Grade 10 History - Text Book

HISTORY
Grade 10
Educational Publications Department

First Print 2014
Second Print 2015
Third Print 2017
Fourth Print 2018
Fifth print 2020
All Rights Reserved
ISBN - 978 - 955 - 25 - 0663 - 5
Published by Educational Publications Department

Printed at R.S Printek (Pvt) Ltd.
No,765/2, Waduwegama Road, Malwana
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The National Anthem of Sri Lanka
Sri Lanka Matha

Apa Sri Lanka Namo Namo Namo Namo Matha
Sundara siri barinee, surendi athi sobamana Lanka
Dhanya dhanaya neka mal palaturu piri jaya bhoomiya ramya
Apa hata sepa siri setha sadana jeewanaye matha
Piliganu mena apa bhakthi pooja Namo Namo Matha
Oba we apa vidya
Obamaya apa sathya
Oba we apa shakthi
Apa hada thula bhakthi
Oba apa aloke
Apage anuprane
Oba apa jeevana we
Apa mukthiya oba we
Nava jeevana demine, nithina apa pubudukaran matha
Gnana veerya vadawamina regena yanu mena jaya bhoomi kara
Eka mavakage daru kela bevina
Yamu yamu vee nopama
Prema vada sema bheda durerada
Namo, Namo Matha
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iv
Foreword
The Educational Publications Department which is entrusted with the responsibility of

providing a free textbook to the students by the government fulfills the duty diligently in
each year for the student community which exceeds 04 million.
Without limiting to the above mentioned important task, the Educational Publications
Department is engaged in producing supplementary reading materials for Advanced
Level and other higher examinations. As a result of that process, valuable books with the
contribution of subject experts in different fields are sold at a concessionary price.
These supplementary reading materials can be an excellent source of knowledge for

those who sit for examinations and for the reading public who is interested in reading
different academic books. I would like to compliment the subject experts and the staff of the
Educational Publications Department who contributed to produce this book.
I would like to extend my thanks to you who justify the following saying
by George R. R. Martin – “A person who reads books lives thousand lives before his death.
Those who don’t read have only one life”.
P. N. Ilapperuma
Commissioner General of Educational Publications
Isurupaya
Battaramulla
26 - 06 - 2020
v
Monitoring and Supervision - P. N. Ilapperuma
Commissioner General
Direction - W. A. Nirmala Piyaseeli

Commissioner (Development)
Co-ordination - Ranjith Iluppitiya

Deputy Commissioner
- W. Indumini Darshika
Deputy Commissioner
Panel of Editors
1. Prof. Raj Somadewa - Postgraduate Institute of Archaeology

University of Kelaniya
2. Prof. Rev. Hanguranketha Deerananda - Department of History

University of Peradeniya
3. Prof. Padmasiri Kannangara - Department of History

University of Sri Jayawardhanapura
4. Dr. Anusha Senadhiraja - Department of History

South - Eastern University
5. W. S. Shiromala Gunawardhana - Lecturer

National Institute of Education
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Panel of Writers
1. K. S. Ranjani - In-Service - Adviser

Zonal Education Office, Horana
2. M.D. Thilakalatha - Teacher

C.W.W. Kannangara M.V, Borella
3. Sister Mary Doneta - Retired Deputy Principal
4. W.A. Piyasili - Teacher
National School, Allawwa
5. U.L.S. Marikkar - In-Service - Adviser
Zonal Education Office, Wattegama
6. U.L.M. Baseer - Retired In-Service - Adviser
Translation - A.B.S. Aloka Bandara

Master Trainer
Language Editing - W. Indumini Darshika

Assistant Commissioner
Illustrations - Chandrika Neelamani Jayasingha
Cover Page, Page Layout, Map Design - Charani Nishamini Alahakoon

and Type Setting Educational Publications Department
vii
Message from the Panel of Editors
In simple terms, history is the story of how the human generation behaved in the
past. What is important in that respect is to focus our attention on how they acted as
a common society. Then we see distinctly the numerous continuations that the human
society maintained throughout time and changes that occurred in them. The historical
implications that are important for a historian can be understood by that.
The strategies employed by the people who lived in ancient societies to maintain
their existence safely and in a balanced manner, the philosophy behind it, and all the
victories and failures are included in the history. The political projects of the leaders
don't solely represent the total history. From the ordinary farmer who fights with the
rough earth in the burning sun rays of the dry zone to the kings and ministers and the
buddhist clergy who advised them wisely contributed in different levels to create the
history of this country. Therefore, it is essential that a student learns the nature of their
contribution in the history. It will pave the way to create a pre understanding of the
service that he or she can render to the society. This textbook has been compiled based
on that standpoint.
We can obtain some kind of an experience by looking into the way our ancestors
faced the challenges which are similar to the problems that we face today. A society
which is blessed by the virtues in the history does not destroy itself easily. A society
becomes weak against new challenges when the immunity created in the society by the
historical heritage and perception become weak. The content and the finish have been
prepared by the panel of writers and editors with the aim of creating a sensitivity in the
hearts of the children about history as an interesting story. We hope that our attempt will
be successful.
Very Important
The lessons of this textbbok are compiled according to the syllabus of history prepared to be
implemented from 2015. The facts in italic in the lessons compiled to create more knowledge
and interest whithin the students about thier history, are used to reinforce the relevant subject
matter and thus they do not need to be memorized.
The Panel of Editors

25th of May 2014
At the Educational Publications Department
viii
Contents
Page
1. Sources of Studying History 1
1.1 Classification of Sources 1

1.2 Importance of Learning History 6
1.3 Protecting Archaelogical Sources 7
2. Ancient Settlements 10
2.1 Settlements in the Pre-historic Era 10

2.2 Settlements in Proto-historic Era 19
2.3 Settlements in Early Historic Era 23
3. Evolution of Political Power in Sri Lanka 31
3.1 Pre-state Era 31

3.2 The Concept of State 38
3.3 Great Kings Who ruled This Country 40
4. The Ancient Society of Sri Lanka 44
4.1 The Nature of Ruling 44

4.2 Economy 47
4.3 Culture 54
5. The Ancient Science and Technology in Sri Lanka 63

5.1 Early Stages of Scientific Ideas 63
5.2 The Maturity of Scientific Usage 65
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6. Historical Knowledge and Its Practical Application 77
6.1 Social Organization in the Historical Era 77

6.2 Law and Tradition 79
6.3 Finance and Exchange 83
6.4 Representation of Women 84
6.5 Local Food 87
6.6 Protecting the Environment 89
7. Decline of Ancient Cities in the Dry Zone and Origin of New
Kingdoms in South West 91
7.1 Background of the Urban Life 91

7.2 The First Urbanization 92
7.3 Downfall of Polonnaruwa 95
7.4 The Second Urbanization 96
8. Kandyan Kingdom 106
8.1 Beginning and Expansion 106

8.2 The Administrative Structure of the Kandyan Kingdom 112
8.3 Economic System 114
8.4 Social Organization 115
9. Renaissance 118
9.1 Reasons for the Renaissance 118

9.2 Influence of the Renaissance on Sri Lanka 124
10. Sri Lanka and the Western World 127

10.1 Arrival of the Portuguese in Asia 127
10.2 The Political Condition in Sri Lanka when the
Portuguese arrived in Sri Lanka 129
10.3 Sri Lanka and the Dutch 136
Access for knowledge www.e-thaksalawa.moe.gov.lk

with joy and leisure
x
1 Sources of Studying History
Books and documents written at different

time periods by the people who lived in the
past are considered ‘literary sources’. Relics,
Introduction
monuments, coins, inscriptions and various
Sources are needed to study history. The ruins which are unearthed from archaeological
sources that help us to study history are diverse. excavations and experiments are called
In this unit you will learn the areas such as, ‘archaeological sources’. Next, let’s discuss the
introduction to sources, the way how history above mentioned two types further using the
is built on the information provided by the sources which are helpful to study the history of
sources and the benefits of studying history. Sri Lanka.
1. Literary Sources
The literary sources, which can be
used to study the history of Sri Lanka, can be
1.1 Classification of Sources categorized into two, as, ‘local literary sources’
and ‘foreign literary sources’. The texts, written
History is a subject which studies the past
by Sri Lankans in the form of prose and poetry
human activities. When we study the history of
from time to time about two thousand years ago
hundreds and thousands of years back, we find
are considered ‘local literary sources’. Apart from
writings and various creations made by people
the texts written by Sri Lankans, some books
who lived in those ages. They are called ‘sources’
were written by foreigners who were interested
because information about past human activities
in Sri Lanka. Or else, some foreign writers have
can be extracted from them. The sources, which
included information about Sri Lanka in the
belonged to each different age, provide us a
books they wrote. Thus, the books written by
good understanding about those eras and their
foreign writers mentioning information about
social backgrounds. Thus, when the information
Sri Lanka are called ‘foreign literary sources’.
taken from those sources are studied logically,
the history about people’s lives in each period is ■ Local Literary Sources
formed.
Among the local literary sources in Sri Lanka
As there are a number of sources which are ‘Deepawamsa’ is considered the oldest text.
available to study history, they are mainly divided Deepawamsa was written in about 4th century
into two; A.D. Deepawamsa consists of historical
1. Literary sources information of this country up to the end of
King Mahasen’s ruling period and descriptions
2. Archaeological sources
of the history of the Buddhist order (Sasana)
in this country.
1
the history has been written in one continuous
text, Sri Lankans can be proud because the
history of this country has been written in one
text. Mahawamsa is considered a more credible
historical source because some historical events
recorded in it have been substantiated by the
inscriptions and some other sources.
About four centuries after the writing of

