National Aeronautics and Space Administration

Chapter Contents
Glossary .......................................................................................................................... ii
5.0 Guidance, Navigation & Control ........................................................................ 121
5.1 Introduction .................................................................................................... 121
5.2 State-of-the-Art – GNC Subsystems .............................................................. 122
5.2.1 Integrated Units ....................................................................................... 122
5.2.2 Reaction Wheels ..................................................................................... 125
5.2.3 Magnetic Torquers ................................................................................... 127
5.2.4 Thrusters ................................................................................................. 128
5.2.5 Star Trackers ........................................................................................... 128
5.2.6 Magnetometers........................................................................................ 131
5.2.7 Sun Sensors ............................................................................................ 132
5.2.8 Horizon Sensors ...................................................................................... 136
5.2.9 Inertial Sensing ........................................................................................ 137
5.2.10 GPS Receivers ........................................................................................ 149
5.2.11 Deep Space Navigation ........................................................................... 150
5.2.12 Atomic Clocks .......................................................................................... 150
5.3 On the Horizon ............................................................................................... 151
5.4 Summary ........................................................................................................ 152
References............................................................................................................... 152

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Chapter Glossary

(ADCS) Attitude Determination and Control System

(CoCom) Coordinating Committee for Multilateral Export Controls
(COTS) Commercial-off-the-Shelf
(DOF) Degrees of Freedom
(DSAC) Deep Space Atomic Clock
(DSN) Deep Space Network
(EAR) Export Administration Regulations
(FOGs) Fiber Optic Gyros
(GNC) Guidance, Navigation & Control
(GSO) Geo-stationary Orbit
(USAF) U.S. Air Force
(HCI) Horizon Crossing Indicators
(IMUs) Inertial Measurement Units
(JPL) Jet Propulsion Laboratory
(LMRST) Low Mass Radio Science Transponder
(MarCO) Mars Cube One
(PMSM) Permanent-magnet Synchronous Motor
(SDST) Small Deep Space Transponder
(SWaP) Size, weight, and power
(TLE) Two-Line Element
(TRL) Technology Readiness Level

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5.0 Guidance, Navigation & Control

5.1 Introduction
The Guidance, Navigation & Control (GNC) subsystem includes both the components used for
position determination and the components used by the Attitude Determination and Control
System (ADCS). In Earth orbit, onboard position determination can be provided by a Global
Positioning System (GPS) receiver. Alternatively, ground-based radar tracking systems can also
be used. If onboard knowledge is required, then these radar observations can be uploaded and
paired with a suitable propagator. Commonly, the U.S. Air Force (USAF) publishes Two-Line
Element sets (TLE) (1), which are paired with a SGP4 propagator (2). In deep space, position
determination is performed using the Deep Space Network (DSN) and an onboard radio
transponder (3). There are also optical technologies being developed that use celestial bodies
such as planets and pulsars to provide position data (26).
Using SmallSats in cislunar space and beyond requires a slightly different approach than the GNC
subsystem approach in low-Earth orbit. Use of the Earth’s magnetic field, for example, is not
possible in these missions, and alternate ADCS designs and methods must be carefully
considered. Two communication relay CubeSats (Mars Cube One, MarCO) successfully
demonstrated such interplanetary capability during the 2018 Insight mission to Mars (4). This
interplanetary mission demonstrated both the capability of this class of spacecraft and the GNC
fine pointing design for communication in deep space.
ADCS includes sensors to determine attitude and attitude rate, such as star trackers, sun sensors,
horizon sensors, magnetometers, and gyros. In addition, the ADCS is often used to control the
vehicle during trajectory correction maneuvers and, using accelerometers, to terminate
maneuvers when the desired velocity change has been achieved. Actuators are designed to
change a spacecraft’s attitude and to impart velocity change during trajectory correction
maneuvers. Common spacecraft actuators include magnetic torquers, reaction wheels, and
thrusters. There are many attitude determination and control architectures and algorithms suitable
for use in small spacecraft (5).
Miniaturization of existing technologies is a continuing trend in small spacecraft GNC. While three-
axis stabilized, GPS-equipped, 100 kg class spacecraft have been flown for decades, it has only
been in the past few years that such technologies have become available for micro- and nano-
class spacecraft. Table 5-1 summarizes the current state-of-the-art of performance for GNC
subsystems in small spacecraft. Performance greatly depends on the size of the spacecraft and
values will range for nano- to micro-class spacecraft.
The information described below is not intended to be exhaustive but provides an overview of
current state-of-the-art technologies and their development status for a particular small spacecraft
subsystem. It should be noted that Technology Readiness Level (TRL) designations may vary
with changes specific to payload, mission requirements, reliability considerations, and/or the
environment in which performance was demonstrated. Readers are highly encouraged to reach
out to companies for further information regarding the performance and TRL of described
technology. There is no intention of mentioning certain companies and omitting others based on
their technologies or relationship with NASA.

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Table 5-1: State-of-the-Art GNC Subsystems

Component Performance TRL

Reaction Wheels 0.00023 – 0.3 Nm peak torque, 0.0005 – 8 N m s storage 7-9

Magnetic Torquers 0.15 A m2 – 15 A m2 7-9

Star Trackers 8 arcsec pointing knowledge 7-9

Sun Sensors 0.1° accuracy 7-9

Earth Sensors 0.25° accuracy 7-9

Gyros: 0.15° h-1 bias stability, 0.02° h-1/2 ARW

Inertial Sensors 7-9
Accels: 3 µg bias stability, 0.02 (m s-1)/h-1/2 VRW

GPS Receivers 1.5 m position accuracy 7-9

Integrated Units 5 – 0.002° pointing capability 7-9

Atomic Clocks 10 – 150 Frequency Range (MHz) 5-6

Deep Space
Bands: X, Ka, S, and UHF 7-9
Navigation

5.2 State-of-the-Art – GNC Subsystems

5.2.1 Integrated Units
Integrated units combine multiple different attitude and
navigation components to provide a simple, single-
component solution to a spacecraft’s GNC requirements.
Typical components included are reaction wheels,
magnetometers, magnetic torquers, and star trackers. The
systems often include processors and software with attitude
determination and control capabilities. Table 5-2 describes
some of the integrated systems currently available. Blue
Canyon Technologies’ XACT (figure 5.1) flew on the NASA- Figure 5.1: BCT XACT
led missions MarCO and ASTERIA, both of which were 6U Integrated ADCS Unit. Credit:
platforms, and have also flown on 3U missions (MinXSS was Blue Canyon Technologies.
deployed from NanoRacks in February 2016).

