MNGT 22: HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN ORGANIZATION

CHAPTER 1 - THE NATURE AND SCOPE OF A. SKILL DEVELOPMENT

ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR  An essential requirement for entering into,
surviving, and succeeding in the modern
ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR workplace is to have appropriate skills.
 study of human behavior in the workplace, the  Organizational behavior skills have gained in
interaction between people and the importance in the modern workplace.
organization, and the organization itself.  SOFT SKILLS - interpersonal skills such as
motivating others, communicating, and
METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION adapting to people of different cultures.
- Three frequently used methods of collecting  HARD SKILLS - technical skills.
data in organizational behavior are:
 Surveys B. PERSONAL GROWTH THROUGH INSIGHT INTO
 Interviews HUMAN BEHAVIOR
 direct observation of behavior  Understanding others leads to personal
fulfillment, and can also lead to enhanced
- The type of survey questionnaire used by an self-knowledge and self-insight.
organizational behavior specialist is prepared rigorously.  Insight is useful for such purposes as
selecting people for jobs and assignments,
RESEARCH METHODS communicating, and motivating.
- Four widely used research methods of
organizational behavior are: C. ENHANCING ORGANIZATIONAL AND
 case studies INDIVIDUAL EFFECTIVENESS
 laboratory experiments  An important goal of organizational
 field experiments (or studies) behavior is to improve organizational
 meta-analysis effectiveness, the extent to which an
organization is productive and satisfies the
- The essence of conducting an experiment is to demands of its interested parties.
make sure that the variable being modified (the  Substantial evidence has accumulated that
independent variable) is influencing the results. emphasizing the human factor increases
productivity and gives a firm a competitive
META-ANALYSIS advantage. One reason is that people-
 quantitative or statistical review of the oriented management practices enable
literature on a particular subject, and is also an workers to use their wisdom and to receive
examination of a range of studies for reaching a appropriate training.
combined results or best estimate.  If a person develops knowledge about
 also a study of studies combining quantitative subject such as improved interpersonal
information from them all. communication, conflict resolution, and
 an important use of meta-analysis in teamwork, he or she will become more
organizational behavior is to understand how effective.
moderator variables influence the results of
studies. D. SHARPENING AND REFINING COMMON SENSE
 Organizational behavior sharpens and
EXAMPLE: how stress from personal life can influence enlarges the domain for common sense.
susceptibility to job stress.  Organizational behavior knowledge also
refines common sense by challenging you to
HOW YOU CAN BENEFIT FROM STUDYING reexamine generally accepted ideas that
ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR may be only partially true—such as
- Organizational behavior relates to the process inactivity reduces stress for everybody.
— rather than the content — of conducting managerial
work. HISTORY OF ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR
 rooted in the behavioral approach to
management, the belief that specific attention

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 MNGT 22: HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN ORGANIZATION
to workers’ needs creates greater satisfaction the proper working environment, virtually all
and productivity. workers would be highly productive.
 A common theme of the behavioral approach is  A cornerstone of the human relations
a need to focus on people. movement is Theory X and Theory Y of
DOUGLAS MCGREGOR.
A. The classical approach to management  Theory X - the somewhat stern and pessimistic
encompasses scientific management and traditional assumptions about worker
administrative management, and contributed some capabilities.
insights into understanding workplace behavior.  Theory Y - an alternative, and optimistic, set of
 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT - application of assumptions.
scientific methods to increase individual
worker’s productivity. According to the D. THE CONTINGENCY APPROACH
principles of scientific management, there is a  emphasizes there is no one best way to manage
division of work between managers and people or work.
workers.  derived from the study of leadership styles.
 ADMINISTRATIVE MANAGEMENT - how  the strength is that it encourages managers and
organizations should be managed and professionals to examine individual and
structured. The core of management knowledge situational differences before deciding on a
lies within the classical school, including the course of action.
framework of planning, organizing, and
controlling. E. POSITIVE ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR
 focus on what is right with people.
B. THE HAWTHORNE STUDIES  Luthans defines positive organizational
 Without the insights gained from the behavior as the study and application of human
Hawthorne studies, organizational behavior resource strengths and psychological capacities
might not have emerged as a discipline. The that can be measured, developed, and managed
first Hawthorne study examined the effects of for performance improvement.
lighting on productivity. A second study  The criteria of being measurable and
conducted in a relay assembly room examined developmental are significant because they
the relationships among rest, fatigue, and separate positive organizational behavior from
productivity. A major conclusion from these simply giving pep talks and inspirational
studies was the workers reacted positively speeches to employees.
because management cared about them (the  In general, positive organizational behavior
Hawthorne effect). focuses on developing human strengths, making
 The HAWTHORNE EFFECT is the tendency of people more resilient, and cultivating
people to behave differently when they receive extraordinary individuals, work units, and
attention because they respond to the demands organizations.
of the situation.
 The Hawthorne studies also led to many other SKILL DEVELOPMENT IN ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR
conclusions, such as the fact that effective Developing skills in organizational behavior
communication with workers is critical to refers to learning to work effectively with individuals,
managerial success. Keep in mind that the groups, and organizational forces. Skill development in
Hawthorne studies have frequently been organizational behavior follows a general learning
criticized for lacking in scientific rigor. model, using the following components:
1. Conceptual information and behavioral
C. THE HUMAN RELATIONS MOVEMENT guidelines.
 based on the belief that an important link exists 2. Conceptual information and examples.
among managerial practices, morale, and 3. Experiential exercises such as self-assessment
productivity. exercises.
 Key points of the movement are that satisfied 4. Feedback on skill utilization or performance,
workers are more productive and that, given from others.
5. Frequent practice.