Mahawamsa, in Pali, an annotation was compiled
in order to interpret it by explaining some areas.
That text, which is called the ‘Mahawamsa
Fig 1.1. Ancient literary and religious information as well Teekawa’(annotation of the Mahawamsa), is
as the Wamsakatha have been written on ola leaves. Sri
Lanka inherits a tradition of talipots, which belonged to a
named as Wansattappakasini. It consists of a lot
long period of time. of information which are not available in some
other sources.
But, some historical events have been recorded
briefly in Deepawamsa. Repetitions too can be Type of Source Examples
seen in this source. Therefore, Mahawamsa was Sandesha Kawya Mayura, Thisara,
composed as a historical chronicle with lesser Selalihini Sandesha
mistakes than Deepawamsa. Prashasthi Kawya Perakumba Siritha
Hatan Kawya Seethawaka Hatana,
Mahawamsa is a text with several parts. The
Constantinu Hatana,
first part of it was written by a Bhikku named
Ingirisi Hatana
‘Mahanama’ who lived in the ‘Diksanda Seneviya’
Piriwena (monastery). As in Deepawamsa, the Table No:1.1 A few ancient literary sources consisting
first part of Mahawamsa consists of the historical different content from each other
information of this country from the arrival of
A number of books, which can be considered
the Lord Buddha to Sri Lanka up to the end of
to be local literary works, had been written
the ruling time of king Mahasen. This part had
from Anuradhapura era to Kandyan era of the
been written in about 5th or 6th century A.D.
history of this country. The books, considered as
One can see a certain similarity between the Buddhist religious texts such as Bodhiwamasa,
information of Deepawamsa and the first part of Thupawamsa, Dhatuwamsa, Poojawaliya
Mahawamsa. The reason for this may have been and Saddharmalankaraya, are important to
the influence of the early texts such as, Seehala study the history of Rajarata civilization. The
Attakatha Mahawamsa, Uttara Vihara Attakatha Nikaya Sangraha which has been written on
and Vinaya Attakatha which were written before the history of the Buddhist order(Sasana) and
these two sources. Rajawaliya which includes political information
of the country are important sources of studying
After the first part of Mahawamsa was written by
history from Gampola to Kotte period. Sandesha
Mahanama Thero, some other writers extended Kawya, Prashasthi Kawya and Hatan Kawya
Mahawamsa as a continuous text with several are important to study the history between the
parts by including some information about periods of Kotte and Kandy. Some examples are
their contemporary time periods from time to given in the table No 1.1.
time. Therefore, the history of Sri Lanka has
been written continuously in Mahawamsa. As The local books were written during different
there are a limited number of countries of which periods and the reasons which influenced to write
2
them too are different. The books which had been Uses of Literary Sources
written from Anuradhapura era to the beginning
of Kotte era have had religious objectives. Some 1. To prepare the historical chronology.
books were written a few centuries after the 2. To obtain information about political,
historical incidents, which have been mentioned economic, and social affairs in each era.
in the same books. Therefore, when we form our 3. To substantiate the information provided by
history using the literary sources, we have to pay one source with another source.
our attention to the facts given below. 4. To study the international relations of a
country (in this regard foreign sources are very
1. The time in which the sources were written important).
2. The author of the source Chinese Fa-Hsien Thero's travelling accounts
Sources (Account on Buddhist Kingdom)
3. The author’s objectives
Arabian Iban Batuta's travelling accounts
4. The way in which facts were obtained for the Sources
source
Portuguese Ribeiro's book on Sri Lanka
Sources (Ribeiro's Lanka History)
Therefore, you may understand that you have to
be clever when you refer to the sources. Holland The book of Phillippus Baldaeus
Sources (The Sri Lankan Chronicle of
■ Foreign Sources Baldaeus)
As Sri Lanka maintained trade relations English Robert Knox's book (An Historical
Sources Relation of the Island Ceylon- Sin-
with foreign countries from early period of hala translation: Eda Heladiva)
Anuradhapura era, many foreigners who were
engaged in trade activities in the Indian Ocean
Table No. 1.2 The records and authors who came to Sri
were aware of this country. Therefore, the Lanka and wrote about it.
foreigners, who had written from the period of
B.C, have included some information about Sri 2. Archaeological Sources
Lanka in their books. From ancient time there
was a good relation between Sri Lanka and India. Archaeological sources can be divided into a
Therefore, some Indian books have mentioned few categories such as epigraphy, coins, ruins,
information about Sri Lanka. Some Tamil drawings, sculptures and antiquities.
books, such as Seelappadikaram, Manimekalayi
and Padirruppattu written in India too have Epigraphy
information about Sri Lanka. Some foreigners Epigraphy is a word used commonly to
tended even to write books with separate introduce writings on stones (Shila), clay slabs,
information about Sri Lanka after the arrival of walls, copper plates, golden plates, wood, and on
the Portuguese in this country in the 16th century. various urns. Writings on stone slabs or rocks
When we examine the foreign sources consisting are called ‘Sellipi / Shilalipi’ inscriptions.
information about Sri Lanka, we can clearly see
that there had been writers who came to Sri Inscriptions (Sellipi)
Lanka and studied and wrote about it as well as
writers who didn't visit Sri Lanka but inquired According to the shapes of the stones on which
information about Sri Lanka from others and writings have been inscribed, the inscriptions
wrote. can be categorized as cave inscriptions, rock
inscriptions (Giri Lipi), pile inscriptions
(Tam Lipi), slab inscriptions (Puwaru Lipi)
3
After the 2nd century A.D. inscriptions were
established to write records on various
events such as offering premises to temples,
administrating temples, informing government
laws to people, charge taxes, trading, forgiving
convicts, and appreciating the service of some
people. Therefore, much information, which
is not provided by the literary sources can be
discovered from the inscriptions.
Coins
Coins were used in Sri Lanka from Anuradhapura
era. The oldest coins found in this country are
called ‘ Kahapana’. The names ‘Purana’ and
‘Dharana’ too are used for them. The tusker
and Swastika coins, Lakshmi coins and a type
of golden coins named ‘Aka’ were used in this
country. The copper coins (Thamba Massa) were
used during the Polonnaruwa kingdom. The
Fig. 1.2. Claudius Ptolemy, a Greek-Roman lived in coins needed for the country were produced in
Alexandria between 90-168 A.D., was a geographer. He the country itself and even the moulds which
drew a map of Sri Lanka. were used to produce coins have been discovered
in excavations. Apart from the local coins, Roman
and seat inscriptions (Asana Lipi). The oldest
coins, Chinese coins, and Indian coins are found
inscriptions in this country are named ‘Brahmi
in Sri Lanka. In studying the economic condition,
inscriptions’ and they were written to record the
trade, and use of metals, coins are an immensely
events such as offering of caves to Bhikku.
important source. The study of ancient coins is
These inscriptions are important to called ‘numismatics’.
understand the history of the ancient society
and the expansion of settlements. Writing
of inscriptions had continued from the 2nd
century B.C. to the period of Kandyan kingdom.
Type of Source Examples
Greek Sources Demundo by Aristotle, Indica by Megasthinis,
the records of Onesicritus.
Roman Sources Naturalis Historia by Plini, Approach to
Geography by Ptolemy, Sri Lankan Map by
Ptolemy
Chinese Sources The book on records of tours of Hsuan-Tsang
Thero
Portuguese Sources The book about Sri Lanka by Father Fernāo
de Queiroz
Table No. 1.3. The authors who have written records about Sri Lanka based on the information obtained from others
without seeing the country with their own eyes, and their books.
4
Ancient Ruins
Many ruins such as ancient buildings, stupas,
stone pillars, tanks and ponds can be seen in Sri
Lanka. Since some places, where ancient people
of this country lived are still in wilderness, such
ruins exist even in and close to the forestry areas.
These ruins, which are called archaeological

monuments, are a very good source to study the
history of this country. These ruins help us to
gain a clear knowledge on various aspects such as
creative ability, technology, building designing or
architecture, craftsmanship, ability to conserve
the environment and water management of the
ancient people. Fig. No. 1.3. The ‘Galpotha inscription', made by King
Keerthi Sri Nisshankamalla. This is located in Polonnaruwa.
Fig. 1.4. Panakaduwa copper plate, written on the order of king Vijayabahu I. This was granted to an officer named
Sithnarubima Budalna with gratitude for his loyalty to the king. This is what was written from its first line to the third;
“Swasthi Sirisiriwath Apiriyath Lo Ikuth Gunamulin Uthurath Mulu Dambadiwhi Ankethkula Pamili Kala Okawas Rad
Parapuren Bat Keth Usabnat Agamehesun Wu Lakdiw Polo Yohena Parapuren Himi Sirisangabo Vijayabahu Rajapa
Wahanse”. This document is important to study the history of 12th century A.D.
Media of Epigraphy Examples
Inscriptions (Stone) King Nisshankamalla’s Galpotha inscription
Walls The graffiti in Sigiriya
Copper Plates Panakaduwa Copper Plate of King Vijayabahu I
Golden Plates Vallipuram golden plate
Wood Writings on the wooden posts of the Ambekke Devalaya
Clay Slabs Scripts written on tiles and bricks
Urns Scripts written on clay pots and begging bowls

Table No.1.4. Different Media of Epigraphy.
5
Cave Inscriptions Inscriptions written near the drip ledges of caves
Rock inscriptions Inscriptions written on rock surfaces or top of the rocks
Pillar Inscriptions Inscriptions written on arranged stone pillars
Slab Inscriptions Inscriptions written on arranged stone slabs
Seat Inscriptions Inscriptions written on stone slabs like altar or pulpit
Table 1.5. The names used to introduce the epigraphy according to the nature of the place where they were written.
Drawings, Sculpture and Antiquities can be considered credible. In constructing

history regarding a certain historical incident, all
Ancient drawings, sculpture and engravings are sources relevant to that incident should be used.
live evidence that display our culture. Drawings, Next, after analyzing the various information
sculpture, and engravings are helpful to gain received from the sources critically, history
information about various aspects of the ancient should be constructed by using the most credible
people such as their clothes, art skills, use of information. Accordingly, archaeological sources
jewellery, using colours, and religious beliefs; for are useful to fill up what lacks in the literary
example, the frescos in Sigiriya provide us some sources, to obtain new information and to
information about clothes, jewellery, hair styles substantiate the information mentioned in the
and beauty culture of women who lived during literary sources.
ancient times.
The objects which are remaining now, after

being created or used by the ancient people can
be introduced as antiquities. Antiquities are
in the museums, religious places, and various
institutions and in care of some people of this
country. Many antiquities are discovered in
excavations. Antiquities help us to understand
many different aspects of the ancient people,
such as their abilities, skills, ancient culture,
technology, foreign relations and their life style.
You may see that there are diverse sources which