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Table 5-2. Currently Available Integrated Systems

T
Mass Pointing
Manufacturer Model Actuators Sensors Processor R
(kg) Accuracy
L
1 star tracker
3 reaction wheels 3 3 gyros
Arcsec Arcus ADC 0.715 Yes 0.1° 7-9
magnetic torquers 6 photodiodes 3
magnetometers
Berlin Space 1 star tracker
Technologies / 3 reaction wheels 3 gyros,
iADCS-200 0.400 Yes 1° 7-9
Hyperion 3 magnetic torquers 1 magnetometer,
Technologies 1 accelerometer
Berlin Space
Technologies / 3 reaction wheels 1 star tracker,
iADCS-400 1.7 Yes <1° 7-9
Hyperion 3 magnetic torquers optional IMU
Technologies
Blue Canyon 3 reaction wheels 1 star tracker
XACT-15 0.885 Yes 0.007° 7-9
Technologies 3 magnetorquers 3-axis magnetometer
Blue Canyon 3 reaction wheels 1 star tracker
XACT-50 1.230 Yes 0.007° 7-9
Technologies 3 magnetorquers 3-axis magnetometer
Blue Canyon 3 reaction wheels 1 star tracker
XACT-100 1.813 Yes 0.007° 7-9
Technologies 3 magnetorquers 3-axis magnetometer
configur
3 – 4 reaction
Blue Canyon ation 1 star tracker
Flexcore wheels Yes 0.007° 7-9
Technologies depende 3-axis magnetometer
3 magnetorquers
nt
10 coarse sun sensors
CubeADCS 3-Axis 3 reaction wheels
CubeSpace 0.55 2 fine sun/earth sensors Yes <1° 7-9
Small 3 magnetorquers
1 magnetometer

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10 coarse sun sensors

CubeADCS 3-Axis
3 reaction wheels 2 fine sun/earth sensors
CubeSpace Small with Star 0.61 Yes <0.5° 7-9
3 magnetorquers 1 magnetometer
Tracker
1 star tracker
10 coarse sun sensors
CubeADCS 3-Axis 3 reaction wheels
CubeSpace 0.79 2 fine sun/earth sensors Yes <1° 7-9
Medium 3 magnetorquers
1 magnetometer
10 coarse sun sensors
CubeADCS 3-Axis
3 reaction wheels 2 fine sun/earth sensors
CubeSpace Medium with Star 0.84 Yes <0.5° 7-9
3 magnetorquers 1 magnetometer
Tracker
1 star tracker
10 coarse sun sensors
CubeADCS 3-Axis 3 reaction wheels
CubeSpace 1.1 2 fine sun/earth sensors Yes <1° 7-9
Large 3 magnetorquers
1 magnetometer
10 coarse sun sensors
CubeADCS 3-Axis
3 reaction wheels 2 fine sun/earth sensors
CubeSpace Large with Star 1.15 Yes <0.5° 7-9
3 magnetorquers 1 magnetometer
Tracker
1 star tracker
CubeADCS Y- 3 reaction wheels 10 coarse sun sensors
CubeSpace 0.3 Yes <5° 7-9
Momentum 3 magnetic torquers 1 magnetometer

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5.2.2 Reaction Wheels

Miniaturized reaction wheels provide small spacecraft with a three-axis precision pointing
capability and must be carefully selected based on several factors including the mass of the
spacecraft and the required rotation performance rates. Reaction wheels provide torque and
momentum storage along the wheel spin axis and require the spacecraft to counter-rotate around
the spacecraft center of mass due to conservation of angular momentum from the wheel spin
direction. Table 5-3 lists a selection of high-heritage miniature reaction wheels. Except for three
units, all the reaction wheels listed have spaceflight heritage. For full three-axis control, a
spacecraft requires three wheels. However, a four-wheel configuration is often used to provide
fault tolerance (6). Due to parasitic external torques, reaction wheels need to be periodically
desaturated using an actuator that provides an external torque, such as thrusters or magnetic
torquers (7).
In addition, the multiple reaction wheels are often assembled in a “skewed” or angled
configuration such that there exists a cross-coupling of torques with two or more reaction wheels.
While this reduces the torque performance in any single axis, it allows a redundant, albeit reduced,
torque capability in more than one axis. The result is that should any single reaction wheel fail,
one or more reaction wheels are available as a reduced-capability backup option.

Table 5-3 High Heritage Miniature Reaction Wheels

Peak Peak Momentum Radiation T

Mass #
Manufacturer Model Powe Torque Capacity Tolerance R
(kg) Wheels
r (W) (Nm) (Nms) (krad) L

Berlin Space 0.5 7-

RWA05 1.700 0.5 0.020 1 30
Technologies 9
Blue Canyon RWP01 7-
0.130 1 0.004 0.015 1 Unk
Technologies 5 9
Blue Canyon RWp05 7-
0.240 1 0.007 0.050 1 Unk
Technologies 0 9
Blue Canyon RWp10 7-
0.330 1 0.007 0.100 1 Unk
Technologies 0 9
Blue Canyon RWp50 7-
0.750 6 0.025 0.500 1 Unk
Technologies 0 9
Blue Canyon 7-
RW1 0.950 9 0.100 1.000 1 Unk
Technologies 9
Blue Canyon 7-
RW4 3.200 10 0.250 4.000 1 Unk
Technologies 9
Blue Canyon 7-
RW8 4.400 10 0.250 8.000 1 Unk
Technologies 9
CubeW
0.0002 7-
CubeSpace heel 0.060 0.65 0.00177 1 24
3 9
Small
CubeW
7-
CubeSpace heel 0.090 2.3 0.0023 0.0036 1 24
9
Small+
CubeW 7-
CubeSpace 0.150 2.3 0.001 0.0108 1 24
heel 9

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Mediu
m
CubeW
7-
CubeSpace heel 0.225 4.5 0.0023 0.0306 1 24
9
Large
NanoT
U
orque
GomSpace 0.940 0.3 0.0015 0.019 1 Unk n
GSW-
k
600
Hyperion 7-
RW210 0.48 0.8 0.0001 0.006 1 36
Technologies 9
Hyperion 7-
RW400 0.375 1.9 0.012 0.050 1 36
Technologies 9
7-
NanoAvionics RWO 0.137 3.25 0.003 0.020 1 20
9
7-
NanoAvionics 4RWO 0.665 6 0.006 0.037 4 20
9
NewSpace NRWA- 7-
1.2 0.4 0.01 0.050 1 10
Systems T005 9
NewSpace NRWA- 7-
1.55 0.8 0.02 0.65 1 10
Systems T065 9
NewSpace NRWA- 7-
2.2 1.08 0.09 2 1 10
Systems T2 9
Sinclair RW- 7-
0.185 1.8 0.002 0.040 1 20
Interplanetary 0.03 9
Sinclair RW- 5-
0.050 Unk 0.001 0.005 1 10
Interplanetary 0.003 6
Sinclair RW- 7-
0.120 1.05 0.001 0.018 1 20
Interplanetary 0.01 9
Sinclair RW3- 7-
0.226 23.4 0.020 0.180 1 20
Interplanetary 0.06 9
Sinclair RW4- 7-
0.6 Unk 0.1 0.2 1 60
Interplanetary 0.2 9
Sinclair RW4- 7-
0.77 Unk 0.1 0.4 1 60
Interplanetary 0.4 9
Sinclair RW4- 7-
1.38 45 0.1 1 1 60
Interplanetary 1.0 9
U
Vectronic VRW-
1.900 110 0.090 6.000 1 20 n
Aerospace A-1
k
U
Vectronic VRW-
1.000 45 0.020 0.200 1 20 n
Aerospace B-2
k
U
Vectronic VRW-
2.3 45 0.020 1.20 1 20 n
Aerospace C-1
k
U
Vectronic VRW-
2 65 0.05 2.0 1 20 n
Aerospace D-2
k

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U
Vectronic VRW-
3 110 0.09 6 1 20 n
Aerospace D-6
k

5.2.3 Magnetic Torquers

Magnetic torquers provide control torques
perpendicular to the local external magnetic field.
Table 5-4 lists a selection of high heritage magnetic
torquers and figure 5.3 illustrates some of ZARM
Technik’s product offerings. Magnetic torquers are
often used to remove excess momentum from
reaction wheels. As control torques can only be
provided in the plane perpendicular to the local
magnetic field, magnetic torquers alone cannot
provide three-axis stabilization. Figure 5.3: Magnetorquers for micro
satellites. Credit: ZARM Technik.
Use of magnetic torquers beyond low-Earth orbit
and in interplanetary applications need to be carefully investigated since their successful
operation is dependent on a significant local external magnetic field. This magnetic field may or
may not be available in the location and environment for that mission and additional control
methods will be required during transit.