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Developing organizational behavior skills is also
important because it contributes to lifelong learning.

A FRAMEWORK FOR STUDYING ORGANIZATIONAL

BEHAVIOR
The three levels of study in organizational
behavior are (a) individual level, (b) groups and
interpersonal relations level, and (c) organizational
system and the global environmental level.
a. INDIVIDUAL LEVEL
 Individual differences, mental ability,
and personality
 Learning, perception, attitudes, values,
and ethics
 Individual decision making and
creativity
 Foundation concepts of motivation
 Conflict, stress, and well-being
b. GROUPS AND INTERPERSONAL RELATIONS
 Interpersonal communication
 Group dynamics and teamwork
 Leadership
 Power, politics, and influence
c. THE ORGANIZATIONAL SYSTEM AND THE
GLOBAL ENVIRONMENT
 Organizational structure and design
 Organizational culture and change
 The learning organization and
knowledge management
 Cultural diversity and international
organizational behavior

IMPLICATIONS FOR MANAGERIAL PRACTICE

 Managers should raise their level of awareness
about the availability of organizational behavior
information.
 Before making decisions about dealing with
people, pause to search for systematic
information about people and organizations.
 Search for strengths and talents in others and
yourself, and then capitalize on these strengths
as a way of improving organizational and
individual effectiveness.

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CHAPTER 2 - INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES, MENTAL  A researcher has noted that men are more
ABILITY, AND PERSONALITY likely to value equity, whereas women opt
for equality.
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES  SHIBLEY HYDE observes that overinflated
 variations in how they respond to the same claims of gender differences can do harm in
situation based on personal characteristics. the workplace, such denying people
 BEHAVIOR - function of the person interacting opportunities.
with his or her environment [B = f (P x E)].
 BEHAVIOR - the effects of the individual and the B. GENERATIONAL AND AGE-BASED DIFFERENCES
environment on each other. Also, individual  People may behave differently on the job
differences moderate how people respond to based somewhat on the behaviors and
situations. attitudes of many members of their
 Seven consequences of individual differences generation.
that have a major impact on managing people  The four generations currently in the
are as follows: workforce are traditionalists, baby
1. People differ in productivity. boomers, generation X, and Generation Y.
2. Quality of work varies because people vary in  CONSTANCE PATTERSON says that every
their propensity for achieving high-quality generation is influenced by major
results. economic, political, and social events of its
3. Empowerment is effective with some workers, era, such as the Great Depression, the
but not with all. women’s movement, and advances in
4. A given leadership style does not work with all information technology.
people.  Generational differences can sometimes
5. People differ in their need for contact with cause clashes, especially among members
other people. of the same workgroup.
6. Company management will find that
commitment to the firm varies considerably. iGen, Gen Z or Centennials: Born 1996 and later
7. Workers vary in their level of self-esteem that in Millennials or Gen Y: Born 1977 to 1995
turn influences their productivity and capacity Generation X: Born 1965 to 1976
to take on additional responsibility. Baby Boomers: Born 1946 to 1964
Traditionalists or Silent Generation: Born 1945
The sampling of individual differences cited is and before
usually attributed to a combination of heredity and
environment. The manager should therefore create a  Age differences in the workforce include a
positive environment for workers. focus on mental and physical capabilities.
 Labor shortages may also contribute to more
DEMOGRAPHIC DIVERSITY seniors working longer.
- differences in background factors about the  Many older people will be working longer
work force that help shape worker attitudes and because of decreased value of many pension
behavior. funds.
 Advances in technology help workers
A. SEX AND GENDER DIFFERENCES compensation for mental losses, such as less
 The overall evidence suggests that there are acute memory, associated with age.
few differences between men and women  Older workers have lower absenteeism,
in such factors as ability and motivation that illness, and accident rates, higher job
will affect their job performance. satisfaction, and more positive work values.
 Gender differences in communication
patterns have been noted. C. ETHNIC, RACIAL, AND CULTURAL DIFFERENCES
 Men typically communicate to convey  Ethnic and racial differences in job
information or establish status. performance and behavior are usually
 Women are more likely to communicate to attributable to culture rather than ethnicity
establish rapport and solve problems. itself.

