Unit 6: Communication and Interpersonal skills

Barriers and distortions to the communication process

Jargon

All industries and organisations have their own jargon. This is the technical language that goes with
the activity. It is too easy to assume that the receiver will be as familiar with the jargon as the sender.

Stereotyping

Pre-conceived ideas about the subject matter or the recipient of the message can hamper the
effectiveness of communication.

Examples of this include:

 ‘All IT people use jargon that users cannot understand’.

 ‘Accountants do not appreciate what marketing is about’.
 ‘Back office people do not understand what customers really need’.
 ‘Internal control people are just there to say ‘no’ all the time’.

Cultural and perceptions of status

In an increasingly globalised economy, many people have to communicate with colleagues in different
countries, often on different continents. Although English is an international language, the cultural
differences between people living in completely different environments can create misunderstandings,
which make a meeting of minds difficult to achieve.

In some cultures, the perceived status of people can be an important influence on the communication
process. In Japan this may even influence which words and phrases are selected. In France, the
formal ‘vous’ and more familiar ‘tu’ are integral features of everyday speech. In Greece, young people
may greet one another using ‘Giasas’ or ‘kalimera’, but greet more elderly persons with the more
deferential ‘Herite kyria’.

Under-communicating

The sender offers less information than is necessary for the receiver to fully understand the message.
This problem can be associated with the use of jargon, such as where the words and phrases used
are not fully understood or where key pieces of information are missing.

Inappropriate timing
Human beings are more receptive to messages at different times of the day. However, this issue is
made more complicated by the fact that some people are more alert early in the morning while others
are more alert later in the day.

This is a biological characteristic outside one’s control (circadian rhythms). It is perhaps significant
that many sales organisations confine their intensive sales efforts to periods between 10.00 and 12.00
hours, and between 14.00 and 16.00 hours.

Filtering

People hear what they want to hear, and may filter out parts of messages. Hence, an announcement
such as ‘We have reached a provisional agreement with our bankers which will enable the company
to be saved’ could be interpreted as more definitive as some may not fully appreciate what the word
‘provisional’ means.

Bias and rules of thumb

Most individuals come to any situation with pre-conceived notions and ideas, which may make their
interpretation of a message subjective.

Noise

Noise can distort any communication. We have all encountered situations in which we have tried in
vain to hold a conversation on a bad telephone line, or when there are many distractions in the
background.

However, noise can take many forms:

Physical noise
Background office noise, machinery.
Technical noise
A bad internet connection.
Social noise
Differences in personality or culture.
Psychological noise
Anger, grief, fatigue, joy.

Formal and Informal Communication

Formal Communication

Formal communication follows the line relationships set out in the organisation chart. This type of
communication is used exclusively in the workplace, and employees must follow it while performing
their duties.

Formal communication takes four forms:

 Upward (bottom-up): Information flows from subordinate to superior.

 Downward (top-down): information flows from superior to subordinate.
 Horizontal or Lateral: Information flows between two employees working at the same level.
 Diagonal: Information flows between employees of different departments, working at different
levels.
Informal Communication

Informal communication does not follow pre-defined channels. It moves freely in all directions, and is
therefore rapid. Informal communication features in all organisations, as people interact with each
other about their professional life, personal life, sports, the weather, politics and other matters. When
information is transmitted in this way, it is often referred to as the grapevine.

Informal communication takes four forms:

 Single Strand Chain: One person tells something to another, who passes this on, and so on.
 Cluster Chain: The communication in which one person tells something to their most trusted
friends or colleagues, who then communicate the information to their trusted friends and so
on.
 Probability Chain: A person randomly chooses some people to whom information is passed
who then pass on the information to other randomly chosen recipients.
 Gossip Chain: The communication starts when a person tells something to a group of
people, and then they pass on the information to more people and in this way the information
is disseminated to everyone.
Note that in all of the above forms of informal communication, the more links there are in the
communication chain and the more people who receive the information, the more distorted the
message might become and this may affect the reliability of the information subsequently transmitted.

Introduction

Effective communication relies on paying due attention to SIX elements. Select from each of the six
elements to find out more information on each:

Who?

Why?

What?

When?

How?

Where?
Introduction

Effective communication is important at work because it helps:

 Promote a clear sense of motivation, direction and clarity of objectives

 Provide insight into how the organisation is functioning and performing.
 Create opportunity for professional and personal development.
 People learn and grow as individuals.
 Boost morale and loyalty.
The following slides highlight common errors and simple solutions.

Errors

Some things to avoid are:

 Presenting feedback built-up over a long period of time and giving all this to colleagues in one
meeting.
 Giving only negative feedback and ignoring any positives.
 Including negative feedback between two sets of positive feedback messages – the person
will only consciously remember the good feedback (filtering out the negative).
 Being (or appearing) insincere when giving positive feedback.
 Not being direct enough or honest enough when this is necessary.
 Getting emotional and subjective.
 Communicating through inappropriate media.
 Allowing the employee to control the agenda.
 Being too personal and over familiar in tone.
 Being unprepared and appearing careless or unconcerned.

Solutions

Things to try instead are:

 Take a balanced approach and give positive and negative feedback when it’s due.
 Being truthful and sincere but at the same time being diplomatic.
 Being timely in providing feedback and communicating with others as events occur rather
than keeping notes of issues to bring up at a later date when memories will have faded.
 Practising and preparing what you are going to say and being specific, using examples.
 Allowing the employee to contribute to, but not direct or control the conversation.
 Being dispassionate and fair with others.
 Communicating face to face when possible rather than sending emails, particularly where
issues to be discussed are sensitive and where body language can so often influence
communication and understanding.
 Praise in public - criticise in private.
 Focus on facts, and having all the right information and evidence before taking decisions.
The Basic Rules of Meetings

First of all, the basics, applicable to all meetings are as follows:

 All of those scheduled to attend should be informed well in advance and know where and
when the meeting will be held.
 Ideally, the attendees should also be given an indication in advance of how long the meeting
is expected to last.
 There should be a suitable meeting space and adequate seating arrangements (as well as
refreshments if applicable).
 Any audio-visual aids necessary to support the meeting should be available and checked to
ensure they will function properly when the meeting takes place.
 If applicable, an agenda, minutes of the last meeting and any supporting papers should be
issued in advance in order that time is not spent at the meeting having to read the materials.
 There should be a chairman and someone designated to take notes (in formal board and
committee meetings. (The latter will be the Secretary).

For remote meetings held using audio or video conferencing facilities, there are additional matters to
consider:

 The date and time of the meeting should be confirmed, but if an ‘auto-confirm’ messaging
system is used, attention should be paid to advising the start time if participants operate from
different time zones.

 If a proprietary system is used, such as GoToMeeting, Lync or WebEx, the organiser should
ensure that all attendees have the hardware and software necessary to participate (including
apps and plug-ins), and that both PC and Mac users are able to access the meeting and
attachments.

 Some participants may not have full access to visuals, in which case it may be necessary to
send supporting documentation by email, post or courier.

 Some participants may believe they have full access to visuals, but if participating from a
home network or hotel, the bandwidth may be insufficient to support full functionality.

You are the Secretary of an association of professional accountants, which operates in your town.
The association meets on a quarterly basis to discuss contemporary issues affecting the profession
and foster networking opportunities. The association does some charitable work and has links with
other professionals such as surveyors, lawyers and architects.