Table 5-4. High Heritage Magnetic Torquers

Peak Radiation T
Mass Power #
Manufacturer Model Dipole Tolerance R
(kg) (W) Axes
(A m2) (krad) L
CubeTorquer
CubeSpace 0.028 0.42 0.24 1 24 7-9
Small
CubeTorquer
CubeSpace 0.036 0.37 0.66 1 24 7-9
Medium
CubeTorquer
CubeSpace 0.072 0.37 1.90 1 24 7-9
Large
CubeTorquer
CubeSpace 0.046 0.31 0.13 1 24 7-9
Coil(Single)
CubeTorquer
CubeSpace 0.074 0.64 0.27 1 24 7-9
Coil(Double)
Nano Torque
GomSpace 0.156 Unk 0.31 – 0.34 3 Unk Unk
GST-600
NanoTorque Z-
GomSpace 0.106 Unk 0.139 1 Unk Unk
axis Internal
Magnetorquer
ISISPACE 0.196 1.2 0.20 3 Unk 7-9
Board
Magnetic Torque
MEISEI Actuator for 0.5 1 12 1 Unk 7-9
Spacecraft
Hyperion
MTQ800 0.395 3 15 1 Unk 7-9
Technologies
NanoAvionics MTQ3X 0.205 0.4 0.30 3 20 7-9
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NewSpace
NCTR-M003 0.030 0.25 0.29 1 Unk 7-9
Systems
NewSpace
NCTR-M012 0.053 0.8 1.19 1 Unk 7-9
Systems
NewSpace
NCTR-M016 0.053 1.2 1.6 1 Unk 7-9
Systems
Sinclair
TQ-40 0.825 Unk 48.00 1 Unk 7-9
Interplanetary
Sinclair
TQ-15 0.400 Unk 19.00 1 Unk 7-9
Interplanetary
ZARM MT0.2-1 0.005 0.25 0.2 1 Unk 7-9
ZARM MT1-1 0.060 0.23 1 1 Unk 7-9
ZARM MT2-1 0.2 0.5 2 1 Unk 7-9
ZARM MT4-1 0.15 0.6 4 1 Unk 7-9
ZARM MT5-1 0.19 0.73 5 1 Unk 7-9
ZARM MT5-2 0.3 0.77 5 1 Unk 7-9
ZARM MT6-2 0.3 0.48 6 1 Unk 7-9
ZARM MT7-2 0.4 0.9 7 1 Unk 7-9
ZARM MT10-1-01 0.35 0.53 10 1 Unk 7-9
ZARM MT10-2-H 0.37 1 10 1 Unk 7-9
ZARM MT15-1 0.45 1.1 15 1 Unk 7-9

5.2.4 Thrusters
Thrusters used for attitude control are described in Chapter 4: In-Space Propulsion. Pointing
accuracy is determined by minimum impulse bit, and control authority by thruster force.
5.2.5 Star Trackers
A star tracker can provide an accurate, standalone estimate of three-axis attitude by comparing
a digital image captured with a focal plane array detector to an onboard star catalog (8). Star
trackers typically identify and track multiple stars and provide three-axis attitude (and often
attitude rate) several times a second, usually provided as a quaternion. Table 5-5 lists some
models suitable for use on small spacecraft. For example, Arcsec’s Sagitta Star Tracker was
launched on the SIMBA cubesat in 2020.

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Table 5-5. Star Trackers Suitable for Small Spacecraft

Twist Radiation
Mass Power Cross axis
Manufacturer Model FOV accuracy Tolerance TRL
(kg) (W) accuracy (3s)
(3s) (krad)

Redwire Space Star Tracker 0.475 2 14x19 10/27" 51" 75 7-9

Arcsec Sagitta 0.26 1.2 25.4° 6 30 20 7-9

Arcsec Twinkle 0.04 0.6 10.4° 30 180 Unk 7-9
Ball Aerospace CT-2020 3.000 8 Unk 1.5'' 1'' Unk 5-6
Berlin Space
Technologies /
ST200 0.040 0.65 22° 30" 200" 11 7-9
Hyperion
Technologies
Berlin Space
Technologies /
ST400 0.250 0.67 15° 15" 150" 11 7-9
Hyperion
Technologies
Blue Canyon 10° x
Standard NST 0.350 1.5 6" 40" Unk 7-9
Technologies 12°
Blue Canyon 10° x
Extended NST 1.300 1.5 6" 40" Unk 7-9
Technologies 12°
Creare UST 0.840 Unk Unk 7" 15" Unk 5-6
42°
CubeSpace CubeStar 0.055 0.264 diamet 55.44" 77.4 19 7-9
er
Danish Technical
MicroASC 0.425 1.9 Unk Unk Unk Unk 7-9
University
20° x
Leonardo Spacestar 1.600 6 7.7" 10.6" Unk 7-9
20°
21° full-
NanoAvionics ST-1 0.108 1.2 8" 50" 20 7-9
cone

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8° half-
Sinclair Interplanetary ST-16RT2 0.185 1 5" 55" Unk 7-9
cone
Sodern Auriga-CP 0.210 1.1 Unk 2" 11" Unk 7-9
Sodern Hydra-M 2.75 8 Unk Unk Unk Unk 5-6
Sodern Hydra-TC 5.3 8 Unk Unk Unk Unk 5-6
Solar MEMS 13° x
STNS 0.14 1.4 40" 70" 20 7-9
Technologies 18°
Space Micro MIST 0.520 4 14.5° 15" 105" 30 7-9
Space Micro µSTAR-100M 1.800 5 Unk 15" 105" 100 Unk
Space Micro µSTAR-200M 2.100 10 Unk 15" 105" 100 Unk
Space Micro µSTAR-200H 2.700 10 Unk 3" 21" 100 Unk
Space Micro µSTAR-400M 3.300 18 Unk 15" 105" 100 Unk
20°
Terma T1 0.923 0.75 2.2" 9" 100 5-6
circular
20°
Terma T3 0.35 .5 2.6" 10" 8 5-6
circular
14° x
Vectronic Aerospace VST-41MN 0.900 2.5 27" 183" 20 7-9
14°
14° x
Vectronic Aerospace VST-68M 0.470 3 7.5" 45" 20 Unk
14°

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5.2.6 Magnetometers
Magnetometers provide a measurement of the
local magnetic field and this measurement can
be used to provide both estimates of attitude (9).
The vast majority of CubeSats use commercial-
off-the-shelf (COTS) magnetometers and
improve their performance with software. Table
5-6 provides a summary of some three-axis
magnetometers available for small spacecraft, Figure 5.4: NSS Magnetometer. Credit:
one of which is illustrated in figure 5.4. NewSpace Systems.