can be used to construct the history of Sri Lanka.
Fig. 1.5. This coin ,used in Sri Lanka, has been made of
In constructing the history with the help of the gold. It is called ‘medieval golden coins (Madyakalina
information extracted from a particular source, Ran Kahawanu)’. These coins are a source which helps
one has to be shrewd in using that source. to study not only the ancient economy but also the
technology.
Historical sources in Sri Lanka are past reports
rather than past events. And also there is a
possibility of including the personal likes and 1.2 Importance of Learning History
dislikes of the authors of these books into the
sources. Archaeological sources are mostly History is a subject which is linked with the study
considered as contemporary ones to the of sources. It could be studied with curiosity too.
historical events. Accordingly, if the information Therefore, one who studies history naturally
mentioned in the literary sources is substantiated tends to read books. Since the reader comes
by the archaeological sources, that information across with diverse facts, ideas, and opinions
6
1.3 Protecting
Archaeological Sources
When we consider the
long history of Sri Lanka,
expansion of ancient
population, and the
number of people who
had lived in this country,
what remains here for
us as archaeological
sources today is only the
creations made of long
lasting raw materials such
as stone, metal and clay;
Fig. 1.6. The sculpture of Man and the Head of Horse in Isurumuni temple in Anuradhapura.
This sculpture is believed to have been created in 7th or 8th century A.D. This sculpture
or large scale creations
represents the gods ‘Agni’ (Head of Horse)and ‘Parjanya’. (Image of man) such as tanks and canals.
There is a possibility of
these valuable sources getting destroyed due to
in reading books, his or her critical sense gets
speedy urbanization, expansion of settlements,
developed. Therefore, he or she tends to think of
constructing roads, constructing buildings, and
anything with a logical mind and this will help
agricultural activities happening in the country.
him or her to understand the problems properly.
Today we see historical places, monuments and
When the problems are understood properly,
antiquities because our ancestors had protected
he or she will tend to find solutions to those
them. Therefore, it is a responsibility of the
problems creatively. Therefore, when one learns
citizens of the country to protect them as the
history, it helps him or her to develop his or her
present generation.
personality. Apart from these, one will gain the
benefits given below by studying history.
There are different types of ancient marks
inscribed on the rocky surfaces in various areas in
1. Proper understanding of society and the
Sri Lanka. Among them various figures such as,
world in which one lives
Sun and Moon, Palmyra- fan, bow, arrow, conch,
ox-hoof, tusker- step, figures of various animals
2. Constructing future by understanding the
are marks that show the ancient borders of areas;
present through the past experiences
or they are an ancient form of communication as
the present road signs. Some people dig out and
3. Recognizing the national identity
destroy the places where there are these marks
and moonstones, guard stones, stone pillars and
4. Building up national reconciliation
other antiquities by misunderstanding that the
by loving humanity
treasures have been deposited in such places.
These activities and other activities like scribbling
5. Respecting others’ cultures
and drawing pictures in historical places and on
the antiquities will pave the way to destroy the
6. Tolerating different views
antiquities. It is a punishable offence according
to the law of the country. Therefore, you should
be determined to protect the antiquities as the
students who have understood the value of them.
7
Important Facts
 The things that help learn history are called sources.
 Sources are divided into two as literary sources and archaeological sources.
 Books and documents belong to the literary source category and ruins and various
antiques are archaeological sources.
 We can realize how our ancestors faced various experiences by learning history. Through
that one can get the knowledge necessary to face the same problems at present.
 History of a country reflects the identity of the citizens who live in that country.
Activity
1. Arrange the various sources you learnt in this lesson as given below.
Type of Source- Literary /

Source Uses for forming history
Archaeological
Deepawamsa
Mahawamsa
An Historical Relation of the
Island Ceylon (Eda Heladiva)
Perakumba Siritha
Sigiriya
Seethawaka Hatana
Panakaduwa Copper Plate
Lanka Map of Ptolemy
Vallipuram Golden Plate
VOC coins
2. Write an article to a newspaper titled “The examples I can take to my life by learning history''.
8
Diksanda Seneviya Pirivena (Monastery)– Philippus Baldaeus (1632 – 1672 A.D) – Philippus
There were several monasteries affiliated to Balaedius was a Dutch priest. He came to Sri
Anuradhapura Maha Vihara. Sunhatha Pirivena, Lanka with the Dutch army.
Marugana Pirivena, Phalagga Pirivena were some His duty was to serve the East Indian Trade
of them. Diksanda Seneviya Pirivena was another Company of the Dutch. In addition to his duty,
one that belonged to them. Mahanama Thero, who he made records on the social life, language and
composed Mahawamsa, lived in that temple. culture in Sri Lanka. Those records have been
published in Dutch and German languages.
Fa-Hsien Thero – Fa-Hsien Thero was a Chinese Baldaeus' records are important to study the Sri
monk. He came to India on foot in search of Buddhist Lankan history in the 17th century A.D.
texts. Fa-HsienThero arrived in Sri Lanka in the 5th
century A.D. and stayed in Anuradhapura Maha Robert Knox – Robert Knox (1641 -1720 A.D) was
Vihara for two years. He was born at Wuyang an English naval captain. He came to India by ship
village in Shun- Si province in China. He has with his father when he was 14 years old. In 1658
mentioned some things existed in Sri Lanka in his while he was sailing to Persia, he came adrift to
travelling accounts. Sri Lanka on 19th November 1659 as the mast of
their ship was broken due to a tempest. On that
Hsuan Tsang – Hsuan Tsang (602 -664 A.D) was a occasion Robert Knox along with another sixteen
Chinese monk. He came to India on a pilgrimage. people who were in the ship were arrested by King
He left China in 629 A.D. and was engaged in Rajasinghe II. He spent nineteen years in Sri lanka
his pilgrimage for sixteen years. Meanwhile, he as a prisoner and afterwards escaped. He went to
recorded what he saw in Asia. Though he did not Arippu in Mannar and then escaped to Bathavia.
come to Sri Lanka, he recorded what he learnt In 1680 he went back to England. While he was on
about Sri Lanka when he was in India. Even those his way back, he wrote a book on his experiences
information is important to study the history of this in Sri Lanka. That book was published in 1681 by
country in the 7th century A.D. the name of An Historical Relations of the Island
of Ceylon. The book consists of descriptions and
Joao Ribeiro – He was a Portuguese national. In drawings which reflect the Sri Lankan society in
the month of March, 1640 he came to Sri Lanka the 17th century, the time in which he stayed in this
to serve in the Portuguese army. He reached the country.
rank of captain in his army by staying 18 years in
Sri Lanka and serving in the army. In his old age Fernão de Queiroz – He was a priest of the catholic
he wrote several books about Sri Lanka by living Jesuit sect. Queiroz was a Portuguese national.
in Lisben city in Portugal. Those books are highly In 1688 he wrote a book on Sri Lanka. Its name
important to study the history of Sri Lanka in the was Temporal and Spiritual Conquest of Ceylon.
17th century. Queiroz did not come to Sri Lanka. He wrote this
book while he was staying in India.
9
2 Ancient Settlements
living in a wide geographical area by adapting
himself to different climatic zones in this country.
Introduction Their main dependency method was gathering
food by roaming and hunting.
Sri Lanka became a human habitation one
hundred and twenty five thousand years There are many places where evidence, belonging
ago. The Homo Sapiens, who are called the to the Stone Age in Sri Lanka, is found. The first
modern man, migrated to this country across one is Rathnapura and the gem mines located
the Indian Ocean. From then on, they spread around Rathnapura. The stone tools used by
themselves in various parts of this country and these people who lived in a distant age and the
adapted themselves to different environmental bones of some extinct animals are deposited in
conditions in those areas. As they lived a the layers of soil mixed with gravel , which is
considerably long time period in this country, called lode found in the mines about 90 feet deep
with time their culture too changed. Based on from the ground level. The gravel layers, which
those changes which occurred in their culture, were caused by erosion of mountainous regions
the history of human existence in Sri Lanka due to extremely heavy rainy periods during the
has been divided into three stages. The nature Pleistocene geographical era, deposited on the
of those stages and how they lived during those lowlands in this manner.
stages will be described to you in this lesson.
There is a gravel layer covered with sandy soil
mixed with clay in the ground in the semi-arid
2.1 Settlements in the Pre-historic Era zone in Sri Lanka. The archaeologists have
named it as the Iranamadu formation. The
The period which was before the past that is Iranamadu formation was deposited during the
described by the literary sources is commonly short warm periods of the Pleistocene era. Some
named as ‘the pre-historic era’. Two cultural tools which belonged to the Stone Age are found
stages belonged to the pre-historic era of Sri in this gravel layer too.
Lanka; the first one was the Stone Age which
existed for a long time; the second was the
period in which there was more tendency of The Expansion of Settlements in Different
man towards depending on herbal food, use of Climate Zones
metals and the beginning of living in permanent
settlements. Among these, the word prehistoric The community which belonged to the Stone
era is used to introduce the Stone Age and the Age had lived in 6 main environmental zones
word proto-historic era is used to introduce the in Sri Lanka. These environmental zones are
second period. (A) Semi-arid zone (B) Lowland dry zone (C)
Lowland intermediate dry zone (D) Wet Zone
Expansion of Settlements (E) Mountainous dry intermediate zone (F)
Arid zone .
Settlements in Sri Lanka were made by the early
Homo Sapien man. Homo Sapien expanded his
10
Map 2.1 Distribution of the prehistoric places, discovered so far, in Sri Lanka
(A). Semi-arid zone (B) Lowland dry zone (C) Lowland intermediate dry zone (D) Wet zone
(E) Mountainous dry intermediate zone (F) Arid Zone
11
The list of the names of prehistoric places, discovered so far, in Sri Lanka
1. Elephantpass 30. Chilaw 59. Batathotalena 88. Okanda
2. Punkari 31. Dambulla 60. Dimbula 89. Itikala
3. Paranthan 32. Thammenagala 61. Dikoya 90. Kumana
4. Iranamadu 33. Pidurangala 62. Samanalakanda 91. Udapothana
5. Mulativu 34. Aligala 63. Maskeliya 92. Minihagalkanda
6. Vellankulam 35. Mapagala 64. Norwood 93. Galge
7. Mankulam 36. Pothana 65. Nuwara Eliya 94. Thelulla
8. Murukkan 37. Alakolawewa 66. Bandarawela 95. Aththanagoda Alulena
9. Nachchiyar Wellachchi 38. Wewala 67. Rawanaella 96. Diyawinna