Minutes are taken at all meetings and distributed to members of the association. The meetings usually
consider reports by the Treasurer, the Membership Secretary, the Charities Officer, and the Local
Activities Coordinator and discuss and propose future charitable work and any planned joint activities
with other professional associations.

Your job is now to draft the agenda for the next meeting of the association by rearranging the
following statements into the correct order:

1. Apologies for absence.

 2. Minutes of previous meetings.

3. Reports of Secretary, Treasurer, Charity Officer and Local Activities Coordinator.

4. Propose options for future charitable events.

OR
Consider collaborative activities with other professional associations.

5. Consider collaborative activities with other professional associations.

OR
Propose options for future charitable events.

6. AOB.

7. Date of next meeting.

Running a Meeting

It is the Chairman’s responsibility that the meeting should be run efficiently.

As any meeting should make the best use of the knowledge, skills and experience of everyone
attending, every individual should not only be given the chance to contribute fully, but also be
encouraged to do so.

Every individual is unique, and not all brilliant business people are extroverts. It is quite possible that a
person may speak only once at a two hour meeting, but in doing so come up with the most insightful
idea in a decade.

Conversely, many extrovert and self-confident people may be all enthusiasm backed by little
substance. It is the Chairman’s task to ensure that contributions of all participants are meaningful, yet
balanced.

Now look at the following scenarios and then decide on the appropriate actions.

Scenario A

Olga is chairing a regular meeting in her company. Although the participants have worked as a settled
team for over two years, the current meeting is welcoming Stefan for the first time. Stefan has been
transferred from another division of the company and comes highly recommended by his former
colleagues.

Early in the meeting, it becomes very clear that Stefan is extremely outgoing and keen to get involved
in all discussions. He interrupts other participants frequently to pick up on their ideas and exert his
own influence. It quickly becomes apparent that other participants are speaking less, as they seem to
be rather overwhelmed by Stefan’s powerful personality.

How should Olga deal with this situation?

Correct
Although option a) is possibly a good choice when dealing with a person who has been on the
team for some time, it is less wise for dealing with a newcomer. Such a direct approach may
destroy motivation and send the wrong signals to Stefan. There is no guarantee that c) will
actually work, as the other participants may withdraw even more. Option d) may work but has
disadvantages: it will give Stefan an inflated view of his importance to the team and the opposite
impression to the others.

Scenario B

Martina is a non-executive member of the board of directors and the audit committee of JKL
Company. She is a qualified accountant and also a brilliant academic who taught English Literature
for several years.

Martina is highly respected by her colleagues, but they are becoming increasingly concerned about
her participation at meetings. Both the board and the audit committee review draft financial
statements and narrative reports, and each time these are discussed at a meeting Martina insists on
going through her own detailed editorial amendments line by line, picking out minor points on incorrect
grammar or style.

This means that the final documents are nearly always technically correct and seldom have any
grammatical errors, but have not been reviewed against more fundamental criteria or objectives. As it
often takes a long time for Martina to go through her minor amendments at each meeting, sometimes
these meetings overrun, and there is insufficient time to fully discuss more material items in the
documents being reviewed.

What should the Chairman do about this situation?

Correct
While it is a duty of the board and its standing committees to exercise due diligence, it is not a
proper use of their time to go through every document line-by-line, when only one person at the
meeting is needed to give such close attention to the proper use of English. Martina could
undertake the same exercise beforehand liaising with individual members of the accounting
team, or the internal control department, and then bring the papers, fully corrected, to the
meeting.

Responsibilities of the Chairman

The Chairman should ensure that sufficient time is permitted for each agenda item to be covered
fully. This may be compromised if discussions run over their allotted time, leaving insufficient time to
deal with remaining items on the agenda. If the size of the agenda is ambitious for the time available,
it may be necessary to operate a ‘guillotine’ (maximum time allocation) for each item. If any business
is left unfinished, it can then be discussed further after the meeting, or placed on the agenda of the
next meeting.

The Chairman should keep the discussions on track, and discourage digression from the matters
under consideration. Some participants may take a long time to make their point, while others will
embellish what they have to say with anecdotes from their own experience. If this becomes a regular
feature of a meeting, the Chairman may have to interrupt in mid-sentence in a diplomatic, polite but
firm manner and bring the discussion back to the point.

If decisions are to be taken, these should be reached by consensus. If formal resolutions (decisions)

are required, they should be proposed and seconded and put to a vote. For formal meetings such as
board meetings, the Chairman often has a casting vote, which is one extra vote that can only be used
in the event of a tie. All resolutions should be recorded on the spot and summarised to ensure that the
meeting is fully aware of what it has decided.

For some matters under consideration, the meeting may not have the power to make a resolution but
able to make a recommendation. These should also be recorded meticulously in order that they truly
reflect the views of the meeting.

For all agenda items, decisions on actions to be taken by individual members should be recorded so
that they can be followed up after the meeting.

Remote meetings

For remote meetings, there may be special considerations:

 It cannot be assumed that communications links will be active continuously, so there should
be a facility through which a remote participant can indicate they are offline or have lost audio,
visuals or both. There is usually a back-up method of participating, such as telephone dial-in.

 If the meeting has a large number of participants, it may be impractical to leave every
member’s audio link open, as this can cause technical noise. For high definition audio, even a
person’s breathing can be disruptive. In these situations the chair should request all
participants to remain on ‘mute’ unless they themselves are contributing.

 Some proprietary systems have a ‘hand up’ function through which a participant can indicate
a desire to speak, with microphones muted until unmuted by the facilitator. While this can
work well, it may be difficult for the facilitator to notice every occasion that the ‘hand up’ icon
is activated.

 Those attending remote meetings may not grasp that what they say and what they hear are
transmitted through different microphones. Therefore, it can never be assumed that others will
hear a participant clearly, even if they can be heard perfectly by some.

 Where video conferencing is used, it may be necessary to turn off the video link if the Internet
signal deteriorates. This takes less bandwidth and can therefore enhance the audio channel.

There should be a written record of all meetings, enabling participants to:

 Act as a historic record for archive purposes.

 Confirm the actions to be taken, by whom and when.

 Enable those absent from the meeting to catch up with the matters discussed.
Most organisations present minutes in narrative form, with numbered sub-headings for each agenda
item and resolutions/recommendations highlighted or indented. It is becoming more common practice
for certain types of meeting (for example, project teams) to present minutes in chart form, with
columns for actions decided, who is responsible for action, and deadlines agreed.

It is the Secretary’s responsibility to write the minutes, having agreed their content with the
Chairman. The minutes, or a digest of actions to be taken, should be circulated to participants as soon
as practicable after the meeting, while it is fresh in everyone’s mind. For formal meetings, minutes are
usually signed by the Chairman at the next meeting as a true and accurate record, following approval
by the meeting. In some companies the Chairman signs at the end of the minutes, but also initials
every page.
Good Practice with Email

The correct approach is that the email should reflect the expectations of the receiver.

A formal email to the firm’s legal representative or an executive of another organisation should usually
convey the expected degree of formality. But if the same legal representative is in regular
communication with the sender and there is some degree of familiarity between them, both may
choose to use ‘Hi’ or ‘hello’ and might even find it strange if more formality was used.