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 For example, some ethnic groups take long  PRACTICAL SUBTYPE - type of intelligence
lunch breaks because of their culture, not the required for adapting to your environment
fact of being a particular nationality. to suit your needs.
 Demographic diversity will often give an  PRACTICAL INTELLIGENCE - incorporates
organization a competitive advantage. the ideas of common sense, wisdom, and
 Job satisfaction tends to higher for employees street smarts.
when others of similar demographic  ANALYTICAL INTELLIGENCE (also called fluid
characteristics are present in the workplace intelligence) - may decline from early to late
 ETHNICITY - cultural factors, including adulthood.
nationality, regional culture, language  However, the ability to solve problems of a
 RACE - person’s physical characteristics such practical nature (crystallized intelligence) is
as bone structure, skin, hair, or eye color maintained or increased through late
 CULTURAL DIFFERENCES - having different adulthood. So being older makes you wiser.
cultures respect each other’s differences
C. MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES
MENTAL ABILITY (COGNITIVE INTELLIGENCE)  people know and understand the world in
 Mental ability is a major source of individual distinctly different ways, or look at it
differences that affects job performance and through different lenses.
behavior.  The eight intelligences or faculties are:
 INTELLIGENCE - capacity to acquire and apply linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical,
knowledge, including solving problems. spatial, body/kinesthetic, intrapersonal,
 Mental ability tends to predict job performance. interpersonal, and naturalist.
 Some researchers believe that a large
component of mental ability is inheritable, PERSONALITY DIFFERENCES
based on such evidence as identical twins who  Personality characteristics contribute to success
are reared apart having similar intelligence. in many jobs, and many job failures are caused
 The argument that environment is the major by personality problems.
contributor to intelligence centers around  PERSONALITY - persistent and enduring
evidence that an enriched environment often behavior patterns of an individual that are
helps people increase their intelligence test expressed in a wide variety of situations.
scores. Also, IQs have been on the rise. Based  the core of who you are
on hundreds of studies, it appears that heredity
and environment contribute about equally to A. EIGHT MAJOR PERSONALITY FACTORS AND
traditional intelligence. TRAITS
All eight factors to be mentioned have a
A. COMPONENTS OF INTELLIGENCE substantial impact on job behavior and
 A standard theory of intelligence explains that performance.
intelligence consist of a g (general) factor 1) Neuroticism (reflects emotional instability
along with s (special) factors that versus emotional stability)
contribute to problem-solving ability. 2) Extraversion (outgoing, sociable, assertive)
 g factor - helps explain why some people 3) Openness (well-developed intellect)
perform so well in so many different mental 4) Agreeableness (friendly and cooperative)
tasks (the have the right stuff). 5) Conscientiousness (dependability and
thoroughness)
B. THE TRIARCHIC THEORY OF INTELLIGENCE 6) Self-monitoring of behavior (adjusting how we
(Emphasis on Practical Intelligence) appear to others)
 To overcome the limited idea that 7) Risk taking and thrill seeking (craving constant
intelligence involves mostly the ability to excitement)
solve abstract problems. 8) Optimism (a tendency to experience positive
 The theory holds that intelligence is states)
composed of three different subtypes: Research Evidence about Personality and Job Behavior
analytical, creative, and practical.

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 Based on a cross-cultural study, it was
concluded that personality structure is
universal.
 Any of the above eight factors can be important
for good job performance, with
conscientiousness having the best research
support.
 The combination of intelligence (“can do”) with
conscientiousness (“will do”) is especially
important for job performance, such as
extraversion most frequently associated with
effective leadership.
 Personality factors are also important for
performance as a team member.

B. EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE
 The topmost layers of the brain govern
analytical intelligence.
 The innermost areas of the brain govern
emotion, such as dealing with rage.
 EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE - qualities such as
understanding one’s feelings, empathy for
others, and the regulation of emotion to
enhance living.
 Four key factors recently included in emotional
intelligence are as follows:
1. Self-awareness (understanding own
feelings)
2. Self-management (such as controlling
impulsiveness and being honest)
3. Social awareness (such as having
empathy for people, and intuition about
organizational problems)
4. Relationship management (includes a
variety of interpersonal skills
High emotional intelligence is associated
with the ability to cope with job setbacks. Emotional
intelligence underscores the importance of being
practical minded and having effective interpersonal
skills to succeed in organizational life.

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CHAPTER 3 & 4 - LEARNING, PERCEPTION, ATTITUDES particularly self-motivation and self-
AND EMOTIONS, VALUES, AND ETHICS discipline.

LEARNING LEARNING STYLES

 relatively permanent change in behavior based  Some learn best through passive learning;
on practice or experience. others learn best by doing rather than studying.
 Some people learn best by working alone,
A. MODELING AND SHAPING others by working cooperatively (such as study
 MODELING (or imitation) - when you learn a groups).
skill by observing another person perform
that skill. The process often brings forth A. VISUAL, AUDITORY, AND KINESTHETIC LEARNING
behaviors that people didn’t previously STYLES
seem to have in their repertoire.  people learn best using one of three main
 SHAPING - learning through the sensory receivers.
reinforcement of small steps that build up  VISUAL LEARNERS - learn best by seeing, and
the final or desired behavior. they have two sub-channels, linguistic (mostly
words) and spatial (films and graphics).
B. COGNITIVE LEARNING  AUDITORY LEARNERS - learn by hearing, and
 emphasizes that learning takes place in a they tend to move their lips and read out loud.
complicated manner involving much more  KINESTHETIC LEARNERS - learn best while
than acquiring habits and small skills. touching and moving, and rely on two sub-
 Learners also strive to learn, develop channels, kinesthetic (movement) and tactile
hunches, and have flashes of insight. (touch).
 INFORMAL LEARNING (type of cognitive
learning) - planned learning that occurs in a B. LEARNING STYLES BASED ON FOUR LEARNING
setting without a formal classroom, lesson STAGES
plan, instructor, or examination. Informal  divided into four orientations based on four
learning can be spontaneous, or the stages of the learning cycle: concrete
company might organize work to encourage experience, observations and reflections,
informal learning. formation of abstractions and generalizations,
 A Center for Workforce Development study hypotheses to be tested, leading to new
indicated that up to 70 percent of learning experiences.
takes place informally, and can be divided  The four learning orientations stemming from
into four types: practical skills; intrapersonal the cycle are:
skills; interpersonal skills; and cultural 1. concrete experiences - human
(organizational) awareness. interactions in a personal way.
 A mastery orientation relates to a 2. reflective observation - understanding
dedication to increasing one’s competence meanings.
on a task. 3. abstract conceptualization - applying
 performance orientation, learners focus on logic, ideas, and concepts.
how well they perform on a task and 4. testing implications of concepts in new
making comparisons with others. situations - actively influencing people
and changing situations.
C. E-LEARNING
 An important innovation in learning in both C. INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES RELATED TO SKILL
schools and industry is distance learning, ACQUISITION
technology-based learning, a Web based  In general, people with higher mental ability
form of computer based learning. and personality traits that allow them to
 based on basic methods of learning, such as concentrate better (such as emotional stability
giving the learner reinforcement. and conscientiousness) acquire knowledge and
 The success of e-learning depends on skills more readily.
cognitive processes of the learner,