Maleyi
39. Kaludiyapokuna 68. Hortan Plains 97. Kahawaththa
10. Trincomalee
40. Kandy 69. Bagawanthalawa 98. Kukulegama
11. Kudiramaleyi
41. Peradeniya 70. Eheliyagoda 99. Baduraliya
12. Modaragamaru
42. Danigala 71. Ellawala 100. Kalawana
13. Marichchikaddi
43. Henebedda 72. Kuruwita 101. Rakwana
14. Vilpattu
44. Nilgala 73. Batadombalena 102. Alugalge
15. Anuradhapura
45. Bibile 74. Kalu Ganga 103. Angunakolapelassa
16. Sannankulli
46. Gampola 75. Rathnapura 104. Walawe Ganga
17. Pomparippu
47. Madolsima 76. Pelmadulla 105. Thissamaharamaya
18. Kala Oya
48. Welimada 77. Beligalge 106. Yala
19. Vanathawillu
49. Pudalu Oya 78. Bellanbendipelassa 107. Boondala
20. Kandakadu
50. Nawalpitiya 79. Belihul Oya 108. Hambanthota
21. Thrikonamadu
51. Kithulgala Belilena 80. Ukgal Kalthota 109. Ambalanthota
22. Arnakallu
52. Belilena Athula 81. Alugalge-Thelulla 110. Welipatanwila
23. Polonnaruwa
53. Awissawella 82. Buttala 111. Hungama
24. Palavi
54. Biyagama 83. Okkampitiya 112. Ranna
25. Puttalam
55. Kelaniya 84. Pothuvil 113. Tangalle
26. Anamaduwa
56. Colombo 85. Kudumbigala 114. Matara
27. Andigama
57. Malwana 86. Legama 115. Galle
28. Pallama
58. Getaheththa 87. Bambaragasthalawa 116. Udamalala
29. Bangadeniya
12
The differences of annual rainfall levels are Lanka. When the gravel layer was dated using the
considered in deciding these environmental scientific analysis, it proved that the gravel layer
zones. If there is a difference in the rainfall, it was 125000 years old. The gravel layer found in
directly affects the animals and the plants in the depth of 24 feet from the surface of the ground
that particular area. Therefore, the people in the level in the area of Bundala, Wellegangoda in the
Stone Age who adapted themselves to different same district belongs to a period of 80000 years
environmental zones had differences in their back. Approximately this Stone Age had existed
food consumption and technology. For example continuously from before 125000 years up to 1800
the community of the Stone Age who lived in the B.C. minimum. The dates which substantiate the
lowland wet zone used mostly oysters living on longevity of the culture have been confirmed
the land as their food. Different types of oysters with the evidence found in several provinces in
are abundant in the lowland wet zone. But it is Sri Lanka.
not so in the lowland dry zone. In those areas
some animals, mostly living in the dry zone like Pahiyangala - 38000 years
deer and iguana, were hunted. Kuruwita Batadombalena - 28000 years
Kitulgala Belilena - 15000 years
Time Periods Bellanbendipelassa - 12000 years
Attanagoda Alulena - 10350 years
Some evidence of the Stone Age has been Maniyamgala - 7900 years
discovered from the gravel layer belonging to Sigiriya Pothana - 5800 years
the Iranamadu formation located in the depth Sigiriya Aligala - 5500 years
of 45 feet from the surface level of the earth in Udamalala - 5330 years
the area called Pathirajawela in Hambanthota Mathota - 3800 years
district belonging to the Southern Province of Sri
Fig 2.1. This cave, located in Pahiyangala, Bulathsinhala in Kaluthara District, was a habitation of the prehistoric men who
lived 38000 years ago. This Pahiyangala cave reveals significant information of the prehistoric people who lived in the
lowland wet zone in Sri Lanka.
13
Life Style
People of this era lived by hunting and roaming

from one place to another and gathering what
they could consume as food. Therefore, they
spent mostly a nomadic life during the whole
year. During heavy rainy seasons they lived in
natural caves.
Their population consisted of a collection of

Fig. 2.2 A few stone tools in the geometric shape, which
belonged to the middle-stone age in Sri Lanka. They have small groups. Normally one group comprised of
been made of pure alabaster stone known as ‘Bim Weed- between 15–25 members. The maximum number
uru’. of members in such a group was believed to be
around 50.
Key Features of the Settlements
It seems that an area of 50 square metres was
The prehistoric man in Sri Lanka got expanded enough for a family consisted of five members.
by undergoing adaptation to environmental The area of the place called Church Hill, belonging
conditions different from each other. They to the Stone Age found at Bandarawela is 150
preferred to live in places where there were square metres. It is assumed that 25 people might
abundant natural resources needed for food. It have lived in that place. The area of the place,
has been discovered that they had lived in and where the community belonging to Stone Age of
around the places such as lowland rain forests, Bellanbendipelassa lived in 120 square metres.
dry zone forests, coastal lagoons and creeks, and Thirty human skeletons have been discovered
from that place.
hill country grasslands. They preferred to live in
areas where there was easy availability of water
The nature of the food that the people in that age
and various types of stones for making their stone consumed was decided by the resources available
tools. They had lived in open areas in dry season in the environment where they lived. During the
and in natural caves during rainy seasons. Given dry season they spent their time in camps which
below are several prehistoric outdoor camps and they built temporarily in open areas.
cave habitations, discovered so far.
1. Minihagalkanda, Bundala, Pathirajawela

(Outdoor camps in the coastal areas)
2. Pahiyangala, Batadombalena, Kithulgala Beli

Lena (Lowland wet zone caves)
3. Pothana and Aligala in Sigiriya

(Lowland dry zone caves)
4. Bellanbendipelessa
(Outdoor camps in lowland wet zone)
5. Bandarawela, Horton plains

Illustration 2.1. in using small geometrical stone tools, as
(Outdoor hunting places in hillside areas) shown in the above illustration, they were arranged by
attaching to a piece of wood or a bone of an animal.
14
Illustration 2.2. It was a custom of the prehistoric man to bury the dead body of a family member or a relative, who lived
with them, in the same cave in which he or she had lived. Evidence has been found that after some time, they exhumed
the skeletons and applied red ochre stones on them and performed a kind of a ritual activity.
They walked a distance of about 7 kilometres the caves in lowland dry zone and in the caves
per day searching for food. As they lived a in wet land. According to the evidences found
temporary life in caves, on some occasions they so far, they had hunted animals such as gaur,
buried the dead bodies of their relatives inside buffalo, black bear, wild boar, deer, spotted deer,
the cave itself. On some occasions they had dug porcupine, hedgehog, hare, stag, giant squirrel,
a pit with a piece of horn or a stick for the burial. mongoose, wild fowl, monkey, civet cat and
Next, they had placed the dead body in the pit iguana for food. They had caught and eaten
and covered it up with garbage. 12 skeletons were fresh water fish which were full of protein. They
discovered in the cave of Belilena in Kithulgala had caught small fish in natural water pools in
buried in this manner. In the graveyard of lowland wet zone for their food.
Bellanbendipelessa, which was an open area,
there were 30 skeletons which belonged to To get starch they ate some plant food such as
the Stone Age. 9 skeletons, which belonged to wild breadfruit and wild plantains mainly. Some
different Ages, were discovered in the cave in evidences have been found in the cave ‘Belilena’
Pahiyangala. in Kithulgala about seeds of the wild breadfruit
which had been baked and eaten 12500 years
ago. In addition, some food full of starch such as
Food Style yams ‘ Gonala, Katuala’, seeds of ‘Kithul’ and the
kernel of ‘Dothalu’ were eaten. Evidences have
Many evidences of the nature of food of the been found in a few examined places that food
people who lived in the Stone Age are found in had been eaten after being baked.
15
get salt they needed for their food. The remnants
of the lagoon oysters found in Kithulgala
Belilena have been identified to be mixed with
salt brought from coastal areas.
Technology
The stone tools are the only proof that exists to
know about the technology of this era. But it
is difficult to construct a complete idea about
the technology of the Stone Age on the basis of
gem mines in Rathnapura and the stone tools
discovered from the Iranamadu Formation. The
reason for this is the unavailability of enough
stone tools and the inadequacy of available
Fig 2.3. A bead found in a pre-historic habitation in knowledge on the time of them.
Sri Lanka. This has been made of a piece of bone of an
animal.
The stone tools in small size, which are called
geometric micro stone tools by the archaeologists,
help gain a descriptive knowledge on the
The prehistoric people preferred to eat snails. technology of the Stone Age. These have been
Specially, they had eaten tree-snails and oysters named so because the people who attempted to
living in lagoons. The prehistoric people who produce these stone tools had given geometric
lived in the inner parts of the country went far to shapes to them.
Fig. 2.4. A human skeleton which represents the pre-history in Sri Lanka. This was discovered in the Pothana cave close to
Sigiriya. ( The photograph is by courtesy of the Postgraduate Institute of Archaeology)
16
Such a kind of tool is not more than 4.5 cm in Rituals
length. They had used more quartz and a little
of ‘Kahanda’ stones to make these micro stone Clear information of the rituals that existed in
tools. As a whole, non- geometric micro stone the Stone Age is found at least to a certain extent
tools were made mostly. They had been made regarding the burial of dead bodies in that era.
in a way appropriate to the purposes of hunting A clear instance which reflects an effort taken to
animals to cutting, scratching, chopping and do such a task has been discovered in the cave
digging. Apart from these, some tools such as of Rawana Ella close to Badulla. A skull of a
hammers and grinding stones had been made man perforated dividing it into two was found
using granite. in an excavation there. The rough edges and
the parts protruded outside the skull had been
Nature of People’s Physical Body rubbed, leveled and one side of it painted with
red ochre. Several parts of human skeletons,
The skeletons discovered so far help us to painted with red ochre, have been discovered in
understand the size or the stature of the people the cave in Pahiyangala. These evidences clearly
who belonged to the Stone Age. Generally, the show that the dead bodies had been buried
height of a grown male was 174 cm. A grown somewhere and kept for some time until they
female was not more than 166 cm in height. The decayed; later the skeletons had been dug out
teeth of all of them were big in size and they had and buried back. The skeletons discovered in
a wide nose and a chin. The size of the brain of the cave called ‘Batadomba Lena, in Kuruwita
a grown male was 1600 cm3. It was 920 cm3 in had been curled and buried. Researchers have
a grown female. According to the view of the pointed out that there are a number of cultural
anthropologists, the maximum lifespan of the and biological similarities between the people
prehistoric man may have been about 35-40 who lived in the Stone Age and the aborigines
years. (Vedda community) in Sri Lanka.
Fig. 2.5. This is a pre-historic cemetery. This was discovered in the premises of the Kolambageara Ranchamadama
government school in the Rathnapura district of the Sabaragamuwa province. This was discovered during excavations
done in 2007. The cemetery had been used around 3350 years ago.
17
Map 2.2. The distribution of the burial grounds (cemeteries) of megalithic tradition belonging to the proto- historic era.
18
Activity 1
Mark the distribution of the expansion of the