Do's and Don'ts of Business Emails

Business email do’s

The following hints are taken from English Oxford Living Dictionaries. Select each to reveal more
information:

Consider your readers

Ask yourself how your readers might react to what you’ve written.

Provide a clear, specific subject line

Be sure it’s meaningful at a glance. If the recipient has an inbox full of messages, he or she will
decide which to read based on the relative importance of senders and subjects.

Users often respond to the volume of their email by using filters. If your message has been filed, the
recipient can find it quickly by checking the subject area.

Use excerpts from previous messages to clarify what you’re replying to

To distinguish the earlier text from your current responses, you can insert the ‘>’ symbol in front of the
quoted material and follow it with your response. This example shows how such a text will look on
your screen:

>How about 3:00 p.m. on Thursday for the meeting?

That will work for me.
>Can we count on a report from you concerning your group’s progress?
Yes. It’ll take about five minutes.

This technique is preferable to quoting an entire message and adding ‘OK’, ‘Me too’, or ‘I agree’.

Alternatively, you can add your responses to the different parts of the email you’re replying to in a
different colour, so that they can be easily found.

Remove long lists of recipients’ names and addresses

These require the recipient to scroll down in order to get to your message, and some of your
correspondents might not like having their email addresses made available to other people.

Use the blind carbon copy (BCC) feature to suppress the names of other recipients.
Strike a balance between formal and casual language

Your message creates an image of your company and you. When communicating with senior
management or customers, use a business letter format, complete sentences, and a spellchecker.

Misspelled or omitted words indicate a lack of attention to detail and an absence of professionalism. If
you’re just trying to set up a meeting with your colleague at the next desk, a more casual style and
language is appropriate.

Key in your name at the end of your message

It identifies you as the sender, and it is common courtesy.

Read and then re-read your message before you send it

Be sure that your message is clear and grammatically correct. Attention to detail is as important in
email as it is in other forms of written communication. Double-check the spelling of recipients’
addresses. A missed keystroke will result in undelivered mail.

After sending email, check back in case you’ve received an ‘undeliverable’ error message. Save a
sender’s address to your address book. This allows you to avoid retyping the address and introducing
errors.

Be careful how you present your message

Double-check your formatting. Your message may look quite different on your recipient’s screen than
it does on yours. Avoid fancy fonts and the use of special characters which may result in a garbled
message.

Acknowledge the receipt of messages promptly

If you’re going to be out of the office, use auto-response messages.

Observe the common practices of your company

Every company has its own customs and ways of doing things. If you’re not familiar with a new
system, ask someone who is before sending messages.

Business email don’ts

The following hints are taken from English Oxford Living Dictionaries. Select each to reveal more
information:

Never substitute email for necessary face-to-face meetings

This is especially the case when, reprimanding someone, or dismissing someone. Such
communications should be handled in person. However, it is appropriate to email someone praising
work well done and copying in those who you would like to share this with, as a mark of appreciation
to the person concerned.

Never assume that email is private

Something can go wrong with any software program, and your email might be misdirected. Also,
many companies monitor their employees’ email. Don’t send anything via email that you wouldn’t
want your colleagues to see. If your message is highly personal or sensitive, ask for a face-to-face
meeting or send it via regular mail.

Don’t assume that everyone reads email immediately

Email travels quickly, but speed of transmission does not guarantee speed of communication. Some
people don’t check their email inbox every day. Others may set aside a particular time of the day to
check their email, but will only respond to messages that require immediate attention. Sometimes
days or weeks can pass between when a message is sent and when it is read.

If you need an immediate response, put ‘urgent’ or ‘please read immediately’ in the subject line,
preceding the specific subject of the message, or decide to pick up the telephone instead (See
Section 8 below). However, if you put ‘urgent’ on every email you send, recipients will cease to take
this seriously after a while.

Never send an angry message via email

This is never appropriate. It is possible to communicate disapproval without displaying undue emotion
so this is why it is advisable to reflect and consider your response to an email which may have caused
anger or frustration before you eventually respond.

Never send an email message written in capital letters, LIKE THIS

Using all capital letters in any context is regarded as the email equivalent of shouting. Research has
also established that the average person finds lower case writing easier to read effectively than
capitals.

Never forward jokes, spam, chain letters, or advertisements

They could annoy colleagues and potential customers and will be regarded as unprofessional.

Do not reply to everyone who received an email unless it’s relevant to them

If you’re simply acknowledging receipt or confirming the time of a meeting, respond only to the sender
and try not to copy people in to emails unless there is a specific reason for doing so.

Purpose of Reports – Activity

How many issues did you identify?

You should have spotted several typos, spelling and grammatical errors.

In addition, however, there are many other deficiencies:

1. The report does not state TO WHOM it is addressed.

2. It states no purpose(s) or terms of reference.

3. It is not signed off at the end with name, job title and date.
 4. There are no sub-headings. Even if sub-headings are not used, numbered paragraphs might
help the reader navigate the report.

5. Many sentences are too long and therefore hard to follow. In some cases, a single sentence
could be two or three separate sentences.

6. The paragraphs are too long.

7. Statistics included in the report are better communicated visually, such as using tables or
graphs.
Building on the last point, there could be MORE BUT SHORTER paragraphs. For example, numerous
candidates’ strengths are presented. There could be one dedicated paragraph per strength. The same
applies to weaknesses.

Continue to see how the report COULD have been presented.

Best practices in report writing

Select each heading to find out more information on best practices in report writing:

Prepare

1. Plan ahead, with your template having an introduction, main body and
conclusions/recommendations.
2. Think about the six communication questions – why, who, what, where, when, how.
3. Remember the receiver.
4. Compose the headings and sub-headings in advance, which will provide a template that will
make the report easier to navigate.

Introduction

Your report should have a title, quick statement of subject matter, statement of purpose or purposes
and terms of reference (why you are writing it).

If your target audience includes people who are expected to skim read the report, you should consider
writing an executive summary. This is a concise precis of the whole document, condensed into
highlights. Some report writers deliberately confine the executive summary to a single page. It should
include the key findings, conclusions and recommendations, suitably summarised.

Main body

The main body should be the longest part of the report. For example, if the report concerns an internal
control deficiency that led to operational problems, the main body might follow the following sequence:

The facts of the event > Analysis of problems > How the problems could have been avoided

The main body should not be obscured by a plethora of statistics, data and other evidence. Although
this can be referred to in the main body, the full details can be set out in an appendix or annex to the
report and cross-referenced. This will help the report to flow much more smoothly.

Conclusions & Recommendations

This section of the report should be positive and cogent (persuasive). The conclusions must logically
flow from the main body and should not conflict with it. In turn, the recommendations made must also
be consistent with the conclusions, following a reasoned argument.

Sign off

The report should be signed off with name, job title and date.

Appendices

These may be used to provide detailed evidence to support information contained in the report itself.

If the appendix comprises secondary information available from a third party, it can be provided by
inserting a hyperlink.

This is much better than cutting and pasting relevant sections of the original documents.

Making a call

There are several common sense best practices when making telephone calls. Select each of the
following headings to find out more information on best practices in ‘making a telephone call’:

Plan ahead

Plan ahead, as every business call should have a purpose, or more than one purpose – you should
know who you wish to speak to and what you need to say.

