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Interactive Multimedia and Learning: Realizing the Benefits

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156 IETI 38,2

Interactive Multimedia and Learning: Realizing the BeneŽ ts

Sandra Cairncross, Napier University, UK
Mike Mannion, Glasgow Caledonian University, UK

SUMMARY
Many people argue that interactive multimedia has the potential to create high quality learning
environments which actively engage the learner, thereby promoting deep learning. However there is
growing evidence that the potential of interactive multimedia is not being fulŽ lled. This paper argues
that if we are to design effective interactive learning application then a user-centred approach to
their design should be taken. This approach should be based on general human-computer interaction
principles as well as educational theory. The paper starts with an overview of the learning process.
Consideration is then given to how the key elements of interactive multimedia (multiple media,
user control over the delivery of information, and interactivity ) can be used to enhance that process,
with the emphasis being on promoting deep learning. The paper concludes by giving suggestions for
future work.

INTRODUCTION
Multimedia has the potential to create high quality Failure to do so can lead to poorly designed applica-
learning environments. The key elements of multiple tions that do not meet the needs of learners. Rogers and
media, user control over the delivery of information, Scaife (1997) point out many multimedia applications
and interactivity can be used to enhance the learning fail to live up the developers’ claims of providing
process through creating integrated learning environ- enhanced learning environments. They found that
ments. Explanation can be combined with illustrative learners often focus on the dynamic elements, for
examples, online assessment with feedback and the example surfing through video clips, rather than
user can be provided with opportunities to practice engaging with the material. Aldrich et al. (1998) report
and experiment. A range of media elements can be used that learning applications often contain interactions
to convey a given message and the user can study at a which are largely gratuitous, doing little to support
time and place convenient to them, taking as long or as effective learning.
little as they need.
To ensure that multimedia-learning applications
However, the very richness and complexity of realize their potential it is necessary to stand back and
interactive multimedia can lead to problems if the re-examine the key features of multimedia and how
needs of the learner are not given careful consider- they can be used to enhance learning. This can best be
ation. As Norman (1988) points out, for any design achieved through fuller consideration of the learning
to be successful, in terms of developing usable and process itself and by exploring the benefits that
understandable products, then that design must be interactive multimedia can bring to this. Possible
based on the needs and interests of the users and be pitfalls must also be identiŽ ed.
informed by an understanding of their limitations and
capabilities. In the context of interactive multimedia The remainder of this paper is divided into three
learning applications this involves consideration main sections (Learning Considerations, Interactive
of both human-computer interaction and learning Multimedia and Learning and Integration into the
theory. Curriculum) followed by conclusions. The Ž rst section
Innovations in Education and Teaching International
ISSN 1470-3297 print ISSN 1470-3300 online © 2001 Taylor & Francis Ltd
http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
DOI: 10.1080/14703290110035428
 Interactive Multimedia and Learning 157

starts with an overview of the learning process. • learning is a by-product of understanding;

