UNIT 2- INDIA-USA; AND INDIA-CHINA RELATIONS

INTRODUCTION
India and USA are seen as world’s oldest and largest democracies of the world. Despite having strong
ties where USA was seen as pushing the cause for India’s independence their relationship did not
fructify in the initial years. This was mainly due to the international climate that was plagued by USA-
USSR ideological cold war and Indiaís stance on avoiding any group politics that could be detrimental for
Indiaís newly acquired freedom. India- USA relationship will be seen through three phases- during cold
war, after the end of cold war and third phase will be after the Rise of Chinaís claim to being a super
power.

INDIA-USA RELATIONSHIP

A. INDIA-USA RELATIONSHIP IN THE ERA OF COLD WAR

Diffusion of atomic bomb over Hiroshima and Nagasakhi led to the start of an era of mistrust
and start of cold war. This phase marked an era of polarization. India being a newly independent
country chose strategic autonomy by adopting the principle of Non- alignment. As a result, it
was not part of any of US promoted military blocs and security alliances like South East Asia
Treaty Organisation (SEATO) AND Central Treaty Organisation (CENTO). While Pakistan became
a member an active member of these organization thereby making India’s position with USA
weak. This led to building of divide between the countries at all international forums and issues.
The cold war led differences between the two countries was clearly visible during Hungarain
crises, Czechoslovakia cries, peopleís Repulic of Chinaís membership in United Nations, Kashmir
problem, American arms transfer to Pakistan and nuclear issue.

 KASHMIR ISSUE
India did not get a very positive support from USA in the Kashmir issue. This problem
had begun immediately after Indiaís independence when Pakistan aided tribal invasion
took place. US did not recognize Pakistan aggression and imposed arms sanction on
India. This negative attitude continued till 1971. It was only after the signing of Shimla
Agreement that US recognized Indiaís stand to settle this conflict through bilateral
dialogue. Situation improved with the waning of cold war where India opened its
economy and emerged as strong economic power. This also coincided with the
disintegration of USSR that effectively established free market economy as the
universalizing principle of the world. Looking forward to becoming a hegemony, USA
started tilting towards India and developed strong relationship with India that later
replaced into strategic autonomy. This could be reflected when during Kargil war of
1999, USA effectively mediated Indo-Pak conflict.

 PAKISTAN- A HYPENATED RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN INDIA AND USA

The partition of Indian subcontinent was very tragic as a result both India and Pakistan
emerged as strong rivals. With the onset of cold war Since India refused to be an ally of
USA, thinking of geo-strategic significance, USA chose Pakistan as its ally during the Cold
war. Under SEATO AND CENTO program, Pakistan received arms transfer and other
military and diplomatic aid from USA that was detrimental to Indiaís security. This act
further divided a rift between India and USA. In fact Pakistanís closeness to USA was a
major irritant in India and USA relationship. This was even seen when India had
vehemently opposed arms race that had started during Cold war and had got translated
 into nuclear arms race also. Indiaís strategic position on disarmament made her reject
nuclear nonproliferation treaty (NPT). Indiaís bid towards disarmament made her
oppose the NPT that created a divided world between nuclear powers and non- nuclear
powers. India opposed this discriminatory treaty and as per geo-political climate it also
denoted Peaceful Nuclear Explosion (PNE) in 1974. This led to imposition of sanction by
USA as by that time India was seen as an opponent. Since it had opposed USA war in
Vietnam and Indo-china peninsular and had defeated Pakistan in 1971 war that had
irked USA diplomats. Despite the political differences and military non-cooperation
between India and USA, the two countries were partners in other international forums.
India did receive food assistance under PL480 program of USA during Indo-China
conflict. It was also the recipient of loans from USA backed world bank in 1970ís when
India faced economic crises. However their relationship did not flourish due to geo-
political reasons. This scenario changed with the end of cold war.