Menu of Options

When presented with a menu of options by a recorded service, choose your option carefully to avoid
getting through to the wrong person or department, as this can waste considerable time. If you are put
through to the wrong person, ask if you can be redirected, but avoid giving excessive information as
the recipient of your call may not have the knowledge to deal with your query.

Greeting the Receiver

When connected to the person you wish to speak to, greet the person clearly and announce yourself
by name. If you are making a call to an external person or organisation, you should announce both
your name and your own organisation.

Leaving a Message

If the person you are calling is not available and you need to leave a message, give your name,
company details and contact number, and ask the receiver to read it back to you if they do not
automatically do so. You may need to state when you will be available to take a return call.

If you need to speak only to the person who is unavailable now, ask when the person will be available
and commit to calling again then as long as you can actually do so.
Getting to the Point

To portray a professional image, it is important to get to the point quickly. It is entirely appropriate to
follow your initial greeting with ‘How are you today?’ or ‘Thank you for taking my call. Are you free to
talk at the moment?’, but the person you are calling may be busy or pre-occupied with other tasks,
and they will appreciate you telling them exactly what you are looking for. A good introductory
technique is to say ‘I am calling you because…’ or ‘The purpose of my call this morning is...’.

Keep Sentences Short

It is sometimes necessary to set an appropriate tone right from the outset, especially if the subject
matter of the call is unpleasant. For example, you could be calling on behalf of the accounts
receivable department to chase an overdue receivable. The recipient of the call is unlikely to welcome
your call, especially if payment cannot be made for the time being. So it is important to keep
sentences short, not be over-familiar, but professional.

Receiving a call

There are several common sense best practices when receiving telephone calls. Select each of the
following headings to find out more information on best practices in ‘receiving a telephone call’:

Answer promptly

Incoming calls should be answered as promptly as possible. Some companies have a ‘four rings’ or
‘six rings’ policy, specifying the maximum number of times the telephone should ring before being
answered. Everyone who calls is a potential customer, and even if you are not in a customer-facing
role, the caller may be an internal customer seeking your assistance to deliver value to the
organisation.

Announcing Yourself

Announce your name clearly, so that the caller knows to whom they are speaking. ‘Good morning’ or
‘good afternoon’ are most suitable openings, but ‘Hello’, ‘Yes’ or ‘Hi’ should be avoided. Having given
your greeting, it may be appropriate to ask ‘How may I help you?’ This is both more professional and
prompts the caller to say why they are calling.

Transferring the Call or Taking a Message

The caller may be looking for someone else in your organisation, in which case you can transfer the
call, or take a message to enable the intended recipient of the call to return it. However, the caller may
already have started to tell you the information that a colleague needs to know. The best option here
is to politely stop the person and inform them that you will transfer them directly, but if this is not
possible, as much detail should be taken down. Then, when you pass the message to the intended
recipient you can give details which will prevent the original caller having to go through the whole
thing again.

Transferring the Call or Taking a Message

The caller may be looking for someone else in your organisation, in which case you can transfer the
call, or take a message to enable the intended recipient of the call to return it. However, the caller may
already have started to tell you the information that a colleague needs to know. The best option here
is to politely stop the person and inform them that you will transfer them directly, but if this is not
possible, as much detail should be taken down. Then, when you pass the message to the intended
recipient you can give details which will prevent the original caller having to go through the whole
thing again.
Messages

Messages should include your name as well as the time and date of the call. They should also
indicate the action promised.

Summarising the call

When concluding a call, you may need to summarise your actions or the caller’s actions. Signing off
professionally is as important as answering professionally, so a call might be rounded off by ‘Is there
anything else I can help you with today?’ or ‘Thank you for calling’.

Best practices in using a phone

Do's and Don'ts of Business Telephone Calls

Telephone Do's

 Remember at all times that your voice on the telephone is the voice of the organisation, and
you are its ambassador.
 Maintain a professional, business-like manner at all times. Be positive, but avoid emotion.
Show you have a sense of humour if appropriate.
 Match your tone to that of the person you are speaking to.
 Adjust your speech to accommodate the deficiencies of the system. Even if the caller or
recipient of your call is very clear, what they are hearing may not be as clear, so speak
reasonably slowly without labouring the conversation.
 Make allowances for people who are not using English as their first language, and adjust your
vocabulary accordingly. Avoid colloquialisms with which they may not be familiar. Conversely,
be tolerant if you find it difficult understanding what they have to say.
 Use jargon only if you are sure the other person will know what it means.
 Always write notes if you can. If you take a call on a hands-free telephone in the car, write
down details of the call when it is safe and legal to do so.
 Keep any promises you make. If you say you will call back at 2 pm, or will pass on a message
to someone else, you should always follow this through.
 Treat unwanted callers (such as sales callers) and wrong number callers politely. Never be
curt or rude, or just hang up. Even if a caller is selling something you will never be interested
in, they are just doing their job, so state truthfully that you are not in a position to offer them
business, or invite them to email the company.

Telephone Don'ts

 Never hang up on a caller.

 Avoid getting emotional, even if a caller becomes angry. Keep calm and refer to the facts. On
the other hand, when there is time to be humorous accept that not everyone will share your
sense of humour. Quite possibly, they may have a different sense of humour and you must
respect that.
 Do not make a promise if you cannot keep it. If you say you will call back, make every effort to
do so. If you ask ‘Can you call tomorrow?’ knowing you will not be available tomorrow, you
will be wasting the caller’s time. Never prompt a caller to believe that you will (or may) do
something that will not happen. For example, if a sales caller is led to believe that you might
do business in the future, you will be retained as a ‘lead’ in their diary system and receive
more calls in the future, wasting your time and theirs.
 When dealing with people in other countries, avoid discussing any potentially sensitive issues
that may offend their beliefs, norms or culture.
  Do not accept abuse. If a caller is abusive and crosses a line that is unacceptable, state firmly
that you will not tolerate abuse and that unless the caller desists, you will make an
appropriate report through proper channels.
 Do not leave voicemail messages on the system once they are out of date. If you state that
you are out of the office until 15 April and the message is still there after that date, it will
appear unprofessional to callers.

Slick, professional presentation, good use of visual aids or supporting papers, audience involvement
and having a person who really knows the subject are all ingredients of effective presentations.

Stand-out features which differentiate good from poor presentations include:

 Novelty and surprise, if used without detracting from the purpose of the presentation.

 Unusual delivery style, which may include off-beat humour, extravagant gestures, a lot of
personal enthusiasm.

 Inspirational language, conveying the passion of the presenter.

 Use of emotions, which create empathy with the audience.

The Presentation Process

Delivering successful presentations requires attention to three sets of actions:

Preparation

All presentations should be prepared thoroughly in advance. This requires attention to:

 Who is the audience (remember the receiver)?

 What is the objective or set of objectives?
 How long is permitted?
 What audio-visual aids are available? Do I have a contingency (e.g. if the equipment
malfunctions)?
 How should the presentation be delivered?
 What should I say and how do I stay on the path I have plotted?
 Do I take questions or participation as we go along or at the end?

Action

Prior to the presentation, is everything set up and it should be, and does it work? This requires you to:

 Test the equipment.

 Greet the participants.
 Introduce yourself.
 In the introduction, state the objective or objectives and how you will approach the
presentation.
  Inform the audience you are happy to take questions or comments (during the presentation or
at the end).
 Deliver the presentation.
 Thank the audience and the host if applicable.
 Take questions.