Emphasis is placed on the need to involve the learner • understanding occurs best through performing
in activity when promoting deep learning; techniques tasks;
to do this are explored. The second section provides a • learning is largely social in origin.
critical analysis of how the key elements of interactive
multimedia (multiple media, user control over delivery Ausubel et al. (1978) argue that new subject matter
and interactivity) can be used to promote deep learning. can only be learned if it can be related in some manner
Different techniques for involving the learner are to previously stored knowledge and advocate using
explored. Ways in which individual learning prefer- anchoring devices or advanced organizers. These can
ences can be supported are also addressed. In the third help bridge the gap between what learners already
section advice is given on how best to integrate know and what they need to know if they are to
interactive multimedia into the curriculum. The paper successfully learn the task in hand, an approach which
concludes by giving suggestions for future work. has parallels with both Rumelhart and Norman’s
(1981) schema acquisition model and Piaget’s (1972)
theory of equilibration.
LEARNING CONSIDERATIONS
Mayes (1995) also identiŽ es the need to put the new
Instructional principles and practice have moved information into context and for the learner to apply
away from an emphasis on learning as reproducing it in practise, emphasizing that true understanding
knowledge to learning as transforming knowledge, will not occur without a cycle of action, feedback
from rote learning to meaningful learning. The Dearing and re ection. He believes that discussion with fellow
report (1997) highlighted the need to improve the learners and instructors can promote the process
quality of learning and advocated a more learner- of feedback and re ection. Fowler and Mayes (2000)
centred approach in which the various needs and characterize learning as an iterative process and
circumstances of learners are recognized. The have developed a model which sees learning as a
MacFarlane report (CSUP, 1992 ) noted that, in the process of on-going reŽ nement of conceptualization–
context of higher education, learners are now not only construction–identification, with dialogue playing a
required to acquire extensive knowledge or facts central role in each stage.
about their subject area but that they should also be
able to exhibit critical and independent thinking about Knowledge is Ž rst conceptualized, abstracted and then
the subject matter. Moreover they are also expected to interpreted and considered by the learner. The learner’s
develop transferable skills, such as communication, conceptions of this new knowledge then need to
intra-personal and problem-solving skills. be applied and tested in meaningful activities, which
may lead to initial beliefs being verified or contra-
Entwistle et al. (1992) categorizes these two dicted. In either case the outcome needs to be
contrasting approaches to learning (learning as considered through internal or external dialogue, which
reproducing knowledge and learning as transforming in turn leads to the new knowledge either being
knowledge ), as surface and deep learning. Surface assimilated into existing schemata or existing schemata
learning is associated with a learner being able simply being adapted to incorporate the new knowledge.
to reproduce the information as originally presented. If this process is successful then not only has the
Deep learning is associated with not only acquiring the learner acquired the new material but has done so in a
information but also understanding it through relating meaningful manner. The learner is now ready to
it to previous knowledge and experience. The latter progress, to build upon what they have learnt and to
approach requires active involvement on the part of develop an even deeper level of understanding; the
learner. Laurillard (1993) favours a similar approach cycle starts again.
whereby learning is placed in the context of concrete
experiences and activities and where the learners take Contextualization and conceptualization can be aided
an active role in the learning process. by direct involvement of a learner in applying new
knowledge in a meaningful manner. Deep learning
Educational theorists and practitioners, in developing requires a learner’s active engagement with the new
models for instructional design that promote deep material. Active engagement has many facets: learning
learning, have drawn upon the work of psychologists. by doing, through taking the new knowledge and
Mayes (1995) argues that three of the most important applying it in practise, is one aspect. Active learning is
research Ž ndings from cognitive psychology are that: more than simply doing something; it also involves
158 IETI 38,2

active reflection on the part of the learner (Piaget, multimedia interfaces (ISO 14915)’ is a useful source
1972). This not only requires reflection on what is of general advice.
being presented, by relating it to their previous
experience, but also on their experience in applying the Media presentation is only one aspect of screen
new knowledge being presented, thereby assimilating design, media selection must also be considered. ISO
the new material into existing schema or modifying 14915 has a section on media selection and media
them through accommodation. Learning has a social combination, which will explain how individual media
aspect and the activity of re ection can be strengthened elements can be used and how they can be combined.
through discussion (Vygotsky, 1962, 1978). Sutcliffe and Faraday (1994) address the issue of
selection and attentional design, as well as persistence
Learning is a complex process with many different of information, attention and concurrence in pre-
factors to be considered. However, from an analysis sentation, for task-related multimedia interfaces. They
of learning theory it is possible to identify conditions propose guidelines for media selection and presen-
that are more likely to promote deep learning. These tation scripting in the forms of selection rules and
include supporting or encouraging the learner in validation rules, for example visual media resources
relating new material to existing knowledge, using or can be used to illustrate spatial relationships. These
applying the new material and clarifying their ideas guidelines can be adapted for use when developing
through re ection and discussion with others. Having interactive multimedia applications for educational
identiŽ ed these conditions it is now possible to explore purposes and assist in selecting media components and
how interactive multimedia can be exploited to beneŽ ts delivery planning. McAteer and Shaw (1995) give
learners. general guidance on the use of different media from an
educational perspective.