B. INDIA-USA BILATERAL RELATIONS AFTER THE END OF COLD WAR

Indiaís relationship after the end of cold war improved. This happened with the disintegration of
USSR that finally led to end of ideology debate and made capitalism with free market as the
dominant ideology of that time. After the period of Cold war India- US relations saw a new
phase. This was largely due to Indiaís economic climate that made her end her romance with
state aided mixed economy that was adopted immediately after Indiaís Independence. In order
to tide over her bulging economic crises India had to adopt USA economic model by asking for
loans from IMF and strategizing its economy in line with USA model of free trade and market
based economy. Along with this economic compulsion, end of cold war led to end of Pakistanís
relevance to USA which made her look for new partners who could become flag bearers to US
economic model.
Post cold wars first President of US; Bill Clinton did not see India with a positive lens that is why
his new Assistant secretary Robin Raphel had categorically questioned the legal validity of
Kashmirís accession to India and had put sanctions on India through super 301 clause of
Omnibus trade Act. At the same time many American think tanks like Asiatic society and
Carnegie Endowment for International peace studies had called for crafting new era of Indo-US
relations. This was largely the result of President Clinton policy of democratisiation and free
market economy. As a result, Indiaís forced political-economic climate of opening its market
made US rethink its engagement with India. The economic openness attracted the American
diplomats. This could be gauged from the fact that US commerce department list of ten
emerging markets in the world that could bolster Americaís trade and investment saw India as
one of them. This was complimented by Prime Minister Narshimha Raoís initiative to reshape
Indiaís bilateral relation with US by making a visit to Washington in May 1994. The purpose of
the visit was to facilitate enhanced ties in the field of trade and investment between India and
US. This visit yielded positive developments when commerce secretary Ronald Brown signed a
memorandum of understanding with commerce minister Pranab Mukherjee to create a
commercial alliance between the two countries. This was a forum for consultation that would in
coming years facilitate closer and enhanced business ties between the two countries. This pact
led to 10 business deals and trade pact with India. This period marked the beginning of
Americaís investment to India.
Followed by economic co-operation, next leap that took place was defence co-operation
between the two countries. As a result then US defence Secretary William Perry visited India in
1995 and signed a pact for building intense defence co-operation with India. This came in the
 wake of arms sanctions imposed on Pakistan in 1990. Thus we see that geo-economics priorities
that came in the wake of end of cold war make India an ally of US pushing Pakistan back
whereby Pakistan lost all its strategic relevance to US since the withdrawal of soviet troops from
Afghanistan.
Post cold war era did mitigate some differences between India and US and ushered in new era
of economic and defence co-operation but certain irritants like nuclear issue still clouded their
robust relationship. This reached a peak when India denoted a nuclear bomb in 1998 named
Pokhran II. At the same time Indiaís conduct in Kashmir was been seen as human rights
violations by some US legislators who used raise this demand in international forums. Finally
with the denoting of the bomb US imposed sanctions on India under their policy of ëcap, freeze
and backí. at the same time the political climate of US was in favour of pushing Pakistan as an
ally. Therefore despite Pakistan having nuclear arsenal build up did not face the same sanctions
as India faced after it had tested it. This kind of strategic decisions had derailed Indiaís economic
growth. It also affected India- Russiaís partnership deal for signing of cryogenic rocket deal.
The stale climate faced by India after Pokhran II did not continue for long. This happened due to
certain political climate like Asian economic crises, breaching of boundary by Pakistan leading to
Kargil war in 1999 but Indiaís economy still showing resilience. As a result US administration
cleared the stalemate by supporting Indiaís position in the kargil war. This also resulted in a visit
by President Clinton in the year 2000 that led to signing of several agreements between Indian
and US.

INDO-USA RELATIONS AFTER SEPTEMBER 11

September 11 attack on world tower shook the world and the widening US-Pakistan distance finally led
to a rift. At the same time Bush administration had already contemplated to lift us sanctions from India
over nuclear embryo. After this attack India emerged as a key ally who supported US war against
terrorism. However, choosing strategic strategy over moral values, US made Pakistan its ally in its war
against terrorism due to geographical reasons which made India vulnerable to Pakistanís attack
frequently. Like attack over Indian Parliament on 13 December and attack over Kashmir legislative
assembly in 2001.however as the political climate with death of Osama Bin laden and destruction of Iraq
that had led to death of Saddam Hussein, Indo- Us relations now took a new turn. This largely stemmed
from change in political leadership in US and change of world order where US faced a rising China who
was trying to draft a new world order according to new principles thus giving a blow to US leadership. In
this context US was drifting towards rising India who due to geographical and strategic reasons could be
supported to contain rising China. At the same time US support to Pakistan dwindled as Pakistan was
seen collapsing due to its internal political and economic instability.