Review

Review feedback if available (for remote presentations, the proprietary system may generate
feedback forms but mainly on how the system functioned). Review the following:

 Ask yourself what went well.

 Ask yourself what needs to improve, or if any opportunities were lost.
 Decide how you will apply the strengths and deal with perceived weaknesses next time you
deliver a presentation.

Planning a Presentation

These may be set down on prompt cards, or in notes placed on the front desk.

If presentation slides are to be used, these can provide a structure for what you have to say, but it is
useful to see the next one or two slides so that you do not speak ahead of yourself. Some software
(such as PowerPoint for Windows 10) displays the next slide that will appear on the laptop screen but
only the current slide on the presentation display screen.

It is inadvisable to write or type out the presentation word-for-word. It is difficult to focus on the script
and the audience simultaneously, and the delivery will appear mechanical, almost ‘wooden’. The
audience will think that you should have printed it off and not done the presentation at all.

The presentation plan should have a road map setting out how long you will spend on each topic. If
unsure, it is possible to do a ‘dry run’ in private, in advance of the actual presentation.

Presenting for the First Time

It is perfectly normal to be nervous, and even very experienced presenters or public performers admit
to nervousness every time they give a presentation or speech. Some believe that if you are not
nervous, then you are over-confident.

Nervousness can manifest itself in sweating, dry hands, a dry cough and dry mouth. Make sure that
water is available on the front desk. A pause can help to overcome any temporary anxiety.

The most important consideration is to know what you will be talking about. Accept that you may not
be able to answer every question that arises, but if this is the case, admit it and commit to finding out
afterwards. Sometimes, others in the meeting room will help out.

Do not start off the presentation by telling the participants it is your first presentation. It will increase
your own apprehension and suggest to more cynical individuals that you are looking for a sympathy
vote.

The Presentation

Your overall structure should include:

  If you an invited speaker, a brief word of thanks to the host for inviting you to speak.

 A short introduction to yourself (if the audience does not know you), the subjects to be
covered and what the presentation will achieve.

 The presentation, delivered according to your plan.

 If structured into different sections, you may wish to summarise at specific points during the
presentation.

 Pauses for questions if appropriate.

 After the summary, a word of thanks to the participants.

 Questions and discussion at the end.

Audio-visual Aids

PowerPoint presentation

A laptop with presentation slides loaded on to it and a screen are the most commonly used method of
delivering a presentation. The Microsoft PowerPoint package enables a range of slide designs to be
used, as well as coloured and patterned templates. You can customise the presentation by importing
your company’s house style and logo if desired.

If there is limited time for preparation and the presentation is to be highly structured, the quickest way
to prepare is using titles and bullet points.

For presentations of longer duration, the repeated revealing of successive and similar slides can have
a hypnotic effect on a group, causing them to lose attention. To overcome this, the screen can be
switched off while the group discusses a supporting paper, engages in a general discussion or
participates in a break out session.

For those with laptops with touch screen functionality, slides and documents can be overwritten by
hand.

Tablet

A tablet can be used in the same way as a laptop but may have to be controlled in a different way,
such as a stencil. The tablet permits use of free form writing by switching to a blank screen, or by
overwriting an unloaded Word document or pdf.

Writing on a tablet requires practice, and many experienced presenters avoid them, as their quality of
writing is difficult to maintain on a screen.

Flip chart

Flip charts are less popular than in the past. They are mainly used for free form writing or for
‘brainstorming’ ideas. They are useful back up if the technology or power source fails.

Some presenters use a flip chart as a focal point to highlight key sections of a presentation. For
example, if an induction session is to include a history of the company, an overview of the products of
the company and a short guide to what departments do, these three headings can be written on the
flip chart. The presenter then walks to the flip chart and points to the relevant heading when starting to
talk about each. Only one page is used and visible throughout the presentation.
Whiteboard

Whiteboards can be used in the same way as flip charts. More advanced whiteboards enable images
to be printed off for circulation to the participants, or to others after the presentation has finished. This
medium can be useful for going through a calculation step by step.

Reviewing the Presentation

It is always beneficial to review how a presentation went from the point of view of both strengths and
weaknesses:

 By identifying strengths it is possible to build on these to refine presentation style and make
more effective presentations in the future.

 By seeking how best to overcome weaknesses it is possible to eliminate (or reduce) negative
aspects of presentation style.

 A useful exercise is to write down both positive and negative aspects and to incorporate
learning points in your personal development plan.

While there is no definitive or correct list of skills, the interpersonal skills you might have put down are
as follows:

 Friendly and approachable attitude.

 Clear concise communicator.

 Attentive listener.

 Empathetic to others’ concerns and needs.

 Persuasive and credible professional.

 Trustworthy.

 High integrity.

 Socially inclusive.

 Respectful.

Interpersonal Skills

Although there is no universally accepted definition of the range of skills regarded as interpersonal
skills, communication lies at their heart.

Communications skills may be categorised in different ways, including:

 Verbal communication.
  Non-verbal communication.

 Listening.

 Specific techniques such as negotiating, decision taking and problem solving.

Personal Qualities

In order to develop and use your interpersonal skills most effectively, it is necessary to foster some
essential personal qualities. Click on each heading to find out more information on ‘personal qualities’:

Ethical Values

As a professional person, it is necessary to embrace universally accepted values such as integrity,

honesty, probity and transparency.

No matter how good your interpersonal skills are, those who deal with you will rely on your adherence
to these values:

 Integrity is maintaining consistently high moral standards and never compromising them.
 Honesty and probity are concerned not only being truthful, but also being willing to give full
insights, without omitting important details.
 Transparency refers to openness and a willingness to act without concealing or disguising
vital facts and information from others. However, the duty of transparency is not absolute, as
you must remain aware that it is sometimes necessary to withhold information if it is in the
interest of the company or its stakeholders (such as trade secrets, new product
developments, matters that are subject to on-going legal investigations).
Empathy

Be prepared to look at a situation from another person’s position. Empathy is often described as
‘putting oneself in the other person’s shoes’. Remember that there is usually more than one
interpretation of a set of facts, and that intelligent people have a right to disagree with one another.

Good manners & social awareness

Although good manners are essential in all walks of life, it should be remembered that social norms
differ widely between different countries and even different regions of the same country.

In some Mediterranean countries, it is customary for business contacts to kiss one another on the
cheek when they meet, while in others this would be regarded as outrageously rude and too familiar.
In many central and east European countries, colleagues greet one another each morning with a
handshake.

Body language

Body language can be an indicator of how social and working relationships are conducted. In the UK,
most individuals are guarded in terms of their personal space and will ensure that they do not stand
too close to persons they are dealing with, whereas some people will naturally stand closer together
and be more prepared to engage (such as put a hand on the shoulder, or pat someone gently on the
arm) in other countries.

It is good practice to try and understand the cultural conventions of the people you are dealing with,
particularly accepted social behaviour such as the use of body language in greeting and engaging
with others, so as to avoid offence and encourage positive interaction.
In some interactions, you may observe that people talking to one another will often mimic each other’s
posture and movements. For example, an arm folding movement by one person may be followed by
the other person folding their arms. Psychologists refer to this unconscious imitation as ‘dancing’. It is
not necessarily something to be avoided, but it is useful to be aware of it.