Assuming that the content lends itself to being

INTERACTIVE MULTIMEDIA AND
presented in more than one medium, a given piece of
LEARNING
information can be delivered using more than one
media element. For example a picture can be used to
Multiple media
illustrate a text-based description, or audio employed
Multimedia enables designers to choose from a range to summarize other information on screen. Multimedia
of media elements to convey a particular message, can support multiple representations of the same piece
whether that is text to display simple instructions or of information in a variety of formats. This has several
moving images to represent a process. If potential implications for learning.
problems, such as memory overload, divided attention
and disorientation are to be prevented then human Learners are not a homogenous group. Some learners
psychological limitations, such as memory load, prefer to represent information verbally when thinking
perception and attention must be considered when (verbalizers) and others visually (imagers). Riding and
designing interfaces. Guidance is required for media Douglas (1993) found that learning performance
presentation (how much information is displayed on was affected if information was not presented in a
screen and how it can best be presented) and media learner’s preferred type. Imagers performed better than
selection (which media should be used to convey a verbalizers in text-plus-pictures conditions, whereas
given message). verbalizers performed better than imagers in text-
plus-text conditions. However it is not just a question
Work has already been done in developing general of cognitive style preference. Sutcliffe and Faraday
guidelines for the design of screen layout, particularly (1994) suggest that different types of media best
with respect to text and graphics. Boyle (1997) represent different types of information. A tension
provides an overview with an emphasis on presentation exists between the best presentation medium as
design for educational multimedia. Clark (1995), determined by information type and presentation
McAteer and Shaw (1995), Sutcliffe (1995), Faraday medium as determined by cognitive style.
and Sutcliffe (1997) and Vossen et al. (1997) also
provide guidelines on how to present sound, video The reinforcement and supplementation of information
and animation, as well as text and graphics. The through multiple representations, whether in the same
International Organization for Standardization’s or a different format, also creates a redundancy effect,
emerging standard, ‘multimedia user interface design which aids the process of conceptualization and
– ergonomic requirements for human-centred strengthens the transfer from short-term memory to
 Interactive Multimedia and Learning 159

long term memory. McAteer and Shaw (1995) state example, Fischer (1994) provides advice on how best
that the more senses that are engaged in learning to guide users through non-linear applications and
then the more effective that learning is. Faraday Davies and Brailsford (1994) advise on the design of
and Sutcliffe (1997) also found that recall improved navigation and orientation for multimedia learning
when information was presented using images and applications. Kommer et al. (1996) provide guidelines
animations as well as with text and speech. Vetere and for organizing nodes and links as well as advice for
Howard (1999) draw a distinction between within- user support strategies. The new multimedia standard
channel redundancy, which utilizes the same sensory ISO 14915 has a section on multimedia control and
channel and between-channel redundancy, which navigation, which describes the different structures
utilizes different sensory channels. They found that which can be used to support navigation as well basic
within-channel redundancy, combining text and audio, controls for audio-visual media.
leads to better to performance for certain types of tasks.
However they also found that within-channel redun-
Access routes
dancy might at times reduce performance, possibly by
inducing cognitive overload. There are a number of navigation strategies avail-
able to designers of interactive learning applications.
The use of video and audio may also increase enjoy- At one extreme there are resource-based learning
ment and engage a user in a way that static material environments, for example, hypermedia databases or
does not, particularly for school-leavers brought up encyclopaedias, which a user can browse at random.
with ready access to videos and computer games. Whilst such artefacts can be a useful teaching resource,
However this is not a simple relationship. Mayes in themselves they do not provide a framework in
(1993) reports that the vividness of presentation in which to learn successfully. Mayes et al. (1990) point
itself does not increase the effectiveness of learning out that completely free exploration of a network of
and he argues that learners are not easily enticed by the nodes and links will be sub-optimal for learning. Boyle
surface aspects of information. Furthermore, the use (1997 ) echoes this, favouring a more structured
of dynamic media such as video may get in the way learning approach. Ford and Ford (1992 ) found that
of learning, with not all learners attending to all some learners become uncomfortable when navigating
the multiple representations. Hutchings et al. (1993) in hyperspace which in turn can affect performance.
found that some learners, when using multimedia McKendree et al. (1995) discuss some of the limita-
applications, spent their time solely seeking out the tions of hypertext and point out that in many instances
incorporated video clips to the detriment of their learners require a narrative-like structure to follow.
learning. Rogers and Sciafe (1997) explore these issues They also emphasize the importance of engaging the
in further depth by examining the most effective way learner in activity, something which a purely resource
of displaying and co-ordinating multiple represen- based approach lacks.
tations at the interface. The key to effective learning is
to utilize these multimedia elements to motivate a Control of delivery can also be handed over to the
learner into using the application and thence to application. Such an approach is taken by intelligent
encourage the hard work needed for real learning. tutoring systems, overviews of which can be found in
Wenger (1987) and Nwana (1990). Essentially these
are computer systems which generate a lesson for an
Delivery control
individual learner based on their current state of
The non-linearity offered by many multimedia knowledge. Advice can be given as to different courses
packages allows a user greater navigational control of action to take depending on a learner’s actions and
and freedom. Users can decide which sections they tutorial support offered. Pang and Edmonds (1999)
wish to visit in an application and in what order. They found that such guided discovery approaches can lead
can control their own pace as they travel through an to improvements in learning.
application, concentrating on material they are unfa-
miliar with or are particularly interested in and skipping Mayes (1993), however, argues that intelligent tutoring
over material they already know or which is irrelevant systems promote knowledge acquisition, through
to their needs at that particular time. Users can also helping learners achieve ‘mastery’ in solving particular
repeat or review sections as needed. problems, rather than helping them come to an under-
standing of the underlying principles. Intelligent
General navigation guidelines are available for a tutoring systems can be seen to be prescriptive, in that
designer of interactive multimedia applications. For the learner has limited control over the presentation of
160 IETI 38,2