settlements in the prehistoric era so far discovered
in Sri Lanka on a map.
2.2 Settlements in Proto-historic Era
The period between the end of the prehistoric era

and the beginning of the historic era is named as
the proto-historic era. Technologically this was
an era of transition. The proto-historic era in Sri
Lanka is differentiated from the prehistoric era
that existed in Sri Lanka before proto-historic
era on the basis of several facts. Some practices
such as using burnt pots and following a
methodical burial system are prominent among
them. Using iron instead of the technology of
stone tools existed during the prehistoric era,
was started during this period. However, using
stone tools was completely given up during the Fig 2.6 In these clay tub burials, used in the proto-historic
era to perform rituals for the dead, human skeletons were
final stage of the proto-historic era. This age is cremated. Later the remains were deposited after putting
called the proto-historic Iron Age as well as the them into clay pots. This clay tub burial was discovered in
early Iron Age, as using of iron began in this era. the proto-historic burial ground in Ranchamadama.
And also the beginning of building permanent
settlements and starting agriculture are some
more transformations that could be seen in this The Origin of the Proto-historic Era
period.
The knowledge that we possess at present on
the transitory period between the beginning
of the proto-historic era and the end of the
prehistoric era in Sri Lanka is limited. The
changes such as dying down of the technology
of stone tools, hunting including the subsisting
method of gathering food and tendency towards
depending on plant food mostly and using iron
could not have happened suddenly. On the other
hand, there should be a strong cause for such a
transformation. Long term geographical changes
have influenced such cultural transformations in
other countries. Archaeologists and experts on
ancient climate have pointed out that a climatic
change, which affected the entire South Asian
region, had occurred between 7000 – 4500 B.C.,
Illustration 2.3. Clay urns with remains of burnt dead
bodies inside them were deposited in the burial boats which is called the middle of the recent geo-
made of clay. It was a kind of ritual performed by the period or Holocene era. That is, at the end of the
people of this country from ancient time. Ice-Age, a suitable environment was created for
19
agriculture due to the increase of temperature in they belong to a period between 750 and 450
the world. Moreover, the population increased B.C. Proofs about several burial methods which
considerably and a new social style was created. had belonged to the megalithic tradition have
been found in Sri Lanka. Among them, some are
The oldest proof about the proto-historic era methods in which the remains were deposited
of Sri Lanka belongs to 2400 B.C. According in a clay urn and buried. Those tombs are called
to the archaeological explorations carried out ‘urn burials’.
so far, clearer proof regarding this era has been
discovered in the north-eastern part of the
Sabaragamuwa province and the south-western Archaeological excavations have been done
part of the Uva province. in two burial grounds, which belong to the
proto-historic era, in Beragala and Haldummulla
The megalithic burials constructed for the dead in the Uva province. In these burial grounds
in this country are a prominent source that can the remains have been deposited in a different
be used to study the culture of proto-historic era manner. Instead of a nucleus made out of
of Sri Lanka. Such megalithic burials have been connecting stone slabs, the method followed
discovered from several areas in the country. there was depositing the clay pots of remains in
(Refer - Map No. 2.2)The burials, which were a tub made out of raw clay in the shape of a boat.
made out of stone splinters in the shape of Before depositing remains, human skeletons
squares, were covered with huge stone slabs. have been cremated in these clay tubs. As a result,
Some pots containing human remains had been these clay tubs were burnt well. That is the reason
deposited inside these burials. These are called cist that has affected them to remain for a long time
burials. Among those cemeteries Ibbankatuwa without perishing.
megalithic burial located close to Dambulla
in the Central province, Galsohonkanaththa
burial in Yapahuwa and the Yatigalpoththa
burial located close to Galewela have now been
excavated. According to their scientific dating,
20
Fig. 2.7 A stone casket - type- tomb found from Ibbankatuwa burial ground, close to Dambulla. Clay pots containing ashes
of dead human bodies have been deposited in this burial ground.
The Nature of the Settlements
The main feature of this era is that the

people abandoned their hunting livelihood of Udaranchamadama in Rathnapura district in
pre-historic era and built permanent settlements 2009. That house is 10.20m X 6.80m in size and
as well as habitations. The major evidence of rectangular shape. Its front and back had been
that reflects this characteristic introduced as separated with a wall. The walls of the house
sedentism is the remnants of houses that have were made of wattle and daub and the roof was
been discovered so far. Archaeologists were thatched with something like ‘Iluk’.
able to find such a house in a village called
21
Illustration 2.4. A drawing which displays the house that was built in Udaranchamadama in 1129 B.C. This was created
according to the foundation discovered in the excavation.
Life Style in an excavation done in a residential place in

Haldummulla.
Still there is no enough evidence to get an idea of
the nature of the life style in the proto-historic era There were several tools in the kitchen of the
of Sri Lanka. So far excavations have only been excavated house. Among them, there were some
done in burial grounds, and therefore, the stone tools and iron tools. As many of the tools
evidences on the general life style during that of that collection are stone, it seems that using
period are limited. The information gathered iron tools had been a new experience for them
in excavations in the residential place in by then. Among the other debris in the kitchen,
Udaranchamadama assists in getting some idea there remained the bones of animals which
on this. were hunted by the inmates of the house for
their meals. These bones belong to animals like
In Udaranchamadama a house, which was deer, cattle, wild boar, and giant squirrel. These
built around 3000 years ago, was excavated. A evidences show that although they got used to
number of potsherds were discovered inside an agricultural life style, they did not completely
the house. Among them there were a lot of abandon hunting.
painted potsherds. The white background of the
outside and the bottom side of the pot had been Among the other things found in the house, there
beautified by painting red lines. In the manner were a few clay beads, an iron stick used to apply
in which lines have symmetrically been painted, kohl on ladies’ eyes, two brown stones (ochre, one
it is sure that it was made by using a potter’s yellowish and the other reddish in colour used
wheel. Other potsherds of such a pot were found to colour the body and two grinding stones to
22
Fig. 2.7. The painted clay pot, dated 1129 B.C., found in the ancient house in Udaranchamadama. This instance clearly
shows that Sri Lanka had the technology of making pots from very ancient time. The picture on the right hand side displays
the early shape of the same clay pot.
Activity 2
rub on the brown stones. These evidences show
that the women who lived during that period Mark the distribution of settlements of proto-
were interested in beautifying their body. historic era in Sri Lanka on a map.
Technology 2.3. The Settlements in Early Historic Era

The beginning of the transformation of metal The information which describes the early
technology and making clay pots from stone settlements in the historical period of Sri Lanka
tools used in the prehistoric era took place has been mentioned in the historical sources.
during the period called as proto-historic era. Though that information is not sufficient
Since using iron as a metal started, the people to definitely identify the areas where those
of this era had an opportunity to do their day- settlements existed, it provides a considerable
to-day activities efficiently. As iron was a strong assistance to understand the nature of those
metal, they could do activities such as clearing settlements. The archaeological sources are
jungles, digging the ground and ploughing the evidences that assist us to obtain a definite
easily. The painted clay pot found in the old understanding about the expansion of the
house of Udaranchamadama reflects the high ancient settlements in this country and other
technological standard of making clay items relevant information.
that existed in that time. As building houses was
The early historical period was between 450 B.C.
started, the technology related to that gradually
and 300 A.D. The expansion of the small village
increased. Specially, setting the foundation in a
tanks is the main index that shows in which areas
way that sinking does not happen and building
the settlements in this country expanded during
walls levelled to the ground belong to it. A clay
this period. There are thousands of such kinds
bead has been discovered in the excavation in
of small village tanks in the form of ruins found
Udaranchamadama house. That shows that
around Sri Lanka today. In the historical period
the technology of making beads existed in that
majority of the settlements existed mainly close
period. A highly skillful technology is needed to
to a tank. The archaeological field explorations
make a bead.
have discovered that such kinds of villages were
located at one end of the bund of the tank, close
to it.
23
Fig 2.8. Several pits for pillars which belonged to a rectangular foundation of a hut. This was discovered in the excavations
made in the old interior city of Anuradhapura. (The photograph is by the courtesy of the Archaeological Department).
condition. The areas where there is an annual