Table 5-6. Three-axis Magnetometers for Small Spacecraft

Orth Radiation T
Mass Resolution
Manufacturer Model Power (W) ogon Tolerance R
(kg) (nT)
ality (krad) L

NanoSense
GomSpace 0.008 Unk Unk Unk Unk 7-9
M315
Hyperion
MM200 0.012 0.01 Unk Unk 30 7-9
Technologies
3-Axis
Magnetomet
MEISEI 0.220 1.5 Unk 1° Unk 7-9
er for Small
Satellite
NewSpace NMRM-
0.085 0.75 8 1° 10 7-9
Systems Bn25o485
Voltage
SpaceQuest MAG-3 0.100 Unk 1° 10 7-9
Dependent
Analogue
High-Rel
Fluxgate
ZARM 0.33 0.75 Unk 1° 50 7-9
Magnetomet
er
FGM-A-75
Digital AMR
Magnetomet
ZARM er 0.06 0.3 Unk 1° Unk 7-9
AMR-
RS422
Digital AMR
Magnetomet
er
ZARM 0.1 0.2 Unk 1° 30 5-6
AMR-D-
100-
EFRS485

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5.2.7 Sun Sensors

Sun sensors are used to estimate the direction of the Sun in
the spacecraft body frame. Sun direction estimates can be
used for attitude estimation, though to obtain a three-axis
attitude estimate at least one additional independent source
of attitude information is required (e.g., the Earth nadir vector
or the direction to a star). Because the Sun is easily
identifiable and extremely bright, Sun sensors are often used
for fault detection and recovery. However, care must be taken
to ensure the Moon or Earth’s albedo is not inadvertently Figure 5.5: Redwire Coarse
misidentified as the sun. Sun Sensor Detector (Cosine
There are several types of Sun sensors which operate on Type). Credit: Redwire Space
different principles, but the most common types for small
spacecraft are cosine detectors and quadrant detectors. Quadrant detectors appear to be gaining
popularity in the CubeSat world due to their compact size and low cost.
Cosine detectors are photocells. Their output is the current generated by the cell, which is
(roughly) proportional to the cosine of the angle between the sensor boresight and the Sun. For
that reason, at least two cosine detectors (pointing in different directions) are needed to estimate
the direction to the Sun and typically four are used to obtain an unambiguous solution and for
additional sky coverage. Cosine detectors (e.g., figure 5.5) are inexpensive, low-mass, simple
and reliable devices, but their accuracy is typically limited to a few degrees and they do require
analog-to-digital converters.
Quadrant detectors. Quadrant sun sensors typically operate by shining sun light through a square
window onto a 2 x 2 array of photodiodes. The current generated by each photodiode is a function
of the direction of the sun relative to the sensor boresight. The measured currents from all four
cells are then combined mathematically to produce the angles to the sun.
Examples of small spacecraft sun sensors are described in table 5-7.

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Table 5-7. Small Spacecraft Sun Sensors

Peak Analog # Radiation

Sensor Mass Accuracy
Manufacturer Model Power or FOV Measurement Tolerance TRL
Type (kg) (3s)
(W) Digital Angles (krad)
±40° (Can be
Coarse
Coarse modified to
Analog
Redwire Space Analog Sun 0.045 0 Analog meet specific ±1° 1 >100 7-9
Sun
Sensor FOV
Sensor
requirements)
Coarse
Coarse Sun APPROXIMAT
Sun
Sensor E COSINE, Depends on
Redwire Space Sensor 0.010 0 Analog ±2° to ±5° >100 7-9
(Cosine CONICAL configuration
(Cosine
Type) SYMMETRY
Type)
Coarse
Coarse Sun 2π
Sun
Redwire Space Sensor 0.13 Analog STERADIAN ±1° to ±3° 2 >100 7-9
Sensor 0
Pyramid PLUS
Pyramid
Sensor
DIGITAL DIGITAL
0.3 kg
SUN SUN ±32° x ±32°
Redwire Space Electroni 1 Digital ±0.1° 2 100 7-9
SENSOR SENSOR (each sensor)
cs
(±32°) (±32°)
~1
128° X 128°
Sensor0 (EACH
Digital .25 SENSOR)
Digital Sun
Sun Electroni NOTE: 4π
Redwire Space Sensor 0.5 Digital ±0.25° 2 100 7-9
Sensor cs STERADIANS
(±64°)
(±64°) 0.29 - ACHIEVED
1.1 WITH 5
SENSORS

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Fine Sensor
Better
Fine Pointing Pointing .95 ±4.25° x ±4.25°
Redwire Space <3 Digital than 2 100 7-9
Sun Sensor Sun Electroni (Typical)
±0.01°
Sensor cs 1.08
Sensor
Fine
Fine 0.109
Spinning Analog ±64° FAN 1
Spinning Sun Electroni
Redwire Space Sun 0.5 and SHAPED (each ±0.1° plus Sun 100 7-9
Sensor cs
Sensor Digital sensor) Pulse
(±64°) 0.475 –
(±64°)
0.725
Micro
Micro Sun
Redwire Space Sun < 0.002 < 0.02 Analog ± 85° MINIMUM ±5° 2 Approx. 10 5-6
Sensor
Sensor
Miniature
Miniature
Spinning ±87.5° (FROM 1
Spinning Sun
Redwire Space Sun <0.25 0.5 Digital NORMAL TO ±0.1° plus Sun 100 7-9
Sensor
Sensor SPIN AXIS) Pulse
(±87.5°)
(±87.5°)
FINE
FINE SUN
SUN Typically ±50 x ±0.01° TO 100, 150, or
Redwire Space SENSOR Unk Unk Digital 2 7-9
SENSOR ±50° ±0.05° 300
(±50°)
(±50°)
Bradford
CoSS Cosine 0.024 0 Analog 160° full cone 3° 1 40000 7-9
Engineering
Bradford
CoSS-R Cosine 0.015 0 Analog 180° full cone 3° 1 120000 7-9
Engineering
Bradford CSS-01,
Cosine 0.215 0 Analog 180° full cone 1.5° 2 70000 7-9
Engineering CSS-02
Bradford
FSS Quadrant 0.375 0.25 Analog 128° x 128° 0.3° 2 100 7-9
Engineering
Bradford
Mini-FSS Quadrant 0.050 0 Analog 128° x 128° 0.2° 2 20000 7-9
Engineering
CubeSpace CubeSense Camera 0.030 0.2 Digital 170° full cone 0.2° 2 24 7-9
NanoSense {±0.5°,
GomSpace Quadrant 0.002 Unk Digital {45°, 60°} 2 Unk Unk
FSS ±2°}

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Hyperion
SS200 Unk .003 .04 Digital 110° 0.3° Unk 36 7-9
Technologies
Lens R&D BiSon64-ET Quadrant 0.023 0 Analog ±58° per axis 0.5° 2 9200 7-9
BiSon64-ET-
Lens R&D Quadrant 0.033 0 Analog ±58° per axis 0.5° 2 9200 7-9
B
Lens R&D MAUS Quadrant 0.014 0 Analog ±57° per axis 0.5° 2 9200 7-9
NewSpace
NFSS-411 Unk 0.035 0.150 Digital 140° 0.1° TBD 20 7-9
Systems
NewSpace
NCSS-SA05 Unk 0.005 0.05 Analog 114° 0.5° TBD Unk 7-9
Systems
Solar MEMS nanoSSOC-
Quadrant 0.004 0.007 Analog ±60° per axis 0.5° 2 100 7-9
Technologies A60
Solar MEMS nanoSSOC-
Quadrant 0.007 0.076 Digital ±60° per axis 0.5° 2 30 7-9
Technologies D60
Solar MEMS
SSOC-A60 Quadrant 0.025 0.01 Analog ±60° per axis 0.3° 2 100 7-9
Technologies
Solar MEMS
SSOC-D60 Quadrant 0.035 0.315 Digital ±60° per axis 0.3° 2 30 7-9
Technologies
Quadrant
Solar MEMS &
ACSS 0.035 0.072 Analog ±60° per axis 0.5° 2 200 7-9
Technologies Redunda
nt
CSS-01,
Space Micro Cosine 0.010 0 Analog 120° full cone 5° 1 100 7-9
CSS-02
Space Micro MSS-01 Quadrant 0.036 0 Analog 48° full cone 1° 2 100 7-9