information. Boyle (1997) further argues that it is alternative viewpoints that may aid the process of
difŽ cult to formalize the difference between tutor and re ection.
learners viewpoints and that at a technical level the
intelligent tutoring systems approach is immensely However, some learners may require help in deciding
complex. However, intelligent tutoring can offer the most appropriate path through the material and
valuable insights into computer-based learning, which selecting which links to follow. Riding and Sadler-
is more widely applicable. Smith (1992 ) state that field-dependent individuals
tend to organize information into a loosely clustered
Control should not reside solely with a computer whole whereas field-independents tend to organize
even if a system adapts to the needs of individual information into clear-cut conceptual groupings.
learners nor should learners be expected to learn from Witkin et al. (1977) found that field-independent
a completely unstructured environment. A middle learners prefer to structure their own learning and are
ground is needed to promote effective learning. One more likely to develop their own learning strategies.
example is a hierarchical-based menu system where Field-dependent learners, on the other hand, may need
learners can either work through the sections in order more assistance in deŽ ning problem solving strategies
but use hyperlinks to explore areas of interest or go or more exact definitions of performance outcomes.
straight to a given page when revising. Such an Liu (1994) conŽ rmed this showing that Ž eld-dependent
approach provides learners with a framework to learners tended to progress through instructional
navigate within, where they are free to tailor the material following the provided or suggested sequence
order in which information is presented to meet their and that they were less likely than Ž eld-independent
own needs; an environment where a learner can seek learners to use index tools and to create their own
information in pursuit of understanding (Mayes, 1993). sequences. Ford (1995) reports that holists also tend to
make more use of enrichment material (analogies,
illustrations and anecdotes) than serialists. Ford and
Individual preferences
Ford (1992) also found that not all learners cope
Individual differences can also be provided for within successfully when given free choice as to how they
such a framework. Learners can differ in the way in access the material. They identified such learners
which they prefer to process information. Holism- with field dependency, suggesting that perhaps they
serialism is associated with a tendency to begin with need more structure and direction than their field
the whole as against a tendency to approach things in independent counterparts.
a linear, step by step fashion (Riding and Chema,
1991). Holists tend to adopt a global approach, concen- It appears that Ž eld-dependent learners beneŽ t more
trating on Ž rst building a broad conceptual overview from explicit orientation than field-independent
into which detail can be Ž tted, whereas serialists tend learners. Anchoring devices or advance organizers
to adopt a local learning approach, concentrating on can be used to help the Ž eld-dependent learner to relate
one thing at a time. the new material being presented to their previous
knowledge. In general, Ž eld-dependent learners will
Multimedia applications can be structured to provide beneŽ t from frameworks being provided to lead them
for both approaches. For example, an application can through the learning process. Ford (1995) suggests that
be divided into sections, with each section starting an the form this structure takes can be related to the holist-
overview followed by more detailed explanations. serialist cognitive style. Further work is needed on how
Holists can then start by looking at all the overviews best to do this.
and then return to explore a given section in more
depth, whereas serialists can focus one section at a There are two issues that need to be resolved. Firstly,
time. how best to provide for different learning styles when
offering advice. One approach is to adapt the advice
Supplementary information can also be accessed to a learner’s preferences but this requires either online
through thematic links, providing background infor- testing to determine what that style was or asking
mation or analogous material. Links can also be used learners which approach they prefer. However, the
to clarify information by providing examples and feasibility of this can be questioned. Such an approach
elaboration. Both can help with contextualization and has severe cost implications and, despite advances in
can also encourage exploration and experimentation, computing power, is not likely to be economic in a
thus leading to a deeper understanding of the new mass higher education system. Moreover it is also
material. Thematic linking can also be used to provide debatable whether such an approach is desirable.
 Interactive Multimedia and Learning 161