It is desirable to avoid certain gestures and body movements that can send the wrong signal. For
example, looking at one’s watch to see what time it is may be taken as being in a hurry to get away
from someone, while a deep sigh or yawn can send an unfortunate message of boredom or
disinterest.

Diplomacy

Diplomacy is an important personal quality when dealing with colleagues and other stakeholders.
Although a direct manner and a willingness to get to the point are admirable, it is sometimes easy to
offend or convey the impression of bad manners. Therefore, if a younger, inexperienced colleague
makes a bad mistake at work, it is never appropriate to humiliate that person in front of colleagues.
Similarly, if someone comes up with an idea that is seen as totally impractical, by telling the person
directly that it is a crazy idea and will never work will inhibit that person from coming up with
suggestions in the future, as well as demotivating them. While telling the truth (honesty) is a desirable
quality, being too truthful in the wrong place or at the wrong time can have negative effects.

Understanding the appropriate degree of formality or informality is important in different business

situations. Should you dress formally in a suit? Should men wear a tie? Or is ‘smart casual’ accepted?
These are often unwritten conventions that are not rules as such, but more likely to be expectations
based in cultural norms.

Positive attributes

These are essential requirements for most professional jobs:

 When an individual knows their job and have appropriate experience to bring to a working
situation, they should be self-confident in their ability and approach any assignment, project or
task with a ‘can do’ attitude. Of course, some tasks are more difficult than others, and when
attempting something for the first time it can give rise to nerves, but the reality is that the
organisation will seldom put people in a position in which they will not be able to cope.
Therefore, doubts will be lessened by seeing these challenges as opportunities and
approaching them with a positive attitude.
 When things go wrong it is better to treat the experience as an opportunity to learn and not a
failure. Everybody makes mistakes at work. Often, it is because decisions are taken without
full command of the facts, but it can also arise from failures of judgement. When criticisms
then inevitably arise, these should be taken as constructive feedback upon which to build.
Willingness to accept criticism is necessary because otherwise people would not learn from
their experiences. In turn, when mistakes are made by others, some degree of tolerance is
necessary so that they too can learn in order to improve for the future.

Work-life balance and integration

The degree of integration between the working environment and out-of-hours activities also varies
widely. In most countries, there is a clear separation between the two: a consultant working away from
home may work in a client’s office all day and then return to the hotel. However, in some middle-
eastern countries it would be considered extremely rude, or even a personal slur, to reject an
invitation to dinner in the evening, so ‘being busy’ and unable to accept might not be an option. In
some jobs it is necessary to accept that the boundaries between working life and personal time are
blurred.

Verbal Communication
Verbal communication is concerned with what is said and how it is said. The word chosen and the
method of communication used should maximise the clarity of the message, which means that many
of the problems associated with encoding and decoding will be eliminated.

Verbal communication is most effective when individuals choose the right words and phrases and
communicate them in a simple, unambiguous message. Some of the barriers to communication
discussed earlier in the unit are relevant here, including:

 Inappropriate use of jargon.

 Under-communicating (too few words).

 Over-communicating (too many words).

Different regions within a country and different countries using the same language can sometimes use
completely different words for the same thing.

Not everyone taking this module will be UK based or use UK English as their first language, but it
might be of interest to appreciate that English isn't spoken or written in exactly the same way between
different countries, or even within the same country such as in the UK regions. Try the following
activity to find out. Please don't worry about how well you do on this - it is just to illustrate that even
those communicating clearly and 'jargon free' with each other in the same language, may on occasion
not be able to understand each other.

Verbal Communication

The important point from this simple exercise is that neither form of English is right or wrong. It can
only be right or wrong in the context in which it is used or in terms of whether the term or word is
understood by the receiver of the message.

As English is used as a first (or equal first) language in over 60 countries, it is inevitable that
vocabulary has evolved differently. For example, in Singapore, it is very common for newspapers to
report that a thief has been apprehended by reporting that he was ‘nabbed’, which is an old-fashioned
English slang word for being arrested, or caught out. Similarly, Irish people living in Ireland routinely
refer to a press (cupboard), hot press (airing cupboard), and ‘going to get the messages’ (when going
shopping).

In an increasingly globalised system, differences are inevitable.

Non-verbal Communication

Non-verbal communications include facial expressions, the tone and pitch of one’s voice, gestures
displayed through body language and the physical distance between those communicating.

Different research studies have come up with varying conclusions on how important non-verbal
communication is when communicating.

The following pie chart shows one outcome:

Non-verbal Communication

In fact, non-verbal communication comprises a huge range of different features of human behaviour:
Non-verbal Communication

Your interpretations may differ from those given, but your personal responses are what you actually
see in these gestures, so they are valid to you.

The most important implications of studying these features of communication are that in doing so you
will be more conscious of how people express themselves non-verbally, and that you may be able to
use body language in a more deliberate way when you communicate at work

Using Interpersonal Skills to the Full

Opening communications

The first moments of any personal encounter are important as first impressions have a significant
impact on the success of what follows.

People may have different views and expectations as to how meetings should proceed and people
tend to behave according to these expectations. If mismatched, communication will not be effective or
run smoothly.

At a first meeting, formalities and appropriate greetings are usually expected: such formalities could
include a handshake, an introduction to yourself, eye contact and brief discussion around a neutral
subject such as the weather or your journey may be useful.

A friendly attitude and a warm reception are much more likely to encourage open and free
communication.

Assertiveness
Assertiveness refers to the positive expression of thoughts, feelings and beliefs in a direct and honest
manner.

Assertiveness is both a personal quality and a skill that can be developed. Some people are naturally
assertive as it forms an integral part of their personality. However, it is possible to work on
assertiveness skills by adopting a positive attitude, speaking the truth in a direct but diplomatic and
polite way and supporting the words chosen with the appropriate body language.

Assertiveness should never be confused with aggression. Aggression is a more negative emotion
which will nearly always elicit a similar response from the receiver. The main difference in outcome is
that in a negotiation situation, assertiveness will be acceptable on the part of both protagonists, while
with aggression it will be clear that a win-lose conclusion is preferable meaning that compromise or a
win-win situation is unlikely.

Reinforcement

Using positive, non-verbal expressions and maintaining eye contact, are more likely to reinforce
openness and flexibility in others.

The use of encouragement and positive reinforcement can:

 Signify interest in what other people have to say.

 Encourage others to participate in discussion.

 Allay fears and reassure.

 Pave the way for development and/or maintenance of a relationship.

Listening

The following points are essential for effective and active listening:

 Arrange a comfortable environment conducive to the purpose of the communication, for

example a warm and light room with minimal background noise.

 Be prepared to listen and show genuine interest in what other have to say.

 Keep an open mind and concentrate on the main direction of the speaker's message.

 Avoid distractions if at all possible.

 Do not judge until you have heard everything.

 Concentrate fully while the other person is giving information.

 Do not think further about one or two points at the expense of listening carefully to other
points of less immediate interest to you.

 Try not to let prejudices associated with, for example, gender, ethnicity, social class,
appearance or dress interfere with what is being said.

Questioning
Questioning can be used for several purposes:

 Showing interest in a person.

 Starting a conversation.

 Obtaining information.

 Testing or confirming understanding.