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5.2.8 Horizon Sensors

Horizon sensors can be simple infrared horizon crossing
indicators (HCI), or more advanced thermopile sensors that
can be used to detect temperature differences between the
poles and equator. For terrestrial applications, these sensors
are referred to as Earth Sensors, but can be used for other
planets. Examples of such technologies are described in table
5-8 and illustrated in figure 5.6.
In addition to the commercially-available sensors listed in
table 5-8, there has been some recent academic interest in Figure 5.6: MAI-SES. Credit:
horizon sensors for CubeSats with promising results (27) (10) Redwire Space
(11).

Table 5-8. Commercially Available Horizon Sensors

#
Peak Analog Rad T
Manufact Sensor Mass Accurac Measur
Model Power or Tolerance R
urer Type (kg) y ement
(W) Digital (krad) L
Angles

CubeSpac CubeSens
Camera 0.030 0.200 Digital 0.2° 2 24 7-9
e e
CubeSpac
CubeIR Infrared 0.050 0.230 Digital 1.5° 2 24 7-9
e
Voltage
Mini Pyroelec
Servo 0.050 Depende Digital 0.75° Unk Unk 7-9
Digital HCI tric
nt
Voltage
Pyroelec
Servo Mini HCI 0.0115 Depende Unk Unk Unk Unk Unk
tric
nt
RH 310 Pyroelec
Servo 1.5 1 Unk 0.015° Unk 20 Unk
HCI tric
Solar
MEMS
HSNS Infrared 0.120 0.150 Digital 1° 2 30 7-9
Technolog
ies

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5.2.9 Inertial Sensing

Inertial sensing is a broad category which includes gyroscopes for measuring angular change and
accelerometers for measuring velocity change.
Inertial sensors are packaged in different ways, ranging from single-axis devices (e.g., a single
gyroscope or accelerometer), to packages which include multiple axes of a single device type
(e.g., Inertial Reference Units are typically three gyroscopes mounted in a triad orientation to
provide three-axes angular change), to Inertial Measurement Units (IMUs), which are packages
which include multiple axes of both gyroscopes and accelerometers (to enable 6-DOF inertial
propagation). Some vendors also offer packages that incorporate magnetometers and
barometers.
Inertial sensors are frequently used to propagate the vehicle state between measurement updates
of a non-inertial sensor. For example, star trackers typically provide attitude updates at 5 Hz or
possibly 10 Hz. If the control system requires accurate knowledge between star tracker updates,
then an IMU may be used for attitude propagation between star tracker updates.
The main gyroscope types used in modern small spacecraft are fiber optic gyros (FOGs) and
MEMS gyros, with FOGs usually offering superior performance at a mass and cost penalty (12).
Other gyroscope types exist (e.g., resonator gyros, ring laser gyros), but these are not common
in the SmallSat/CubeSat world due to size, weight, and power (SWaP) and cost considerations.
Gyro behavior is a complex topic (13) and gyro performance is typically characterized by a
multitude of parameters. Table 5-9 only includes bias stability and angle random walk for gyros,
and bias stability and velocity random walk for accelerometers, as these are often the driving
performance parameters. That said, when selecting inertial sensors, it is important to consider
other factors such as dynamic range, output resolution, bias, sample rate, etc.

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Table 5-9. Gyros Available for Small Spacecraft

Gyros Accelerometers
Po Bias
Manuf Mas Bias Stability ARW VRW
Sensor we Stability
acture Model Technology s # #
Type r
r (kg) A sta A st (m/sec)
(W (°/hr) (°/rt(hr)) (µg)
) xe t xe at /rt(hr)
s s
Advan IMU +
T
ced magnet 0.02 0.3 TB
Orientus MEMS 3 3.000 0.240 3 20 B 0.059
Navig ometer 5 25 D
D
ation s
Advan
T
Tech TB TB
AU7684 IMU MEMS TBD 3 10.000 0.500 3 2000 B TBD
Intern D D
D
ational
0.01 0.0 a
Epson M-G370 IMU MEMS 3 0.800 av 0.060 3 12 0.025
0 16 v
0.01 0.0 a
Epson M-G365 IMU MEMS 3 1.200 av 0.080 3 16 0.033
0 16 v
0.01 TB a
Epson M-G364 IMU MEMS 3 2.200 av 0.090 3 50 0.025
0 D v
0.01 TB a
Epson M-G354 IMU MEMS 3 3.000 av 0.100 3 70 0.030
0 D v
Emcor 1
e SDI50x-AF00 IMU MEMS 0.60 5.0 3 1 1σ 0.02 3 100 σ 0.059
Emcor 1
e SDI50x-BF00 IMU MEMS 0.60 5.0 3 3 1σ 0.02 3 200 σ 0.059
Emcor 1
e SDI50x-CF00 IMU MEMS 0.60 5.0 3 10 1σ 0.02 3 200 σ 0.071
Ty
Emcor 0.02 pic N/ N
e SDG500 Gyro MEMS 5 0.6 1 20 al N/A A N/A /A N/A

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Ty
Emcor pic N/ N
e SDG1400 Gyro MEMS 0.60 0.6 1 6 al N/A A N/A /A N/A
Emcor 0.22 2.2 N/ N
e SDD3000-A01 Gyro MEMS 7 5 1 0.5 1σ N/A A N/A /A N/A
Ty
Emcor ≤0.0 pic N/ N
e QRS11 Gyro MEMS 6 0.8 1 6 al N/A A N/A /A N/A
Emcor ≤0.0 N/ N/ N
e QRS14-102 Gyro MEMS 5 0.3 1 N/A A N/A A N/A /A N/A
Emcor ≤0.0 N/ N/ N
e QRS14-103 Gyro MEMS 5 0.7 1 N/A A N/A A N/A /A N/A
Emcor ≤0.0 N/ N/ N
e QRS28 Gyro MEMS 25 0.5 2 N/A A N/A A N/A /A N/A
Emcor ≤0.0 N/ N
e QRS116 Gyro MEMS 6 0.2 1 20 1σ N/A A N/A /A N/A
Emcor 18. 1
e EN-300-1 IMU FOG 0.82 0 3 0.1 1σ 0.008 3 150 σ 0.026
Emcor 18. 1
e EN-300-3 IMU FOG 0.82 0 3 0.2 1σ 0.015 3 300 σ 0.026
Emcor 18. 1
e EN-300-5 IMU FOG 0.82 0 3 0.4 1σ 0.03 3 500 σ 0.026
Emcor N/ N
e EG-120 Gyro FOG 0.08 5.0 1 1 1σ ≤0.04 A N/A /A N/A
Gladia
tor T
0.01 TB Un
Techn A40 Accel MEMS 0 N/A N/A 1 45 B 0.038
5 D k
ologie D
s
Gladia
tor
0.02 TB TB N
Techn G150Z Gyro MEMS 1 1.200 0.060 0 N/A N/A
8 D D /A
ologie
s
Gladia 0.01 0.2 TB N
G300D IRU MEMS 3 5.000 0.168 0 N/A N/A
tor 9 5 D /A