Not only do different students exhibit individual learners to experiment safely, enabling them to exam-
differences in relation to learning but also, as Prosser ine the consequences of taking wrong approaches,
and Trigwell (1999) argue, the approach taken by as well as correct ones, thereby assisting the learner
a given student depends on the context of that learn- to come to a deeper understanding of the subject.
ing and can change over time. Moreover successful Learners can be supported in viewing the consequences
learning requires versatility, raising doubt as to the of taking alternative courses of action, which lead to
desirability of playing to an individual’s strengths. A both positive and negative outcomes. Interactivity also
more learner-centred approach may be to help learners supports role-playing, which is useful for language
in overcoming weaknesses they may have and so help learning or encouraging learners to consider alternative
them become more rounded learners. Presenting viewpoints. Online testing can be provided, with
individual programmes tailored to an individual is, in instant feedback given for learners. The results of these
effect, taking choice away from that learner. This can tests can be stored to Ž le and accessed at a later stage
hinder the process of encouraging students to develop by both the learners themselves and staff, allowing
as autonomous and independent learners. progress to be monitored.

Educational developers should be aware of the A number of applications have already been developed
differences that exist and include a variety of different which embody real interactivity, that is interactivity
activities and, where possible, offer  exibility. Some to engage the user in active learning as opposed to
students may require guidance in working through the interactivity through ‘point and click’. Cairncross
learning material; organizing frameworks and help and Mannion (1999) describe a studio approach to
systems can be useful here. learning applications for engineering, which combines
exposition with a virtual experiment. Rogers and Sciafe
Further study is needed to determine the best way to (1996 ) report on a virtual ecosystem, PondWorld,
ensure that those learners requiring guidance receive it. which can be used by children to Ž nd out about food
Our own observations of learners using interactive chains. Boyle (1997) describes a number of other such
multimedia learning applications at Napier found that interactive applications. These packages are successful
the majority of the learners did not consult the online in engaging the learner in activity and are enjoyable to
study guide provided until the end of their Ž rst session, use but there is little empirical data about how effective
if at all. One way round this is to force all learners the learning is. Moreover there are few guidelines for
to view a study guide before continuing with the rest the design of learning activities based on sound
of the application. However this takes control away educational principles. Aldrich et al. (1998) explore
from a learner and may prove frustrating on subsequent the notion of interactivity further and outline the need
usage. A better approach may be to brief learners prior to identify in a systematic manner those interactivities
to using the application, which has the benefit of which support effective learning and those which are
allowing lecturers to provide other advice tailored to a largely gratuitous. The key here is to design learning
particular group of learners. activities which cognitively engage the learner, that
is causes them to think about the material that is
presented, what it means, its relevance, how it can be
Interactivity
applied and in what contexts.
Interactivity in multimedia assisted learning applica-
tions can and should go further than simply allowing a Interactivity can also be used to support synchronous
learner to choose their own path through an application and asynchronous communications between a learner
by pointing and clicking at various menus items and and a tutor or between groups of learners through
buttons. If deep learning is to be promoted then the the agency of electronic mail, bulletin boards and
application should actively engage the user in carrying electronic conferencing. This can encourage the learner
out tasks, which allow them to apply the new knowl- not only to apply new knowledge being presented to
edge being presented. Reflection on that experience them in discussion with others but also to consider
needs also to be encouraged. Multimedia affords many alternative interpretations, helping to clarify any mis-
opportunities to do this. understandings. This process of dialogue encourages
reflective thinking and can promote reconceptual-
Learners can interact with multimedia packages in ization and lead to a deeper understanding of the
a number of ways. Learners can manipulate virtual material being learned (Mayes, 1995). While Smith
objects on screen and simulations of experiments or (1998 ) points out that such online discussions can
industrial processes can also be provided. This allows lack immediacy, they can also open up new ways of
162 IETI 38,2