RISING INDIA: A STRATEGIC CHOICE FOR THE USA

A stable economy, a vibrant democracy and positive human resource has made India been most sought
after destination for economic investment and has made India quite strong to draft its own principles of
foreign policy. This bold confidence has given birth to the idea of strategic autonomy that has emerged
as a cardinal principle of Indiaís foreign policy in the postcold war era. This principle is being used by
India to actively engage with US. By strategic autonomy, policy experts says that India exercises choice
as per her requirements as to when to be independent and when to exercise alliance based strategy.
According to Kalyanaraman, ‘Strategic autonomy denotes the ability of a state to pursue its national
interests and adopt its preferred foreign policy without being constrained in any manner by other states.
As a result it is Indiaís independent choice that is exercised while choosing to get closer to any country.
This principle was enumerated by Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi, for the first time, in his key
note address at Shangri La dialogue in 2018 in Singapore.
In order to fully understand contours of strategic autonomy between India and US it can be seen
through the following points

a) CIVIL NUCLEAR CORPORATION

The Peaceful Civil Nuclear Cooperation Agreement, that was signed in 2008 is the first major
strategic breakthrough between the two countries. This agreement ended Indiaís global
isolation in the field of nuclear technology when India had exploded peaceful explosion in 1974
and it had faced major sanctions. In 2005 when President Bush signed strategic agreements, it
also recognized India a s a responsible nuclear power. This declaration was drastic opposite to
earlier stand of US when India had refused to sign NPT. With this agreement in place India got
access to commerce in civil nuclear agreements from Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG). The deal
also facilitated India signing of similar nuclear cooperation agreements with many other
countries like Russia, France, South Korea, Japan and Australia.

b) DEFENCE CORPORATION
Defence Framework Cooperation agreement that was signed in 2005 for a 10 year period has
included joint maritime exercises, arms supply and sharing of defence information. As a result of
this co-operation they decided to launch the joint Malabar naval exercises in 2007. After this a
multi lateral organization by the name Quadi-lateral security dialogue (QUAD) was
conceptualized which included India, US, Japan and Australia. At the same time Defence co-
production and co-development along with supply of advanced system constitutes an important
element of Indo-US defence cooperation. Some of the important projects for codevelopment
identified under this agreement are Intelligence-gathering and reconnaissance modules for C-
130J Super Hercules aircraft; Mobile electric hybrid power sources; Chemical, biological warfare
protection gear for soldiers. In sequel to above development, India was designated a Major
Defence Partner by the US in 2016, which entitles India to seek supply of most advanced
defence instruments from the US. India has procured from the US many advanced defence
items like C130J aircraft, P8I maritime surveillance aircraft, and INS Jalashwa, Apache attack
helicopters and Chinook heavy-lift helicopters and others.
India was also encouraged to play a major role in US South Asia Strategy announced in August,
2017. This strategy aims at restoring peace and stability in Afghanistan and sidelines Pakistan for
her tacit support to terrorist elements.

c) INDO-PACIFIC STRATEGIC THEATRE

With the rise of China and other Asian countries, like China and ASEAN members, the IndoPacific
Ocean has assumed strategic and economic significance in recent years. This region is the major
supply route for international trade and energy resources and contains. It contains two hot
spots ñ Malacca Strait and South China Sea. The narrow Malacca Strait links Indian Ocean with
Pacific Ocean and the South China Sea has emerged as a disputed place between China and its
five neighbours- Taiwan, Vietnam, Brunei, Malaysia, and Philippines. China claims 90 percent of
South China Sea and indulges in power projection in the region, a position not accepted by the
US on the ground of freedom of navigation. It is also in the IndoPacific region that China has
launched ambitious 21st Century Maritime Silk Route. Thus, Indo-Pacific holds unparallel
strategic significance for India. The US has been a resident power in this region after the World
War II and the rise of China and her power projection is likely to make dent on the US influence
in the region. As a result the U.S. Pacific Command (PACOM) was recently renamed as Indo-
 Pacific Command (INDOPACOM), symbolic of the significance U.S. attaches to India and Indian
Ocean in the region. Thus, India and the US are in the way of strengthening their strategic
understanding and partnership in the IndoPacific region.
Thus we see that Indiaís strategic autonomy has come to play due to geo-strategically reasons
due to which US needs India as an ally to offset Chinas ambitious world leadership program. This
can be seen when Eminent Australian strategist Paul Dibb predicted in 1995 that India had
“greater potential as a power of influence” and “could emerge as a useful player in a multipolar
Asian balance” and “attract American interest as a counterbalance to China.”