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Techn
ologie
s
Gladia
tor T
0.11 0.6 TB
Techn LandMark 60LX IMU MEMS 3 4.000 0.096 3 10 B 0.0016
5 00 D
ologie D
s
Gladia
tor T
0.01 0.4 TB
Techn LandMark 005 IMU MEMS 3 3.5 0.102 3 20 B 0.0024
9 00 D
ologie D
s
Gladia
tor T
0.02 0.2 TB
Techn LandMark 007 IMU MEMS 3 4.000 0.12 3 5000 B 0.3
5 70 D
ologie D
s
Gladia
tor T
0.02 0.4 TB
Techn LandMark 007X IMU MEMS 3 4.000 0.12 3 5000 B 0.3
5 50 D
ologie D
s
Gladia
tor T
0.11 0.6 TB 0.0016
Techn LandMark 60LX IMU MEMS 3 4.000 0.096 3 10 B
5 00 D 8
ologie D
s
Gladia
tor T
0.11 0.6 TB
Techn LandMark 65 IMU MEMS 3 7.000 0.120 3 10 B 0.0021
5 00 D
ologie D
s
Gladia T
0.12 1.0 TB
tor MRM60 IMU MEMS 3 3.000 0.096 3 25 B 0.0024
0 00 D
Techn D

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ologie
s
U
Honey Un U Un U
MIMU IMU RLG Unk Unk Unk Unk n Unk
well k nk k nk
k
Honey 3.0 1
HG1930 IMU MEMS 0.16 3 20.000 1σ 0.175 3 10 0.400
well 00 σ
Honey 5.0 1
HG1700 IMU RLG 0.9 3 1.000 1σ 0.125 3 1000 0.65
well 00 σ
IMU +
magnet
m
Inertial ometer 0.01 0.3 ma
µIMU MEMS 3 10.000 0.150 3 40 a 0.070
Sense s 1 40 x
x
+baro
meter
r
Inertial IMU-NAV-100 0.15 0.8 rm
IMU MEMS 3 0.500 0.100 3 3 m 0.008
Labs "Tactical" A 5 00 s
s
r
Inertial IMU-P "Tactical" 0.07 0.8 rm
IMU MEMS 3 1.000 0.200 3 5 m 0.015
Labs Standard A 0 00 s
s
0.70 8.0 1
KVH 1725 IMU IMU FOG 3 0.10 1σ 0.017 3 15 0.071
0 00 σ
0.70 8.0 1
KVH 1750 IMU IMU FOG 3 0.100 1σ 0.012 3 45 0.014
0 00 σ
IMU +
magnet 0.70 8.0 1
KVH 1775 IMU FOG 3 0.100 1σ 0.012 3 45 0.071
ometer 0 00 σ
s
15.
2.27 1
KVH CG-5100 IMU FOG 00 3 1 1σ 0.067 3 250 0.12
0 σ
0
U
0.60 8.0
KVH DSP-1760 IRU FOG 3 0.100 1σ 0.0120 0 N/A n N/A
0 00
k

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U
0.27 3.0
KVH DSP-3000 Gyro FOG 1 1.000 1σ 0.067 0 N/A n N/A
0 00
k
U
0.20 3.0
KVH DSP-3100 Gyro FOG 1 1.000 1σ 0.067 0 N/A n N/A
0 00
k
U
0.30 3.0
KVH DSP-3400 Gyro FOG 1 1.000 1σ 0.067 0 N/A n N/A
0 00
k
U
2.36 9.0
KVH DSP-4000 Gyros FOG 2 1.000 1σ 0.067 0 N/A n N/A
0 00
k
40. U
15.4
L3 CIRUS Gyros FOG 00 3 0.000 1σ 0.100 0 N/A n N/A
00
0 k
LORD T
0.01 0.5 TB
Sensin 3DM-CV5-10 IMU MEMS 3 8.000 0.450 3 80 B 0.059
1 00 D
g D
LORD T
0.00 0.3 TB
Sensin 3DM-CX5-10 IMU MEMS 3 8.000 0.300 3 40 B 0.015
8 00 D
g D
LORD T
0.01 0.3 TB
Sensin 3DM-GX5-10 IMU MEMS 3 8.000 0.300 3 40 B 0.015
65 00 D
g D
IMU +
MEMS 0.02 0.6 ty
MS-IMU3020 magnet MEMS 3 1.060 typ 0.220 3 14.8 0.078
ENSE 0 50 p
ometer
IMU +
MEMS 0.01 0.8 ty
MS-IMU3025 magnet MEMS 3 0.80 typ 0.150 3 6.7 0.008
ENSE 9 50 p
ometer
IMU +
MEMS 0.02 1.3 ty
MS-IMU3030 magnet MEMS 3 0.550 typ 0.11 3 2.9 0.005
ENSE 5 50 p
ometer

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IMU +
MEMS 0.07 2.5 ty
MS-IMU3050 magnet MEMS 3 0.300 typ 0.065 3 2.6 0.006
ENSE 9 00 p
ometer
NewS
Image-based U
pace 0.05 0.2
NSGY-001 IRU rotation 3 N/A N/A 0 N/A n N/A
Syste 5 00
estimate k
ms
Northr
op 0.74 1
LN-200S IMU FOG, SiAc 12 3 1.000 1σ 0.070 3 300 Unk
Grum 8 σ
man
Northr
U
op 0.15 2.3
µFORS-3U Gyro FOG 1 0.050 1σ 0.080 0 N/A n N/A
Grum 0 00
k
man
Northr
U
op 0.15 2.3
µFORS-6U Gyro FOG 1 0.050 1σ 0.047 0 N/A n N/A
Grum 0 00
k
man
Northr
U
op 0.11 2.2
µFORS-36m Gyro FOG 1 18.000 1σ 1.000 0 N/A n N/A
Grum 0 5
k
man
Northr
U
op 0.13
µFORS-1 Gyro FOG 2.5 1 1.000 1σ 0.100 0 N/A n N/A
Grum 7
k
man
Northr
r
op 0.68 8.0
µIMU-I-SP IMU MEMS 3 6.000 1σ 0.300 3 3000 m 0.147
Grum 0 00
s
man
Northr
r
op 0.68 8.0
µIMU-I-HP IMU MEMS 3 3.000 1σ 0.150 3 1500 m 0.041
Grum 0 00
s
man