learning. Vicarious learning can supported, whereby, learners prefer using computer-based learning material
for example, learners can view the discussions of in a group with other learners and tutor support than on
previous groups studying the same topic and learn from their own.
these (McKendree et al., 1997).
This may be because this is a new way of learning for
Note that such communication with tutors and fellow many learners, requiring new ways of working and
learners can only be supported in a distributed envi- managing their time. This can lead to resistance from
ronment. Self-contained or stand-alone multimedia learners. There can also be a slow adaptation process,
applications do not provide the opportunity for on- as learners become familiar with the new technology
going discussions, although it is possible to provide the (Finklestein and Dryden, 1998). Moreover learners are
answer to frequently asked questions and comments less likely to be receptive to new methods when they
from different sources. Increasingly, however, Internet are feeling overloaded.
links are embedded into commercially available CD-
ROMs. A similar approach can be taken for bespoke Current thinking also suggests that when evaluating
applications. Learners can also be encouraged to pause the effectiveness of learning applications that an inte-
and re ect on material that has just been presented, by grative approach should be taken. Draper (1996, 1997),
including self-assessment questions. Gunn (1997), and Milne and Heath (1998) all argue
that evaluation cannot be done in isolation through
The potential beneŽ ts that multimedia offers educators simply looking at the product and that the context in
have been outlined in this section. A range of media which it will be used must also be considered. This is
elements can be used to convey a given message and something that should be borne in mind by researchers
learners can control the delivery of that information. when planning trials or interpreting the findings of
Individual preferences can be catered for, through others. Caution should be exercised when generalizing
taking advantage of the flexibility that multimedia from laboratory based experimental trials.
offers and providing, where appropriate, multiple
representations and supporting different access routes.
Interactivity can be used to involve the learner
CONCLUSIONS
in activity, through, for example, providing virtual
experiments or quizzes that allow the learner to apply Multimedia can bring a number of advantages to edu-
the new material being presented and to test their cation. The key features of multiple media, user control
understanding. Re ection and discussion can also be over the delivery of information and interactivity can
supported. help learners come to a deeper understanding through

• supporting conceptualization and contextualization

of the new material being presented;
INTEGRATION INTO THE CURRICULUM
• actively involving the learner in the learning
It is not enough to focus solely on the design of the process;
application. If interactive multimedia is going to • promoting internal re ection.
be used to its full potential then its integration into the
curriculum must carefully be considered. Failure to do Furthermore dialogue between learners and teachers
so may result in it not being used regardless of how can be supported through combining interactive
well it is designed. Lecturers wishing to use interactive multimedia with communications technology.
multimedia to replace some of their teaching should
consider carefully how it is going to be used and what A user-centred approach to the design of multimedia
support they will make available to learners. One of learning applications can be recommended, both from
the perceived benefits of interactive multimedia an interactive systems design perspective and also
learning applications is that they allow learners to study from an educational perspective. This approach should
at a time and a place convenient to them. However be based on general human–computer interaction prin-
our experience (Cairncross and Smith, 1999) found ciples as well as learning considerations. The key to
that learners value personal contact with tutors and effective learning is to utilize these multimedia ele-
other learners and prefer to use such applications in ments to motivate a learner into using the application
a computer-based tutorial rather than in isolation at and thence to encourage the hard work needed for
home. This is in keeping with another study at Napier real learning. Contextual factors can impact on this.
(Davidson and Goldfinch, 1998) which found that Theories on how best to realize the beneŽ ts outlined
 Interactive Multimedia and Learning 163

above need to be developed further and then tested. Boyle, T (1997) Design for Multimedia Learning, Prentice
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Learning in a World Wide Web Guided Discovery Sandra Cairncross is a Senior Lecturer and Teaching
Hypertext Learning Environment in Interaction, in M A Fellow in the School of Computing at Napier
Sasse & C Johnson (eds.), INTERACT 99: Proceedings University. She teaches multimedia systems design and
of Seventh IFIP Conference on Human Computer
Interaction, Edinburgh, UK, pp 597–604.
development and is a member of the HCI Research
Piaget, J (1972) The Psychology of Intelligence, LittleŽ eld Group. Her particular research interest how best to use
Adams, NJ. new learning technologies to promote deep learning.
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& Teaching: The Experience in Higher Education, Open Mike Mannion is the Head of the Department of
University Press, Buckingham, UK. Computing and Professor of Computing at Glasgow
Riding, R and Cheema, I (1991) Cognitive styles – an Caledonian University. He is chairman of British
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Riding, R and Sadler-Smith, E (1992) Type of instructional Address for correspondence: Sandra Cairncross,
material, cognitive style and learning performance, School of Computing, Napier University,
Educational Studies, 18, 3, 323–340. Craiglockhart Campus, 219 Colinton Rd, Edinburgh,
Rogers, Y and Scaife, M (1997) How can interactive EH14 1DJ.
multimedia facilitate learning? In Proceedings of Tel: 0131 455 4588;
First International Workshop on Intelligence and e-mail: [email protected]

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