Factors that Influenced the Expansion of rainfall between 1000 – 1250 ml is called the
Settlements dry zone and the areas where there is an annual
One of the major factors that affected the rainfall less than 1000 ml is called the arid zone.
expansion of ancient settlements was the Though it was difficult to receive sufficient
geophysical background. The elements such as amount of water for agriculture during the
the rate of annual rainfall, nature of the soil, geo entire year, the early settlements expanded in
diversity, expansion of natural resources and the the dry zone because of its fertile soil. The red
drainage etc. are prominent within this factor. - brown soil which is spread mostly in the dry
zone is extremely good for agriculture. There
The settlements in the early historical period were two ways in which these areas received
spread in the areas where there was a dry climatic water for agricultural activities; the major one
24
and Gallena temple in Kurunegala
district. The meaning of the word
‘Awarana’ is ‘Amuna (anicut)’.
The Structure and the Nature of
Settlements
The settlements, which spread in
the areas outside the overflowing
river valleys by being centralized
on small tanks which were fed by
rain water, were independent from
one another. The settlements which
developed themselves around a
tank are referred to as ‘Vapigama’ in
literary sources. ‘Sumanavapigama’,
‘Viharavapigama’, ‘Hundirivapigama’,
Fig 2.9. Several pits for posts of a circular foundation of a hut, found in an and ‘Kadahavapigama’ are some of
excavation done in the old interior city of Anuradhapura.(The photograph is the villages around tanks mentioned
by the courtesy of the Archaeological Department ) in Mahawamsa.
was monsoon rain; the water received from
rivers too was considerably useful during the One village was separated from the other by a
dry seasons. But, when using river water for jungle- belt. Apart from the villages around tanks,
agricultural activities, tasks such as constructing there are short descriptions about the villages,
anicuts across rivers and making canals to carry independent from one another, in historical
gathered water to necessary places had to be sources. Some settlements where different types
done. As it was a task which required labour, of professionals lived in have been mentioned in
time, and technology, they tended to save water the historical chronicles (Vamsakatha) and the
by constructing tanks. inscriptions in this manner;
1. Kasikaragama - villages where farmers lived
From the results of the detailed studies on the 2. Manikaragama -villages where people worked
way how the expansion of settlements occurred in gem mines lived
in early historical period, it manifests that early 3. Gopalagama - villages where cowherds lived
settlements in the historical period in this 4. Kewattagama - villages where fishermen
country expanded not in the river valleys, but in lived
the outside areas of them. The main reason for 5. Kumbhakaragama - villages where potters
this was that there was not a suitable technology lived
to control the catastrophic annual floods from 6. Vadtakigama – villages where carpenters
the rivers. It must have been at the end of the 1 st lived
century B.C. or during the 1 century A.D. when
st
they started controlling floods by constructing Apart from this, there were several villages
anicuts across rivers and taking water to tanks. existed on the basis of tasks.
During the ruling period of king Ilanaga (33 -43 7. Pattanagama - villages situated close to
A.D.), who constructed Tissamaharama tank, an harbours
anicut was built across the Kirindi river. There 8. Niyamgam - trading villages
is a word ‘Avarana’ inscribed on the Brahmi 9. Olagam - villages around tanks deserted by
inscriptions in two caves in Ganekanda temple people
25
Map 2.3. This map shows the distribution of the oldest village tanks and the early epigraphs in Sri Lanka. Since there was
a close relationship between the village, the tank and the epigraphs, the distribution of the tanks reflects the expansion
of ancient settlements.
26
Map 2.4. A map which displays the distribution of ancient settlements around Kirindi Oya, which flows near Tissamaharamaya,
which belongs to Hambantota district. (the dots in the map represents settlements). The settlements which are far away
from the river valley belong to the time between 900 and 500 B.C. Those settlements were the first ones originated in the
area related to that river. The settlements close to the river spread after implementing a strategy to control the annual
flood of Kirindi Oya.
27
Illustration 2.5. This is an imaginary drawing of an ancient village in Sri Lanka. Living mutually with nature and the simplic-
ity that was found in people’s life style as a result of that are prominent features of the rural life.
It is difficult to come to a definite conclusion on around 35000 in the ancient ‘Magama’ city and
the size of the ancient settlements. It was based the adjacent urban settlements. Literary sources
on the abundance of natural resources prevailed say that some villages were protected by a fence.
in various geographical areas. But, according Those villages were called ‘Parikkitta Gam’.
to the evidence found in the archaeological The villages which did not have such type of a
research carried out so far, a small scale village protection were called ‘Aparikkita Gam’.
was normally not more than 0.15 hectares.
A medium scale rural settlement was about To introduce vast urban settlements the name
2 hectares in size whereas a large scale urban ‘Pura (city)’ was used. There is a title called ‘ Pura
settlement was more than 2 hectares. Kamatha’ mentioned in a Brahmi inscription
written in a distant time such as in 250 B.C. It
Normally there lived 5 or 6 families in a village. referred to the main architect in the city. The
Literary sources say that around 30 families word ‘ Nurupura’ was written in the Panakaduwa
lived in some large scale villages. This situation copper plate which belonged to the period of
was completely different in urban settlements. King Vijayabahu I (1055-1110 A.D.) to introduce
It has approximately been calculated that by Anuradhapura.
the 6th century A.D. there was a population The most ancient inscriptions in this country
28
mention a certain type of settlements called set after digging the ground and then applying
‘Nakara’ alias ‘Nagara’. Here the word ‘Nagara’ clay on its surface afterwards. It has been
had been used for a certain settlement that scientifically proved that the house was used in
came between city and a village. Taking the the 3rd century A.D.
commodities produced in the villages for
trading in big cities, was coordinated by these You were able to learn the nature of the ancient
intermediate settlements. They were slightly settlements of this country. You should keep in
bigger than a village. your mind the way in which they had managed
to shape their lives properly and collectively
There are evidences to prove that the organization from very ancient time.
and the administration of these settlements were
systematic even before the early historical era. A
village was a unit consisting of several families. Means of Subsistence
The family was the most important feature of
a village. A family was represented by the chief The means of subsistence of the people, who
householder. He was known as "Gahapathi" in lived in the areas outside the overflowing river
Brahmi inscriptions. A person who acted on valleys, was chena cultivation. Chena crops that
behalf of a group of a few chief householders of grow in dry zones such as Kurakkan, Meneri,
a village was called ‘Gamika’ or ‘Gramika’ which sesame, and Thanahal were cultivated in them.
means 'the chief of the village'. At a later period Those crops, which had a cluster of short roots
a panel consisting of ten chief householders was and were well sustainable to the drought, were
engaged in solving administrative issues in an also conducive to be grown in the areas outside
area joined with ten villages. In inscriptions this the overflowing river valleys. They had tended to
panel has been introduced as ‘Dasa Gam Eththan’. construct basic village tanks as the production
An inscription at an old Buddhist temple called of food had to be increased in parallel with the
Kaludiya Pokuna in Dambulla in Matale district increasing population in the settlements. More
says that if there was any problem regarding the water was needed for more agriculture. A clear
supply of ‘Dane –Alms giving’ in that temple, reflection of how the early historical settlements
‘Dasa Gam Eththan’ should get together and started outside the river valleys entered into river
solve the problem. valley settlements can be given from a study,
done in Kirindi Oya valley, on old settlements.
Several foundations, which had belonged (Refer map No. 2.4)
to ancient rural houses, were discovered in
excavations done in Anuradhapura. Their walls
Activity 3
were made of wattle and daub and roofs were
thatched with leaves. Some houses, among Write the differences of the fundamental
them, were of round shape. Some of the houses features of settlements in the prehistoric,
had square foundations. The archaeologists have proto-historic and historic eras in Sri Lanka.
found only pits for the pillars of these houses.
Some marks of an ancient house were discovered
in a village named Walagampaththuwa in
Tissamaharamaya. The floor of that house was
29
Important Facts
Iranamadu Deposit (Formation)
 Settlements of Sri Lanka started several There was an extremely rainy climate in Sri Lanka during
hundred thousand years ago. Those who made the cool periods of the Great Glazier Era. During this time
their early settlements in this country were higher places underwent immense soil erosion. The eroded
Homo Sapiens. soil from the hilly areas deposited on lowlands. There is a soil
belt, settled in this way, stretching 32 kms from the sea coast
 Early Homo Sapiens lived by adapting to the interior parts of the country. This soil layer is known as
themselves to diverse environmental zones. Iranamadu Deposit (formation). The reason for giving that
Therefore, they lived in many places in Sri Lanka. name to it is that because this soil layer was clearly identified
They did not reflect any racial identity. in the area near the tanks in Iranamadu for the first time. The
stone tools, used by the prehistoric people, were found in this
 The time period in which the early people’s soil layer.
culture existed is known as the prehistoric era.
During that time their main livelihood was The Archaic Homo Sapien
hunting and gathering food by roaming. Homo Sapien means the present human family. The earliest
of this human family originated about five hundred thousand
 During that time, they had stone tool years ago. The term 'Archaic Homo Sapiens', is used to name
technology. They were used to make equipment the earliest of the Homo Sapiens, who lived during the time
out of stones such as alabaster and Kahanda for period between 500000 and 200000 years.
their day-to-day use. The pre-historic era is also
known as ''Mediaeval Stone Age''. Micro Stone Tools
The small sized stone tools used in the recent period of the
 There are evidences that the prehistoric prehistoric era are known by this name. The length of a micro
people engaged in agriculture later. According stone tool made of alabaster or Kahanda stones is about 1 cm
to available proofs, that transformation had been to 7cm. A piece of stone broken out of the above mentioned
complete by 2400 B.C. stone was shaped until it got a sharp edge. After that it was
attached to a piece of wood or an animal’s bone. Cutting,
 Making pots, using burial grounds and using scratching and drilling were done by using such tools.
iron metal were started during this era. This age
is known as proto-historic era. Overflowing Valley
Heavy rainy seasons cause floods. On these occasions both
 Proto-historic era becomes an important banks of the river are submerged with water. The area of either
age because the basics which are related to the side of the river which goes under water is called overflowing
development of Sri Lankan civilization started in valley. The alluvial brought by the flood water settles in the
this age. The people of this country started to live overflowing valley. Therefore that area is highly fertile. The
in villages during this era. term ‘Delta’ is also used to name the overflowing valley.
 According to Mahawamsa, there was a well

organized society in Sri Lanka when Prince
Vijaya and his retinue came to this country.
30
3 Evolution of Political Power in Sri Lanka
3.1 Pre-state Era

Introduction
According to the interpretation given above, the
Historical sources say that this country was foundation of a state in the Sri Lankan history
ruled by many kings and a few queens in the developed at a later time. It has been described in
ancient time. Historical sources describe that the next parts of this lesson. Here, the attention
prince Vijaya who came from India was the has been paid to explain the nature of the ruling
first king who ruled this country. He arrived in system that existed in Sri Lanka before it became
this country in the 6th century B.C. a state. That period is called pre-state era.
The archaeological evidences have There was no one definite ruler to rule this
substantiated that there had been settlements country during the pre-state period. Instead,
in this country even before the arrival of a group of wealthy chieftains dominated their
prince Vijaya. The ancient burial grounds power over small areas. At the beginning of
discovered in the areas such as Beragala and writing inscriptions in this country these
Haldummulla have proved that an agricultural chieftains were introduced in them by the name
society had been in a developing state in this of ‘Parumaka’. The word ‘Parumaka’ is derived
country from 2400 B.C. There must have been from the Sanskrit word ‘Pramukha’. Its meaning
a certain ruling system in such a society for is ‘main’. They were given the power to rule a
it to exist without any chaos. Therefore, the
large or a small area based on the power they
history of evolution of political power in the
possessed as a result of their wealth.
society of this country belonged to the period
before the arrival of prince Vijaya.
There is an inscription, which assists us to show
The authority to rule a country is entrusted to that the Parumakas had a certain provincial
a king or a queen by the people of that country. power, in Kothgalakanda in the Kandalama
Whoever it is, he or she needs people’s consent area close to Dambulla. That inscription
to rule a country. The history has taught us belongs to 250 B.C. A Parumaka who offered
how some rulers, who ruled the country under a cave to the bikkus has been introduced as
people’s dislike, did not have the ability to rule “Thota Bojaka”. Its meaning is “Theerthaya
the country for a long time. As a ruler had Anubhava Karanna”. ‘Theerthaya’ means ‘the
the consent of the majority of people to rule port’. The word "anubhava kirima” was used
a country, the word ‘Mahasmmatha – general in ancient language to mean “collect taxes
will’ had been used to introduce such a king and enjoy properties”. It can only be done
in the eastern countries in the ancient time. by a person who has a ruling power. It is
The ruling land reigned by a king or a queen clear that the Parumaka mentioned in the
on the people’s will (Jana sammathaya) and the Kandalama inscription was one who ruled
various officials who were engaged in ruling that area. Therefore, he had the ability to offer
and the people is called a state. a cave to the Buddhist monks. By examining
31
Illustration No. 3.1. One among the householders in a village was appointed as the chief of the village. He was called
‘Gamika’. The activities between each village were coordinated by the Gamikas.
in which there is important information