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 feeling or affective component - the emotion
PERCEPTION connected with that object.
 deals with the various ways in which people  behavioral component - how a person acts.
interpret things in the outside world and how  All three components are interrelated. People
they act on the basis of these perceptions. search for consistency among the components
 process by which people select, organize, of an attitude.
interpret, retrieve, and respond to information  Cognitive dissonance - the situation in which
from the world around them. the pieces of knowledge, information, attitudes,
or beliefs held by an individual are
A. PERCEPTUAL DISTORTIONS AND PROBLEMS contradictory.
1. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE STIMULUS.  People search for ways to reduce internal
 Perceptual problems are most likely conflicts when they experience a clash between
encountered when the stimulus or cue to be the information they receive and their actions
perceived affects the emotional status of the or attitudes.
perceiver.
 The perception of a stimulus or event B. EMOTIONS IN THE WORKPLACE
depends on the emotions, needs, attitudes,  emotion - a feeling such as anger, fear, joy, or
and motives of a person. surprise that underlies behavior.
2. MENTAL PROCESSES OF PEOPLE.  An emotion consists of three interacting
 to make the reality less painful or disturbing. components:
 types of defensive behavior. a) internal physiological arousal,
a) Denial - We block out the existence of b) expressive behavior in the face or body , and
painful sensory information. c) a cognitive appraisal.
b) Stereotyping - We lessen discomfort  Managing Emotion - To manage emotion well,
when we encounter a person who does managers should create a friendly emotional
not fit a stereotype by looking for climate by setting a positive example, including
behavior that conforms to the serving as a model of healthy emotional
stereotype. expression. Managers might also include a
c) Halo effect - People may color positive attitude as one factor in selecting
everything that they know about a individuals and teams
person because of one recognizable  Emotional labor - process of regulating both
favorable or unfavorable characteristic feelings and expressions to meet organizational
d) Projection - We project out own faults goals.
on to others instead of making an  Surface acting - faking expressions such as
objective appraisal of the situation. smiling
e) Selective perception - they draw an  Deep acting - controlling feelings
unjustified conclusion from an unclear  Emotional dissonance - mismatch between felt
situation. (They perceive what they want and expressed emotions.
to.)  The greater the emotional dissonance, the more
the exhaustion, job dissatisfaction, and cynicism
ATTITUDES AND EMOTIONS toward customers.
 An attitude is a predisposition to respond that  A variation of emotional labor can occur when
exerts an influence on a person’s response to a workers create a façade in relation to
person, thing, idea, or situation. conforming to corporate values.
 Attitudes are linked with perception, learning,
and motivation. C. ATTITUDES AND JOB SATISFACTION
 Attitudes are linked to job satisfaction, the
A. COMPONENTS OF ATTITUDES amount of pleasure or contentment associated
 cognitive component - the knowledge or with a job.
intellectual beliefs an individual might have  A practical view of job satisfaction is that it
about an object. centers on employees having fun on the job.

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Among the consequences of high job A. ETHICAL DECISION-MAKING CRITERIA
satisfaction are: 1) Focus on consequences - if nobody gets hurt,
a) High productivity when the work the decision is ethical. Focusing on
involves people contact consequences is often referred to as utilitarian
b) Loyalty to the company (important 2) Focus on the rights of individuals. referred to
because of employee retention) as deontological from the Greek work deon, or
c) A stronger tendency to achieve duty. A fundamental idea of deontology is that
customer loyalty equal respect must be given all individuals
d) Low absenteeism and turnover 3) Focus on integrity (virtue ethics ) - If the person
e) Less job stress and burnout in question has good character, and genuine
f) Better safety performance motivation and intentions, he or she is behaving
g) Better life satisfaction ethically. The decision maker’s environment, or
 High job satisfaction is correlated with high community, helps define what integrity means.
organizational performance.  Trustworthiness - virtue of major importance
for managers and professionals in recent years
D. ORGANIZATIONAL CITIZENSHIP BEHAVIOR because of well-publicized untrustworthy
 the willingness to work for the good of the executives. Trust improves organizational
organization even without the promise of a effectiveness. Two major contributors to trust
specific reward. are consistent behavior and clear
 Five key components of organizational communications.
citizenship behavior are
1) Conscientiousness IMPLICATIONS FOR MANAGERIAL PRACTICE
2) Altruism  Two additional suggestions for e-learning are:
3) civic virtue (1) Use a three-step structure: show me, let me
4) courtesy practice, and watch me do it.
5) sportsmanship. (2) Not all subject matter and skills are suitable
 The good organizational citizen engages in for e-learning (such as teamwork skills),
extrarole behavior. although the underlying concepts can be
 Personality factors are sometimes linked to learned online.
OCB. Workers may be predisposed to being
good, or poor, organizational citizens.
 Strong organizational citizens are less likely to
quit, as shown by a study in China.

VALUES
 importance a person attaches to something that
serves as a guide to action.
 Religion is another source of values
 set of values (by: psychologist MILTON
ROKEACH)
1) Terminal values - goals an individual would
like to achieve during his or her lifetime
2) Instrumental values - how you might to
about achieving your important end states,
depending on the relative importance you
attached to the instrumental values.

ETHICS
 moral choices a person makes, and what he or
she should do.
 vehicle that converts values into action.

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