INDIA-RUSSIA RELATIONSHIP
Russia is a relatively new country on the map that was formed after disintegration of Union of Soviet
Socialist Republics (USSR) in 1991. Earlier India did have a vibrant relation with USSR. In fact after
Independence the kind of planning commission that was conceptualized was influenced by USSR.
However, despite the similarities, India after Independence chose to be equidistant due to cold war that
had become at that time. Since Russia was the predecessor to USSR, India relations with Russia need to
take into account Indiaís relation with USSR.

A HISTORICAL GLIMPSE OF INDO-SPOVIET RELATIONSHIPS

Indo- soviet relations need to be seen through the cold war climate and geo-political relations.
Immediately after Independence Indiaís decision to choose Non-alignment irked USSR as result there
was a distant relationship. However adoption of mixed economy model made USSR confident that unlike
Pakistan India will not drift towards USA. In fact USSR continued to reiterate Indiaís position on Kashmir
at internal forums. However after the Maoist revolution in China, USSR chose China as an ally and
considered her to a friend. This was the main reason that when china attacked India in 1962, India
neither got the required support from USSR nor from USA. Facing a big defeat of its idealist principle of
mutual co-operation and friendship in international relations, India then realized to be strategically
realist. This decision therefore now made her look for strategic autonomy and yearn for long term self-
reliance in military procurement. This ambition therefore made her look for viable partners whereby
soviet Russia stepped in to ensure security co-operation with India. Here Indiaís decision should not be
seen as abandonment to Non-alignment principle. Rather it sought to use soviet supplied arms as
stepping stone to achieve strategic autonomy.

COLLAPSE OF USSR AND NEW DIVEREGENCES BETWEEN INDO-RUSSIA RELATIONS

The dissolution of USSR and emergence of Russia led to changes in the world order. As we have seen
above that during this phase India developed close relations with USA. As a result there was distance in
Indo- Russia relations. This was largely due to the internal political turbulence that Russia was
undergoing whereby it was trying to revamp its political economic structure. At the same time taking
into consideration geo-political climate, Russia policy makers were leaning towards Pakistan that could
provide them a gateway towards Islamic countries. As a result their strategic interest converged towards
building new ties with Iran, turkey and Pakistan. This was reflected when Russia supported UN
resolution to make South Asia a nuclear free zone thereby stalling Indiaís nuclear program.
Further, After this debacle as we have seen in Indo-US relations this phase coincided with US replacing
Russia a s strategic arms supplier to India. This also happened when another controversy of ‘Rupee
versus rouble’ debate took place. India owed a huge amount of debt to erstwhile USSR, India was ready
to pay back the money but the new Government now escalated the exchange rate and wanted new
currency denominator to be given while paying back. India objected to it. This dispute led to a collapse
trade relations between the two countries in 1991-92. After considerable negotiations a resolution was
reached in 1993 whereby India was to repay to Russia $ 1 billion a year in Indian goods until 2005 and
remaining 37 percent of the debt would be repaid interest free over a span of forty five years.

RISE OF NEW ERA IN INDO-RUSSIA RELATIONS

After its failure to get required support from the West, Russia now started its independent revival
program when US did not include Russia under North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). A change of
leadership conceptualized a strong Russia program by charting its own place in the world order.
Primakov also suggested the formation of a ‘strategic triangle’ between India, Russia and China as a
stabilising force in international security. In Primakovís view, this triangular relationship would be an
effective counterbalance to the US-led unipolarity of the post-Cold War era, but major trust deficit
between India and China stalled this progress. However, the closeness between India- Russia was
reiterated when President Bill Clinton was pressurizing India to abandon its nuclear programme, Russia
came forward and signed an agreement to build two Russian Light-water reactors. Further, In fact Russia
fully supported India in the kargil conflict in 1999 and it called upon Pakistan to pull back its troop.