how the Parumakas came into being, we can
regarding that was discovered in the area called
easily understand the way in which the political
Periyapuliyankulama. It says that “a householder
power of this country evolved. In order to
who was engaged in metal trade, had cleaned
understand that, the ancient rural society in this
a cave and offered it to the Bhikkus for their
country and its operation should be meticulously
comfort”. Those householders offered themselves
studied.
in common activities in a village representing
each family. In simple terms, the householders
Householders
meant chiefs of the families.
At least by 900 B.C. the rural settlements of
this country had spread in many areas in the
The Gamikas
dry zone. These villages consisted of several The ancient inscriptions as well as the
families. Perhaps between 1 to 30 families lived annotations have mentioned a group of people
in those villages. In the ancient time the word called ‘Gramika’ or ‘Gamika’. They were the
‘Kula’ was used to mean a family. The chief of chiefs of the ancient villages. The ancient villages
all these families was called ‘Gruhapathi’. In the existed separately. A belt of jungle area separated
inscriptions made in 250 B.C and later, the word one village from the other. Because of this
'Gahapathi' was used for them. An inscription separation the people who lived in each village
32
thought about the villages as ‘our village (the agreement of the householders instead of
village where they live)’, neighbouring village taking decisions by all the householders in the
(adjoining village) and the outside villages (the village getting together. Buddhagosha Thero
villages existed far away). The one, who acted has mentioned in Samantha Pasadika that the
representing each village in the affairs between Gamika was one who was appointed among the
villages such as marriages, exchanging goods, as householders themselves.
well as solving problems, was named as Gramika.
Its meaning is the chief of the village. Providing leadership to the common activities in
the village was especially important among the
A chief, to represent a village, was selected tasks done by the Gamikas. Maintaining the tank
among the householders. In the selection, the of the village and distribution of water from it
priority may have been given to the wealth and was prominent among his tasks. It is clear that a
the possessions of the householders. The Jathaka- ruling power was built around him as a result of
Attakathawa tells us a story of borrowing a bag of solving problems in villages, giving leadership to
paddy by a poor man, who lived in an ancient the activities and the wealth he possessed.
village, from the Gamika in the same village
on the promise that he would return it on the As the chiefs of those villages acted mutually
following season. It reveals that Gamikas were with each other, they were able to maintain the
rich enough even to help others. peace and the co-existence between the villages.
An evidence to prove this was discovered in a
To control a group properly, the person who cave in the area called Korawkgala belonging
has won the common trust of that group should to the ancient Buddhist temple situated in
provide the leadership to it. Our ancient villagers Sithulpawwa in Hambanthota district. Three
had acted to appoint the richest and the most people had participated in cleaning that cave and
powerful person as the chief of the village in the offering it to the Bhikkus; they were Gamika Siva,
Gamika Sumana, and Gamika Thidana. These
three people must have been the chiefs of the
Map. 3.1. The tanks in the villages were connected neighbouring villages adjacent to Sithulpawwa.
through canals in order to widen the use of small tanks
which obtained rain water. The word ‘prolapsed-tanks’ is The origin of such chiefs of villages was a decisive
used to introduce that kind of a tank-system. The people milestone in developing the political power of
in the dry zone of Sri Lanka use the word ‘Ellangawa’ to this country.
name it. This map shows that kind of a ‘prolapsed tank
existed in Hambantota district.
The Parumakas
We mentioned earlier that a group of chieftains

called Parumakas was important regarding the
development of the political power in the society
of this country in the ancient time. Here, it is
important to find how such kind of a class of
chieftains emerged and how power was claimed
by them.
The notion of all the scholars, who have studied
about this fact, is that there was a relationship
between the emergence of the chieftains and the
maintenance of ancient tanks. Certainly, how
33
did that happen? was essential for them. Our ancient villagers,
In about 900 B.C. the settlements spread in the who faced such difficulties a number of times,
dry zone mainly around small tanks. These tanks followed a successful method to address those
received water from rain. Normally, the water challenges: they constructed a system of tanks
in those tanks was enough for 10 or 15 families by connecting a few tanks, which existed closely,
who lived in a village for their day-to-day needs through canals. There were two objectives in it; the
for a short time period. In annual dry seasons first one was conserving water by carrying water
the water in those tanks ran dry. We can say that to a tank situated below from a tank situated up
the people might have faced difficulties in such when it overflowed during the rainy season; the
times by the experiences faced at present by the second was increasing the dampness of either side
people of the dry zone. of the land of a canal by sending water constantly
through the canal between the two tanks. They
The problem of not having adequate rain water were able to cultivate crops easily by increasing
collected in the tanks arose not only due to the the dampness in such a manner. Even today the
dry climatic condition. With the passing of time ruins of such tank systems could be seen in the dry
more water was needed due to the increase of zone. The word ‘prolapsed tanks’ is used to name
population in villages. Since they had to cultivate such kind of a tank system. People in the dry zone
more lands in order to produce more food for call it ‘Ellangawa’. The origin of tank – systems was
the increasing population, collecting more water not merely a process of connecting a few tanks;
Fig. 3.1. The Ibbankatuwa burial ground (cemetery) in Dambulla was used between 700 and 450 B.C. The burial grounds
like these were used by the influential people like the Parumakas.
34
something important was happening behind it. chieftains in the then society.
Earlier we mentioned that the villages were Even today ruins of hundreds of such tank –
situated separately in the dry zone. Further, we systems could be seen in the plains in the dry
said that there was a tank in each and every zone. It is clear that there was a Parumaka for
village. In constructing tank systems they each tank – system during the time they were
connected such independent tanks with each used. There is information on hundreds of such
other according to the contour lines of water Parumakas in inscriptions. Not only men, but
flowing. Therefore, it was natural for the chiefs also women too were engaged in provincial
of the villages to discuss and there emerged the administration on some occasions. Such women
need of taking important decisions regarding were called in the name of ‘Parumakalu’. As a
connecting tanks in their villages. When the whole, all of them were people who ruled the
most ancient inscriptions are read meticulously, small land units in the areas where settlement
it can be seen that the most powerful person had spread in the dry zone. Accordingly, the
among the Gamikas had acted to represent all evolution of political power in Sri Lanka started
villages of the tank – system. This person was as a divided system. The best word that can be
called by the name of ‘Parumaka’. Since the used to name such a method is ‘decentralized
Parumakas had the power to take decisions on ruling’.
behalf of the welfare of the people who lived in
several villages belonging to the tank- system,
they were considered to be a group of important
Illustration 3.2 The chiefs of the Gamikas were called Parumakas. They had the right to collect taxes. The Parumakas
symbolize an important beginning of developing the political power in a later time.
35
(oriental)’. There is another note about such
another provincial king named ‘Duhathara Raja’
in a cave in the ancient Buddhist temple called
Yatahalena in Kegalle.
The word ‘king’ gives the meaning of ‘one who

makes others happy’. Therefore, the word ‘king’
is used to refer to ‘one who works for the people’s
welfare diligently and make them happy. As the
Parumakas acted in such a manner, later they
were named thus. The origin of a generation of
brave kings, who ruled Sri Lanka, occurred in
such a background.
Growth of Kingship
The growth of kingship means centralizing the

power which was decentralized.
Centralizing political power in a country means

a country being united. This means that power
comes under one person. When the power is
centralized, the concept of state is created. Its
ruling head is the king and he has a specific
territory under his ruling.
According to historical sources, the first king

who ruled this country was King Pandukabhaya.
According to the description given in
Mahawamsa, king Pandukabhaya,
1. ascended to kingship by fighting several

Fig 3.2. This necklace which was discovered in the
Ibbankatuwa burial ground belonged to the period provincial rulers (his uncles) and captured those
between 700 and 450 B.C. This is a bead necklace and areas.
some of the beads in this were imported ones. The luxury 2. selected Anuradhapura as his ruling centre
of the growing rich Parumakas is reflected by this.
and built up the city of Anuradhapura.
In this manner, the Prumakas who exercised 3. marked the rural borders during his tenth year
the provincial ruling in this country were so after the accession to kingship.
powerful that sometimes they went to the extent
of introducing themselves in the term of ‘King’. The need of centralizing the political power was
An ancient inscription in the area called Embul gradually emerging by the ruling period of king
Ambe in Matale district mentions a provincial Devanampiyatissa. One of the main reasons that
ruler called Pochani Raja which means 'the king influenced this was the trade affairs growing in
of the eastern region'. Pochani means ‘Pracheena the Indian Ocean. It was not only because of the
geographical location of Sri Lanka, which was
36
situated in the middle of the sea trade route that King Dutugemunu was another pioneer in
connected western countries with the eastern the process of centralizing the decentralized
countries, that it became an important to the political power of Sri Lanka. The king received
international traders. Gems, tuskers, and spices the support of the Parumakas for that. Examples
that Sri Lanka possessed had become attractive to prove this can be seen in the inscriptions
commodities for them. In joining this emerging belonging to his ruling period.
international trade, the need of working as an
independent country arose. Therefore, the then The army generals who extended their support
powerful provincial rulers had understood the to King Dutugemunu to unite the country had
need of bringing the country into a unitary rule. worked as Parumakas before they were given
the above mentioned posts. The names of the
army generals such as Velusumana, Pussadeva,
Theraputtabhaya, and Nandimithra were
mentioned in the inscriptions as Parumakas.
Parumaka
Several such inscriptions can be seen in the caves
in Situlpawwa. King Dutugemunu obtained the
Parumaka Parumaka
support of such Parumakas and centralized
Mapurumuka the power, which was decentralized so far. The
Parumaka Parumaka regional chieftains, who were the Parumakas
during the time when the power decentralized,
became persons who held different posts
Parumaka
after the power was centralized. The names of
Parumaka Pussadeva, Parumaka Velusumana,
King Dutugemunu managed to establish a centralized Parumaka Therputtabhaya later became
ruling by combining the Parumakas who were enjoying a
decentralized power. Senapathi Parumaka Pussadeva, Senapathi
Parumaka Velusumana and Senapathi Parumaka
Teraputtabhaya. These changed names could be
Mahawamsa says that king Devanampiyatissa seen in contemporary inscriptions.
had invited the Kshasthriyan (the clan of trade)in
Katharagama and Chandanagama to participate
in the ceremony of planting the Sri Maha Bodhi.
Not only that, we know the king took steps to
plant a branch of Sri Maha Bodhi in various
parts of the country. By this act it becomes clear
that the king had thought of the need of building
affability among the regional rulers. Holding
coronation of King Devanampiyatissa again
by using the five insignia of royalty sent by the
powerful emperor king Ashoka who ruled India
and using the title ‘Devanampiya’ of emperor
Ashoka, arrival of Mihindu thero bringing Fig. 3.3. This photograph displays some clay stamps used
Buddhism to Sri Lanka are facts that reflect in the ancient time. There was not anything marked on
the nature of relationships maintained with the them when they were discovered. Stamps like these were
countries in the Indian oceanic region. used by government officers. These three stamps were
discovered in the place where there was the old urban
hall in Tissamaharamaya.
37
Further, the inscriptions provide us information Sri Lanka could stand as an independent country
about the treasurers, cashiers, and storehouse before the world because of its centralized
keepers who held the post of Parumaka earlier. political power.
According to literary sources, King Dutugemunu
was the first king to unite the whole country.
King Dutugemunu took a very effective