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Northr
r
op 0.68 8.0
µIMU-IC-SP IMU MEMS 3 6.000 1σ 0.300 3 3000 m 0.147
Grum 0 00
s
man
Northr
r
op 0.68 8.0
µIMU-IC-HP IMU MEMS 3 9.000 1σ 0.150 3 1500 m 0.041
Grum 0 00
s
man
Northr
r
op 0.68 8.0
µIMU-M-SP IMU MEMS 3 9.000 1σ 0.450 3 3000 m 0.147
Grum 0 00
s
man
Northr
r
op 0.68 8.0
µIMU-M-HP IMU MEMS 3 4.500 1σ 0.230 3 1500 m 0.041
Grum 0 00
s
man
T
NovAt 2.50 8.0 TB
IMU-HG1900 IMU MEMS 3 1.000 0.090 3 700 B Unk
el 0 00 D
D
11. T
NovAt 2.57 TB
IMU-µIMU-IC IMU MEMS 00 3 6.000 0.300 3 3000 B 0.250
el 0 D
0 D
T
NovAt OEM-IMU-ADIS- 0.04 0.2 TB
IMU MEMS 3 6.25 0.300 3 100 B 0.029
el 16488 8 54 D
D
T
NovAt OEM-IMU- 0.01 0.1 TB
IMU MEMS 3 0.800 0.060 3 12 B 0.025
el EG370N 0 00 D
D
T
NovAt 0.46 3.0 TB
OEM-HG1900 IMU MEMS 3 1.000 0.090 3 700 B Unk
el 0 00 D
D
T
NovAt 0.20 3.0 TB
OEM-HG1930 IMU MEMS 3 2.000 0.125 3 3000 B Unk
el 0 00 D
D

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T
NovAt OEM-IMU- 0.20 3.0 TB
IMU MEMS 3 Unk Unk 3 Unk B Unk
el HG4930P 0 00 D
D
T
NovAt OEM-IMU- 0.05 1.5 TB
IMU MEMS 3 0.500 0.150 3 50 B 0.060
el STIM300 5 0 D
D
T
Senso 0.05 1.5 TB
STIM202 IRU MEMS 3 0.400 0.170 0 N/A B N/A
nor 5 00 D
D
T
Senso 0.05 1.5 TB
STIM210 IRU MEMS 3 0.300 0.150 0 N/A B N/A
nor 2 00 D
D
T
Senso 0.05 2.0 TB
STIM300 IMU MEMS 3 0.300 0.150 3 50 B 0.070
nor 5 00 D
D
T
Senso 0.05 2.5 TB
STIM318 IMU MEMS 3 0.300 0.150 3 3 B 0.015
nor 7 00 D
D
T
Senso 0.05 2.5 TB
STIM320 IMU MEMS 3 0.300 0.100 3 3 B 0.015
nor 7 00 D
D
T
Senso 0.05 1.5 TB
STIM277H IRU MEMS 3 0.300 0.150 0 N/A B N/A
nor 2 00 D
D
T
Senso 0.05 2.0 TB
STIM377H IMU MEMS 3 0.300 0.150 3 50 B 0.070
nor 5 00 D
D
CRH03- CRH03-
010 – 010 –
Silicon 0.03 0.005
Sensin CRH03- CRH03-
0.2
g CRH03 Gyro MEMS 0.42 1 025 – 025 – 0 N/A - N/A
W
Syste 0.04 0.006
ms CRH03- CRH03-
100 – 100 –
0.04 0.006

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CRH03- CRH03-
200 – 200 –
0.05 0.008
CRH03- CRH03-
400 – 400 –
0.1 0.010
CRH03- CRH03-
010 – 010 –
0.03 0.005
CRH03- CRH03-
025 – 025 –
Silicon 0.04 0.006
Sensin CRH03- CRH03-
CRH03 0.2
g Gyro MEMS 0.18 1 100 – 100 – 0 N/A - N/A
(OEM) W
Syste 0.04 0.006
ms CRH03- CRH03-
200 – 200 –
0.05 0.008
CRH03- CRH03-
400 – 400 –
0.1 0.010
Silicon
Sensin <0.
g RPU30 Gyro MEMS 1.35 8 3 0.06 0.006 0 N/A - N/A
Syste W
ms
Silicon
Sensin <1.
9 DoF
g DMU41 MEMS <2 5 3 0.1 0.015 3 15 - 0.05
IMU
Syste W
ms
Silicon
Sensin
6 DoF 0.4
g DMU11 MEMS 0.04 3 10 0.4 3 50 - 0.05
IMU 25
Syste
ms

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National Aeronautics and Space Administration

Silicon
Sensin 0.0
0.00
g CRM Gyro MEMS 16 1 12 0.2 0 N/A N/A
1
Syste 5
ms
CAS2X
CAS2X 1S -
1S - TBC
7.5 CAS2X
CAS2X 2S -
Silicon 2S - TBC
Sensin 7.5 CAS2X
0.00 Un
g CAS Acc MEMS 0 N/A N/A 2 CAS2X 3S -
4 k
Syste 3S - TBC
ms 7.5 CAS2X
CAS2X 4S -
4S - 25 TBC
CAS2X CAS2X
5S - 75 5S -
TBC
Systro
n 0.59 5.0 1
SDI50x-AE00 IMU MEMS 3 1.000 1σ 0.020 3 100 0.059
Donne 0 00 σ
r
InterSense T
0.00 0.1 TB
Thales NavChip Series 3 IMU MEMS 3 4.000 0.180 3 6 B 0.020
3 35 D
Class A D
InterSense T
0.00 0.1 TB
Thales NavChip Series 3 IMU MEMS 3 5.000 0.180 3 40 B 0.030
3 35 D
Class B D
T
InterSense 0.00 0.1 TB
Thales IMU MEMS 3 5.000 0.180 3 40 B 0.030
NavChip 3 35 D
D
U
InterSense 0.01 TB TB
Thales IRU MEMS 3 TBD TBD 0 N/A n N/A
InertiaCube4 1 D D
k

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IMU +
magnet
m
Vector ometer 0.01 0.2 ma
VN-100 MEMS 3 10.000 0.210 3 40 a 0.082
Nav s 5 20 x
x
+baro
meter
IMU +
m
Vector magnet 0.12 2.5 ma
VN-110 MEMS 3 1.000 0.054 3 10 a 0.024
Nav ometer 5 00 x
x
s
Xsens
T
Techn 0.00 TB
MTi-610 IMU MEMS 1.0 3 8.000 0.420 3 10 B 0.035
ologie 9 D
D
s

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5.2.10 GPS Receivers

For low-Earth orbit spacecraft, GPS receivers are now the primary method for performing orbit
determination, replacing ground-based tracking methods. Onboard GPS receivers are now
considered a mature technology for small spacecraft, and some examples are described in table
5-10. There are also next-generation chip-size COTS GPS solutions, for example the NovaTel
OEM 719 board has replaced the ubiquitous OEMV1.
GPS accuracy is limited by propagation variance through the exosphere and the underlying
precision of the civilian use C/A code (14). GPS units are controlled under the Export
Administration Regulations (EAR) and must be licensed to remove Coordinating Committee for
Multilateral Export Control (COCOM) limits (15).
However, past experiments have demonstrated the ability of using a weak GPS signal at GSO,
and potentially soon to cislunar distances (16) (17). Development and testing in this fast-growing
area of research and development may soon make onboard GPS receivers more commonly
available.