DEFENCE TIES
A decisive shift took place when under the leadership of Vladimir Putin who became a president of the
Russian Federation in 2000, a strategic partnership was established with India, which was later upgraded
to a ‘special and privileged partnership’ in 2010. The corner stone of Indo- Russia partnership is defence
relations. Russia has emerged as a tried and tested partner of India in this field. With almost 70 per cent
of Indiaís defence equipment being of Russian origin, the strategic dimension of the relationship is clear.
Russia offers India advanced defence equipment and sensitive military technologies. The most recent
defence deals include the purchase by India of five S-400 missile systems, to be delivered from 2020,
joint manufacturing of Kamov Ka-226T helicopters. The Kamov helicopter deal is key, and is likely to
provide a boost for the Make in India initiative, launched in September 2014 with the aim of
transforming India into a global design and manufacturing hub.

CIVIL NUCLEAR TIES

Civil nuclear cooperation between the two countries has a long history. Russia, which is currently the
only country building nuclear power plants in India, supports New Delhiís quest for membership of the
Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG). Recently a new agreement was signed whereby Russia plans to build 25
nuclear power plants in different parts of India, which will immensely help to meet energy needs of the
country. In fact Russia is the first country to supply nuclear fuel and technology which will immensely
enhance Indiaís status globally in nuclear energy field.

ECONOMIC TIES
Civil nuclear cooperation between the two countries has a long history. Russia, which is currently the
only country building nuclear power plants in India, supports New Delhiís quest for membership of the
Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG). Recently a new agreement was signed whereby Russia plans to build 25
nuclear power plants in different parts of India, which will immensely help to meet energy needs of the
country. In fact Russia is the first country to supply nuclear fuel and technology which will immensely
enhance Indiaís status globally in nuclear energy field. Russia has become the biggest contributor to
Indias ‘strategic uranium reserve’ apart from Kazakhstan and Canada. This will facilitate in creating
15,000 megatons of uranium reserve to fuel nuclear reactors.
GLOBAL PARTNERSHIP
In order to challenge US hegemony and to regain its lost status, Russia has been trying to push India at
lot of international forums. In fact Russia wants to build a new alliance comprising of Russia- china and
India. This could be seen by operationalising Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Africa( BRICS) forum
and Shanghai- Co-operation organization (SCO) Russia supported Indiaís status from ‘Observer’ status to
‘Full Membership’ of SCO to strengthen this regional economic organization and to counter domination
by Western economic institutions. Russia is aware that India has been able to achieve relatively high
economic growth rates during the last several years and also development of hi-tech industries.
Further, However as easily understood Indo- Russian relationship should be seen through the lens of
realist position. Russia is trying to regain its past status of super power whereby it playing with
geographical boundaries and locations to become a power. On one hand it is building up this tri angular
relationship, on the other hand it is building close ties with Pakistan on behest of China. At the same
time Russia is silently pushing Chinaís one Belt one Road initiative which is detrimental to Indiaís
security. However India is indispensable for Russia because it is apprehensive of Chinaís rising ambition
to become a world power, therefore requires a strong India who could check-mate Chinaís ambition.
Further, After US- India civil nuclear co-operation that lifted all bans on nuclear embargo over India,
India still continues to take help from Russia for building its civil nuclear energy. In fact today we can see
that Indiaís armís supply cartel has been diversified by having, US, Russia and Israel on board. This act
has therefore made India exercise strategic autonomy to make rational choices.

CONCLUSION
Thus, we see that Indiaís relation with major powers have seen shifts from Zero sum game to strategic
autonomy game. Here India has traversed the distance from being a dependent Russia in initial years to
being having close relations with US after the end of cold war. However with steady growth and strong
democratic credentials India has become indispensable for any country. This is the reason India has
been able to exercise strategic autonomy from time to time without taking sides. This is seen glaringly in
the recent RussiaUkraine conflict whereby India was not a party to impose sanctions of Russia and it has
become a strategic mediator to end conflict to maintain world peace and enhance security of the world.
In the relations with both US and Russia India has been quiet a realist by abandoning its programme of
disarmament and strategically developing, learning and procuring its arms strength so that no country
could try to undermine its territorial borders. This was very well gauged through the recent
Indo- China border disputes whereby China had to push back and long-term border talks are going on
with India.