 Seeking support, agreement or obtaining alternative views.

Closed Questions

Closed questions seek only a one or two word answer (often 'yes' or 'no') and limit the scope of the
response. Two examples of closed questions are "Did you travel by car today?" and "Did you see the
football game yesterday?"

These types of question mean that the questioner maintains control of the communication, yet this is
often not the desired outcome when trying to encourage verbal communication. Nevertheless, closed
questions can be useful for focusing discussion and obtaining clear, concise answers when needed.

Open Questions

Open questions broaden responses, as they demand further elaboration. For example, "What was the
traffic like this morning?" or "What do you feel you would like to gain from this discussion?" Open
questions will take longer to answer, but they do give the other person far more scope for self-
expression and encourage involvement in the conversation.

In addition to closed questions and open questions, there are also:

 Reflective questions, which call upon you to answer something based on an experience or
situation you have witnessed.

 Leading questions, which are phrased in a manner that implies you will agree with a
particular view.

Using interpersonal skills to the full

Reflecting and clarifying

Reflecting is feeding back your understanding of what has been said.

Reflecting often involves paraphrasing the message communicated to you by the speaker in your own
words, capturing the essence of the facts and feelings expressed, and communicating your
understanding back to the speaker. It is a useful skill because:

 You can check that you have understood the message clearly.

 The speaker gets feedback as to how the message is received.

 It shows interest in, and respect for, what the other person has to say.

 You are demonstrating that you are considering the other person’s viewpoint, or looking to
empathise with that person.
Summarising

A summary is an overview of main points or issues raised. It can also serve the same purpose as
'reflecting'. However, summarising allows both parties to review and agree the communication
exchanged between them. When used effectively, summaries may also serve as a guide to the next
steps forward.

Closing communication

The way a communication is closed or ended will, at least in part, determine the way a conversation is
remembered.

A range of signals may be used to end an interaction. For example, some people may avoid eye
contact, stand up, turn their body away, or use behaviours such as looking at a watch or closing
notepads or books. All of these non-verbal actions indicate to the other person that the initiator wishes
to end the communication.

Closing an interaction too abruptly may not allow the other person to 'round off' what he or she is
saying so you should ensure there is time for winding-up. The closure of an interaction is a good time
to make any future arrangements. The interaction should be concluded by an appropriate closing
remark or gesture.

Negotiation

Negotiation is a process through which differences are settled. The term immediately brings to mind
discussions between the governments of countries who are in dispute, or collective bargaining
between trade unions and employers.

However, negotiation skills are used in many work situations, including:

 A manager trying to secure a bigger budget for the next accounting period.

 A sales person trying to reach agreement with a buyer on price, credit terms and delivery.

 An employee seeking greater responsibilities at a performance appraisal interview.

The pre-requisite for any negotiation to take place is that there must be some degree of common
ground between the two parties. If the position of each is uncompromising and there is no prospect of
agreement, then negotiation is futile and will ultimately fail. It is important to be aware of such
situations, as further negotiation will waste time and energy.

There are various stages in any negotiation process:

 Preparation.

 Discussion.

 Clarification of goals.

 Negotiation.

 Agreement.

Preparation
Anyone going into a negotiation should have an objective and should have a clear idea of the best
possible outcome and the walk away position. If the best possible outcome is wholly acceptable to
the other party, there will be no need for negotiation at all. If on the other hand the other party is not
prepared to accept the walk away position, there will be no point in negotiating, as common ground
will not be achievable.

For enduring business relationships to be fostered, any person negotiating should enter the process in
a spirit of fairness and a desire for both parties to benefit from the outcomes agreed.

Discussion

Both parties should present their case clearly so that the other person is fully aware of the position
being taken. Several interpersonal skills come into play at this stage, including:

 Speaking clearly and concisely.

 Assertiveness, but not aggression.

 Listening.

 Questioning: open questions to encourage discussion; closed questions to gain commitment.

Clarification of goals

The discussion puts both sides of the negotiation ‘on the table’, and this stage takes the process
further by identifying the extent to which agreement has been reached and any differences that exist.

A win-win outcome is usually the best result. Although this may not always be possible, through
negotiation, it should be the ultimate goal.

Suggestions of alternative strategies and compromises need to be considered at this point.

Compromises are often positive alternatives, which can often achieve greater benefit for all concerned
compared to holding to the original positions.

Agreement

This is the point at which both parties are totally clear on what they will accept. Before arriving at this
stage, it is necessary to deal with any ‘loose ends’ that may lead to disagreement or conflict
subsequent to the agreement.

How many variables did you manage to identify?

Below is a list of variables that Wasim will have to seek agreement on including the following:

 Fees per consultant-hour or consultant day, or part hour/day.

 Time to be committed to the project (maximum and minimum).
 Earliest and latest start and finish dates.
 Scope of the review – is it confined to board and management procedures, or the whole
organisation, and will it cover just money laundering, or related requirements, such as anti-
terrorist or bribery procedures?
 Access to documents and people as part of the review.
 End result expectations, such as a report, or report plus implementation of improvements.
 Disclaimers and matters not to be included in the review.
  Terms of payment.

Conflict

Conflict refers to a serious disagreement or argument, or an incompatibility between two or more

opinions, principles or interests.

Everyone encounters conflict in both personal and business life, and most people are involved in
some form of conflict from time to time.

Conflict can arise between individuals, but also between teams. But why is conflict so common?

 People have different objectives and priorities.

 All organisations have limited resources – budgets, people, and equipment – so it is natural
that there will be conflict between them.

 Everyone has a unique personality, and this may reflect in different interpretations of facts
and events, as well as different values, beliefs and norms.

 Differences may also arise from the style of management and decision taking to which people
are accustomed.

Not all conflict is bad. Under the right circumstances it can motivate people to achieve their goals,
stimulate creativity and drive new ideas. If managed positively, it can ‘clear the air’ and help to release
emotion and resolve tension.

However, conflict can also be destructive in that it may result in delayed decisions, uncertainty, bad
feelings, low morale, diversion of energy and polarisation into different ‘camps’. Ultimately, an
organisation can lose valued people if such individuals are not prepared to tolerate conflict.

There are five ways of dealing with conflict. Click on each title to reveal more information on each:

Compete or fight

This is potentially a win/lose situation, where the strength and power of one person wins the conflict.

It has its place, but it will probably create a loser and if that loser has no outlet for expressing their
concerns, then it will lead to bad feeling, sometimes as a lasting consequence.

Collaboration

This is the ideal outcome: a win/win situation.

However, it make take time for those involved to work through the difficulties, and find a way to solve
the problem so that action taken is agreeable to all.

Compromise or negotiation

This may create a better outcome than win/lose, but it is not quite win/win.

Both parties give up something, in favour of a consensus. It takes less time than collaboration, but is
likely to result in less commitment to the outcome. It is probable that none of the parties will achieve
their optimum position.
Denial or avoidance

This is where everyone pretends there is no problem.

It is helpful if those in conflict need time to ‘cool down’ before any discussion or if the conflict is
unimportant, but cannot be used if the conflict will not just die down. It will create a lose/lose situation,
since there will still be bad feeling, but no clearing the air through discussion.

Smoothing over the problem

On the surface, harmony is maintained, but underneath, there is still conflict.