Table 5-10. GPS Receivers for Small Spacecraft

Radiation T
Mass Power
Manufacturer Model Accuracy (m) Tolerance R
(kg) (W)
(krad) L
Frontier Radio
APL 0.4 1.3 15 20 5-6
Lite
Eurotech COM-1289 0.85 3.625 1.2 Unk Unk
General
Explorer 1.2 8 15 100 7-9
Dynamics
General
Viceroy-4 1.1 8 15 100 7-9
Dynamics
NavCube Mini
3.0 (Above GPS <80 @ 29Re**
NASA GSFC 2.1* 11* 100 5-6
Constellation <30 @ Moon***
Receiver)
Novatel OEM719 0.031 1.8 1.5 Unk 7-9
Novatel OEM729 0.048 1.8 1.5 Unk 7-9
SkyFox Labs piNAV-NG 0.024 0.124 10 30 7-9
SkyFox Labs piPATCH-L1E1 0.05 0.02 Unk Unk 7-9
SkyFox Labs piPATCH-L1G1 0.05 0.02 Unk Unk 7-9
SkyFox Labs miniPATCH-L1 0.05 0.02 Unk Unk 7-9
Surrey
Satellite SGR-Ligo 0.09 0.5 5 5 5-6
Technology
GomSpace GPS-kit 0.031 1.3 1.5 Unk Unk
* Estimate does not include filter, LNA and antenna which will depend on the orbit
** About ½ way to the Moon with Ultra Stable Oscillator (not included in mass and power estimates)
*** With Rubidium Atomic Frequency Standard Clock (not included in mass and power estimates)

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5.2.11 Deep Space Navigation

In deep space, navigation is performed using radio transponders in
conjunction with the Deep Space Network (DSN). As of 2020, the
only deep space transponder with flight heritage suitable for small
spacecraft was the JPL-designed and General Dynamics-
manufactured Small Deep Space Transponder (SDST). JPL has also
designed IRIS V2, which is a deep space transponder that is more
suitable for the CubeSat form factor. Table 5-11 details these two
radios, and the SDST is illustrated in figure 5.7. IRIS V2, derived from Figure 5.7: General
the Low Mass Radio Science Transponder (LMRST), flew on the Dynamics SDST. Credit:
MarCO CubeSats and is scheduled to fly on INSPIRE (18) and was General Dynamics.
selected for seven Artemis I secondary payloads (28).

Table 5-11. Deep Space Transponders for Small Spacecraft

Radiation
Manufacturer Model Mass (kg) Power (W) Bands Tolerance TRL
(krad)
General
SDST 3.2 19.5 X, Ka 50 7-9
Dynamics
Space
Dynamics IRIS V2.1 1.2 35 X, Ka, S, UHF 15 7-9
Laboratory

5.2.12 Atomic Clocks

Atomic clocks have been used on larger spacecraft in low-Earth orbit for several years now,
however integrating them on small spacecraft is relatively new. The conventional method for
spacecraft navigation is a two-way tracking system of ground-based antennas and atomic clocks.
The time difference from a ground station sending a signal and the spacecraft receiving the
response can be used to determine the spacecraft’s location, velocity, and (using multiple signals)
the flight path. This is not a very efficient process, as the spacecraft must wait for navigation
commands from the ground station instead of making real-time decisions, and the ground station
can only track one spacecraft at a time, as it must wait for the spacecraft to return a signal (19).
In deep space navigation, the distances are much greater from the ground station to spacecraft,
and the accuracy of the radio signals needs to be measured within a few nanoseconds.
JPL’s Deep Space Atomic Clock (DSAC) project plans to launch a prototype of a miniaturized,
low-mass (16 kg) atomic clock based on mercury-ion trap technology which underwent
demonstration testing in the fall of 2017. The project aims to produce a <10 kg configuration in
the second generation. The DSAC was launched in 2019 as a hosted payload on General Atomics
Orbital Test Bed spacecraft aboard the U.S. Air Force Space Technology Program (STP-2)
mission (20), and has been extended for in-orbit demonstration through August 2021 and was still
in orbit as of June 2021 (29).
More small spacecraft designers are developing their own version of atomic clocks and oscillators
that are stable and properly synchronized for use in space. They are designed to fit small
spacecraft, for missions that are power- and volume-limited or require multiple radios.

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Table 5-12. Atomic Clocks and Oscillators for Small Spacecraft

Rad T
Dimension Mass Power Frequency
Manufacturer Model Tolera R
s (mm) (kg) (W) Range
nce L
Ultra Stable 131 x 167 x 57.5185
AccuBeat 2 5.64 W 50 7-9
Oscillator 107 MHz
Miniature
Half-DIP
Bliley Up to 12 x 10 MHz to
Package 0.01 0.180 Unk 7-9
Technologies 12 x 10 60 MHz
Low Power
OCXO
Iris Series
Bliley 10 MHz to
1"x1" OCXO 19 x 11 x 19 0.016 1.5 39 7-9
Technologies 100 MHz
for LEO
Aether
Bliley Series 10MHz to
21 x 14 x 8 Unk 0.056 37 Unk
Technologies TCVCXO 150 MHz
for LEO
Miniature
Atomic
Microsemi 51 x 51 x 18 0.1 8 10 MHz Unk Unk
Clock (MAC
SA5x)
Space Chip
Scale
Microsemi Atomic 41 x 36 x 12 0.035 0.12 10 MHz 20 5-6
Clock
(CSAC)

5.3 On the Horizon

Technological progress in the area of guidance, navigation, and
control is slow. Given the high maturity of existing GNC components,
future developments in GNC are mostly focused on incremental or
evolutionary improvements, such as decreases in mass and power,
and increases in longevity and/or accuracy. This is especially true for
GNC components designed for deep space missions, where small
spacecraft missions have only very recently been demonstrated.
However, in a collaborative effort between the Swiss Federal Institute
of Technology and Celeroton, there is progress being made on a
high-speed magnetically levitated reaction wheel for small satellites
(figure 5.8). The idea is to eliminate mechanical wear and stiction by Figure 5.8: High-speed
using magnetic bearings rather than ball bearings. The reaction wheel magnetically levitated
implements a dual hetero/homopolar, slotless, self-bearing, reaction wheel. Credit:
permanent-magnet synchronous motor (PMSM). The fully active, Celeroton AG.
Lorentz-type magnetic bearing consists of a heteropolar self-bearing
motor that applies motor torque and radial forces on one side of the rotor’s axis, and a homopolar
machine that exerts axial and radial forces to allow active control of all six degrees of freedom. It
is capable of storing 0.01 Nm of momentum at a maximum of 30,000 rpm, applying a maximum
torque of 0.01 Nm (21).

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Another interesting approach to measuring angular velocity is the Stellar Gyro from NewSpace
Systems. This sensor estimates angular rates from star images taken by a camera; one
advantage of this approach is that it avoids the problem of gyro drift. Of course, such a sensor
does require a clear view of the sky.

5.4 Summary
Small spacecraft GNC is a mature area, with many previously flown, high TRL components
offered by several different vendors. Progress in developing integrated units will offer simple,
single vendor, modular devices for ADCS, which will simplify GNC subsystem design. Other areas
of GNC have potential for additional improvements as more research is being conducted. For
example, a team at the University of Michigan is developing a multi-algorithmic hybrid ADCS
system for CubeSats that can implement multiple estimation and control algorithms (22). Another
team from Johns Hopkins University is conducting ground simulations of docking, charging,
relative navigation, and deorbiting for a fully robotic CubeSat (23).
The rising popularity of SmallSats in general, and CubeSats in particular, means there is a high
demand for components, and engineers are often faced with prohibitive prices. The Space
Systems Design Studio at Cornell University is tackling this issue for GNC with their PAN
nanosatellites. A paper by Choueiri et al. outlines an inexpensive and easy-to-assemble solution
for keeping the ADCS system below $2,500 (25). Lowering the cost of components holds exciting
implications for the future and will likely lead to a burgeoning of the SmallSat industry.
For feedback solicitation, please email: [email protected]. Please include a business
email so someone may contact you further.

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