltaic efect (generation of voltage due to bombardment of light photons).
Construction. It consists of ap-n junction made from Si or GaAs. Here a thinlayerof p-type
is grown (by diffusion of a suitable acceptor impurity or by vapour deposition) on an -ype
semiconductor. The top of the p-layer is provided with few finger electrodes. This leaves open
 PHYSICS-XI
870 MOVE FAST WITH

to reach the thin

enough space for the light
the underlying p-n junction.
p-layer and hence
The bottom of the n-layer
is provided with a
Top.
current collecting electrode. Surface

Working. When light photons (with

Metwi
energy Iv> E,) reach the junction, they excite
electrons from the valence band to conduction
band, leaving behind equal number of holes in
the valence band. These electron-hole pairs Back contact
generated in the depletion region move in
(a)
opposite directions due to the barrier field.
Photo-generated electrons move towards Figure 14.32 (a) Atypical
p-n junction
Iside and holes towards p-side. The collection (b) Sectional view of the s,

of these charge carriers makes p-side a solar cel,

positive electrode and n-side a negative ela.
photo-voltage is set up across the junction. When a load resistance R is connected ectrode.
circuit, a photo-current I, flows, as shown in Fig. 14.33(a). This in the
current is proportin es
intensity of illumination. äonal t
R

Va Open circuit
voltage)
Depletion
layer

Short circuit
current

(a) (b)
Figure 14.33 (a) Photo-current through an illuminated p-n junction, (b) V-I characteristic of a solar cel

Figure 14.33(b) shows the V-I characteristic of a solar cell. The open circuit voltage
depends on the illumination. Hence the output power of a solar cell depends on the intersiy
incident sunlight.
35. Name the materials commonly used in the fabrication ofsolar cells. What criteriaarefollowed m

selection of such materials? Give important advantages of solar cells.

Ans. Materials used in the fabrication of solar cells. The semiconductors withbanu
iuctors
close to 1.5 eV are ideal materials for this purpose. Solar cells are made with semiconducto
Si GaAs
(E=11eV), =143 eV), CdTe
(F =1.45 eV), CulnSe,
(E, (E, =104eV),etc.
The important criteria for the selection of a material for solar cell fabrication are
) Band gap (from 1.0 eV to 1.8 eV). (7) High optical absorption (-10*am
(i) Electrical conductivity.
(io) Availability of the raw material.
(o) Cost factor.
The advantages of solar cells are:
(i) pollution free, (i) long lasting, and (ii) maintenance free.
36. Give some important uses of solar cells.
Butsolar
Ans. They can be used anywhere as a self-generating source of electricity
have high cost of installation and low efficiency.
 Pht 12
CHAPTER 14
Uses of solar cells
SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS 871
1. We can use
solar cells to
power during nights. charge storage batteries in S8
2. Solar cells, or better day time and use the batteries for
called
3. Some wrist watches and hand
photocells, are used in light meters in
4.
Spacecrafts make use of arrays ofcalculators are
powered by photography
solar cells.
37. What is solar cells or solar panels
a
junction transistor ? Mention its two
to
provide electrical energy
types. How are
they represented
Ans. Transistor. A
junction transistor is a three symbolically ? -
either a section of p-type
narrow terminal solid state device [Himachal 04]
crystal
section of n-type crystal between two between two
relatively thicker sections of n-typeobtained orby agrowing 3
thicker sections crystals narrow
Transistors are of two of p-type crystals.
1. n-p-n
types :

transistor. lt consists of a thin

thicker sections of n-type section
of p-type semiconductor
semiconductors. Fig. 14.34 shows sandwitched between tuwo
The arrowhead in the symbol points outwards. the n-p-n
transistor and its circuit
symbol.
Emitter Base Collector
Emitter Base Collector

S p

B
B 6B
B
Figure 14.34 n-p-n transistor and its
circuit symbol. Figure 14.35 p-n-p transistor and its circuit
2.p-n-p transistor. It consists of a thin section symbol.
thicker sections of of n-type semiconductor sandwitched between two
p-type semiconductors. Fig. 14.35 shows the
The arrowhead in the p-n-p transistor and its circuit
symbol points inwards. symbol.
38. Describe the construction a transistor and
of state the
function of each part.
[Haryana 02, 04; Punjab 06C; CBSE OD 95C]
Ans. Construction of a transistor. As shown in Fig. 14.34 and
transistor has three parts Fig. 14.35, each type of
1. Emitter (E). It issection on one side of the transistor. It is of moderate
a
size and heavily
doped. It is normally forward biased w.r.t. any other part of the transistor. It
of
majority charge carriers for the flow of current through the transistor.
supplies a large number
2. Base (B). It is the middle section. It is
very thin and lightly doped. It controls the flow of
majority charge carriers from emitter to collector.
3. Collector (C). It is section on the other side
of the transistor. It is Metal Metal
moderately doped and larger in contact contact
Size as
compared to the emitter. It is normally
reverse biased w.r.t. any other part of the transistor.
t collects the majority charge carriers for the circuit
operation. VEB VcB
Metal 2
Figure 14.36 shows the relative sizes of the
three regions of the n-p-n transistor and the biasing
contact
S
of base-emitter and base-collector junctions. The 3-
forward bias voltage VeR is small (0.5 to 1 V) while Figure 14.36 Relative sizes of the three
regions of the n-p-n transistor
the reverse bias voltage VeR is high (5 to 15 V).
and the biasing.