This is similar to denial or avoidance, except that one person accepts this smoothing, while the other
remains in conflict, creating a win/lose situation again. It can work where preserving a relationship is
more important than dealing with the conflict right now, but is not useful if others feel the need to deal
with the situation.

Networking

Since Internet access became widely available in the last decade of the twentieth century, networking
has become more diverse and more freely available to all.

Social networks initially developed through platforms such as PlanetAll, Friendster, Friends Reunited
and Bebo. Today, the dominant providers of social networking include Facebook, Twitter, Instagram,
Snapchat, and What’s App.

Business networks started at about the same time, and the oldest remaining service of the first
generation providers is LinkedIn, established in 2002.

There has been some degree of integration of the various sites. Facebook remains a purely social
forum for the majority of its users, but many businesses now also have a presence with their own
dedicated pages. LinkedIn has focused mainly on facilitating business networks, with a strong leaning
towards career opportunities and development, but is used for some social interaction.

Networking is important to build portfolios of customers and create work opportunities. This is

illustrated by the experience of many small businesses, which engage in very little marketing activity,
but develop and grow through word of mouth and positive recommendations.

Networking can help to get work done. If a person is unsure of the way forward when addressing a
task, the solution may be readily available from a contact who has dealt with a similar problem in the
past.

Networking enables individuals to share and address problems, and sometimes resolve their
problems in different ways. A member of a network may come up with ideas that have never
previously been considered. It encourages knowledge sharing and creative thinking. People can
bounce ideas off one another.

Networking can help the individual build new skills, or increase particular skills, which can be
improved.
Networking can enhance career opportunities, as it enables information to be given about new jobs,
and allows individuals to become more aware of alternative ways in which their knowledge and skills
may be used.

Bonding and bridging

Sociologist Robert Putnam distinguishes between bonding capital and bridging capital:

 Bonding capital refers to relationships based on things people have in common with one
another.

 Bridging capital refers to relationships built across differences.

Bonding and bridging

Examples (Don and Dan)

Don is a professional trainer and encountered a specific problem with his platform work, which
involved teaching professional students. One of his courses required him to teach critical path
analysis, but he could not see how best to demonstrate this effectively on a step-by-step basis in front
of a class.

Whether he used a tablet or a flip chart, or even an old-fashioned overhead projector, anything other
than a simple network was impossible to compose visually, as the succession of horizontal circles
would require too much space. Nobody else in the college taught the subject, so he had no local
source of advice. Searching for a solution, he contacted a friend who was more experienced with the
technology available.

The friend suggested that he use the ‘zoom’ facility on a tablet to zoom in to construct each circle and
then zoom out to show the whole diagram. Don’s problem was solved.

Dan had spent a decade at a large technology company, rising to become an engineering director.
But it occurred to him that his entire professional network consisted of people from that company.
Given industry disruption, with jobs under threat, he became concerned.

He embarked on a networking campaign that forced him to meet each week with people outside the
company, including executive recruiters, venture capitalists, start-up entrepreneurs, and others. His
connections allowed him to move to an exciting new job, and immediately prove his value, thanks to
the industry insights he had gained from meeting with so many people.

Building Networks Effectively

Dorie Clark, writing for Harvard Business Review, suggested the following four ways of approaching
networking:

Inventory your existing connections

First, take an inventory of your current network. Who are the 5-10 people you spend the most time
with? Next, make a list of your “outer circle” – the 50 or so people who matter the most in your
professional life. Do a quick scan to evaluate the professional diversity of your network, noting
whether they’re inside or outside your company, and whether they share your profession.

If your network is weighted more than 70% in any direction (e.g., 85% of your closest contacts are
fellow accountants), it’s time to think consciously about how to diversify. Identify past colleagues or
friends that you enjoy who are in different fields or work at different companies, but whom you haven’t
spent much time with. Take this as your cue to reach out and propose getting together; they’ll often
welcome the invitation.

Put networking on your schedule

Part of the success in broadening a network outside the company is to make networking a deliberate
part of the weekly routine. Networking is never “urgent” and will often be the first activity to be left out
when things get busy at work, but in the longer term it is important to you and therefore well worth
putting it on your schedule.

Ask for recommendations

Almost everyone’s network is full of people like themselves and therefore if you’re looking to diversify
your professional relationships, ask the people who are outliers in your network to recommend people
they think you should meet.

Don’t look for immediate returns

Some people end up with a narrow network because of inertia, but others don’t extend themselves
because they just don’t see the potential for return. If you work in finance, it’s true that making friends
with a an engineer is less likely to add to your bottom line than spending time with someone in your
own industry. But you have to play the longer game. People in today’s world are more likely to change
careers, and that connection may prove helpful later on. Additionally, you can’t predict who will be in
someone else’s network; that engineer may have gone to university with a CFO you’d now like to
work for.

Building Networks Effectively

Example

Freddie was an auditor with a large accountancy firm, and had a promising future. He was
professionally qualified, and was destined for promotion. Freddie was involved in a serious car
accident through which his injuries affected his long-term memory, though all other mental capabilities
were unaffected.

A work colleague with whom he went skiing at weekends suggested that he might forge an entirely
different career as a ski instructor. He followed up on this advice and is now a full-time ski instructor
for tourists in an Alpine resort.

Tips for Networking

Effective business networking is the linking together of individuals who, through trust and relationship
building, endorse and support each other. Writing for Business Know-How, Stephanie Speisman
proposed the following ten tips for networking:

Keep in mind that networking is about being genuine.

Keep in mind that networking is about being genuine and authentic, building trust and relationships,
and seeing how you can help others.

Ask yourself what your goals are in participating in networking meetings.

Ask yourself what your goals are in participating in networking meetings so that you will pick groups
that will help you get what you are looking for. Some meetings are based more on learning, making
contacts, and/or volunteering rather than on strictly making business connections.
Visit as many groups as possible that interest you.

Visit as many groups as possible that interest you. Notice the tone and attitude of the group. Do the
people sound supportive of one another? Does the leadership appear competent?

Hold volunteer positions in organisations.

Hold volunteer positions in organisations. This is a great way to stay visible and give back to groups
that have helped you.

Ask open-ended questions in networking conversations.

Ask open-ended questions in networking conversations. This means questions that ask why and how
as opposed to those that can be answered with a simple yes or no. This form of questioning opens up
the discussion and shows listeners that you are interested in them.

Become known as a credible and respected resource for others.

Become known as a credible and respected resource for others. When you are known as a credible
and respected resource, people remember to turn to you for suggestions, ideas, names of other
people, etc. This keeps you visible to them.

Have a clear understanding of what you do and your unique strengths which make you different to those
around you.

Have a clear understanding of what you do and your unique strengths which make you different to
those around you. In order to get referrals, you must first have a clear understanding of what you do
well and what you differently that you can easily communicate and sell to others.

Be able to articulate what you are looking for and how others may help you.

Be able to articulate what you are looking for and how others may help you. Too often people in
conversations ask, "How may I help you?" and no immediate answer comes to mind.

Follow through quickly and efficiently on referrals you are given.

Follow through quickly and efficiently on referrals you are given. When people give you referrals, your
actions are a reflection on them.

Contact those you meet who may benefit from what you do and vice versa.

Contact those you meet who may benefit from what you do and vice versa. Confirm that you enjoyed
meeting them, and ask if you could get together and share ideas.