step to centralize the power in ancient
Sri Lanka. Historical sources say that a Sri Lankan
ambassador had been to Rome and brought
glass beads with him when he returned during
the ruling time of king Bhathikabhaya.
King Wasabha made the centralization of the

political power more successful. During his
time Sri Lanka was ruled as one unit. The
inscriptions established by king Wasabha had
spread in a wide area in this country. Further,
separating administrative districts (asthana) and
appointing ministers to administer each district
too were done during his ruling time. It has been
written in the golden plate, ‘Wallipuram’ that
the Jaffna area was ruled by a minister named
Srishigiri appointed by the king in his time.
During that time Jaffna peninsula was known as
Nagadeepaya (Nakadiva).
Fig 3.5. The statue of King Bhathikabhaya, who performed

a great Pooja to Ruwanweliseya. This statue can be seen
in the premises of Ruwanweliseya even today.
3.2 The Concept of State
The king, created by the centralized political

power, is an extremely powerful person.
Therefore, the king had appeared before the
people in a majestic form. The rulers thought their
duty was developing the country economically,
providing security to the countrymen, and
Fig. 3.4. A clay stamp discovered in the place where the
enhancing spiritual development of the people.
ancient Magama city was located in Tissamaharama.
Several symbols used by the then royals in Ruhunu are Providing security on the occasions of threats
marked here. from foreign enemies, developing the economy
by constructing irrigation and enhancing
people’s spirituality by building religious places
38
were some examples. The history provides word belongs to the Sanskrit language and in
evidence to prove how even kings such as Elara Sinhala it is used as ‘Sakvithi’. Some rulers in
and Nisshankamalla, who had foreign origin, this country had used this word to show their
acted in the above described way and won the identity in the 8th and 9th centuries A.D. Specially,
trust of the people. king Nishshankamalla used the line “Kalinga
Chakrawarthi Swaminwahanse” to introduce
Different concepts about kingship developed himself in his inscriptions.
according to the actions of the king and the
way that they attempted to appear. Accordingly, Though there were various terms about the
concepts like Devathwa, Bodhisathwa, kingship, all of those concepts were used to show
Parvatharaja, Veerathwa, and Chakravarthi were the superiority of the king. When such type
applied to the kings. of nobleness is applied to the ruler, the people
expected him to be exemplary. It is natural for
Most frequently the king appeared either as a him to be persuaded to act as that. That is how
Bodhisathwa or as a god. The king Kutakanna the conceptual background was created, which is
Abhaya, who made the inscription in a rock in essential for a righteous ruling.
Dambulla temple, has introduced him by the
name of ‘Nareshvara’ (Naraisera). Its meaning is Inheritance of Kingship
god Eeshwara for humans.
When we study how the kingship was inherited
King Mahasen was worshipped as God of in ancient Sri Lanka, it seems it passed from
Minneri due to his service of developing the brother to brother or from father to son.
economy by constructing irrigation works. Even
today there are Devalas in the dry zone dedicated After the demise of king Devanampiyatissa, his
for God Mahasen. brothers ascended to the kingship. After king
Dutugemunu, his brother Saddhatissa became
King Kashayapa I appeared as Kuwera. The name the king. When the kingship was given to a
‘Alakapaya Maha Raja’ had been used to call brother, the eldest among the younger brothers
him. The meaning of it is ‘Alakamandadhipathi – of the king was given power. When it was not so,
Maha Raja’. ‘Alakamanda’ is the living place of the history provides evidence to the fact that there
god ‘Kuwera’ who is in charge of wealth. Literary were conflicts for the kingship.
sources say that ‘Alakamanda’ was a huge rock.
The rulers in ancient Asia followed the method What was frequent was passing the kingship
of appearing in the concept of ‘Parvatharaja’. from father to son. After king Kawantissa,
prince Dutugemunu became the king; after king
The king, appearing as a Bodhisathwa was Vasabha, his son prince Vankanasikatissa became
another instance. The king showed, on one hand, the king. In this way passing kingship from father
that he was bound with responsibility to rule the to son can be seen throughout the history of Sri
country in a just and fair manner for the benefit Lanka. Either king’s elder son or the consort’s
of the people and, on the other hand, it reflected elder son became the heir. There are evidences
that the people should trust and respect the king. that there were conflicts when it was not so. We
know that king Kashyapa usurped the kingship
Another view that the kings of this country from his father, king Dhathusena. The king had
held was the concept of ‘Chakrawarthi’. to do so because prince Mugalan, who was the
Chakrawarthi is a concept which conveys the son of then king’s consort, was the real heir to
meaning of ‘dominating the whole world’. That the throne. The mother of prince Kashyapa was
39
a second queen of king Dhathusena. Apart from Architect of the city (Nagara Wudika)
this, there were occasions when the kingship +
went to the brother of the king’s consort and Officer in charge of the horses (Asa Adeka)
the son of the king’s sister. It happened so when +
there was no real heir as described above. Officer in charge of tuskers (Hathi Adeka)
+
Officer in charge of dramas (Nata Adeka)
Statecraft +
Officer in charge of making coins (Rupa Adeka)
During the time when the political power was +
decentralized many of the Parumakas were Officer in charge of trades (Pana Adeka)
combined together and built the state. The king +
acted as the head of all the Parumakas. Therefore, Officer in charge of archives (Kanapedika)
the word ‘Mahaparumaka’ or ‘Mapurumuka’ was
used to name the king. We earlier mentioned
how some powerful Parumakas used the name This kind of official structure provided a good
‘king’ before the power was centralized. But, assistance to the administration of the country.
after the centralization of political power in the Common people were ones who benefited much
country, the word ‘Maha Raja’ was used to name from this.
the ruler of the country.
3.3. Great Kings Who Ruled This Country
By referring to the most ancient inscriptions
of this country, we can fairly understand the From the facts discussed so far, you must
structure of the officials, who belonged to the have understood how the development of the
state administration which developed after the political power in Sri Lanka was influenced
centralization of the power in Sri Lanka. by a socio – economic process. Specially, the
rulers who, had understood that they needed
The king – Maha Raja (Mapurumuka) an efficient centralized ruling more than a
decentralized one if they wanted to gain the due
Chief Minister – Maha Emathi benefits from international trade affairs afoot in
(Mahamatha) the Indian Ocean during the latter part of the
1st century B.C, took necessary steps for that.
Ministers – Emathiwaru (Ametha)+ In this part it is expected to discuss the policies
Commanders (Shenapathi) and contributions of the rulers who ruled
this country, in parallel to the development of
Treasurer – Bhandagarika (Badagarika) political power in Sri Lanka, citing several kings
as examples.
Officer in charge of the Dining Hall
– (Bathagu) King Dutugemunu
Officer in charge of customs King Dutugemunu, who is highlighted in the

–(Kothuruge na) historical sources, was a ruler who rendered a
great service to organize the political power in
Administrator of the city this country properly. The king understood the
-(Nagaragutika) need of saving Mathota international harbour,
which earned a good income because of the
40
trade affairs which was prospering in the Indian King Vasabha
Ocean during his time, from the then king Elara
who had usurped the power in Anuradhapura King Vasabha, who was the first ruler of the lineage
and uniting the country. The way that prince (dynasty) of Lambhakarna, was a prominent
Dutugemunu acted for that purpose according to character among the rulers of this country. The
the advice and the plans of King Kavantissa, his procedure that the king followed to regulate
father, was a landmark in the political history of and to organize the internal administration of
this country. Prince Dutugemunu was the first to the country properly was exemplary. There are
provide leadership to the first organized fighting a number of inscriptions that he has established
movement in the history of this country. The around the country. According to the information
statement that he made about his fight against in them, the king tried to divide the country
King Elara, which he would do, not because that into provinces and regulate the administration.
he wanted to enjoy comforts and the facilities of a And also, inscriptions say that the process of
king but because for the benefit of the Buddhism collecting taxes of the state was made systematic
clearly shows how the ruler entered to the during the king’s time.
political process based on a common purpose on
behalf of the country. After the battle, the king The details of the historical sources reveal that
ordered his subjects to respect his defeated rival’s King Vasabha pioneered in constructing large
tomb, which shows his statesmanship. scale tanks in this country for the first time. The
Wamsakatha (chronicles) say that the king had
As we have explained in the part ‘growth of constructed sixteen large scale tanks. The king
kingship’ of this lesson, the most important tended to execute such kind of construction as
contribution that King Dutugemunu made to there was a great demand for the grains produced
the process of development of political power in this country in South India because there was
in this country was managing to combine the a dearth of food in the valley of Krishna river
Parumakas who had possessed the decentralized in South India. The immediate decision king
provincial power by then. At the end he Vasabha took to invest the public money on
possessed a great power after being anointed as constructing new reservoirs can be analyzed as a
the king (Maha Raja) of the country. Though he far-sighted and a productive decision to address
was so powerful, his redressing attitudes towards an international and regional need emerged at
the people reflect that he could realize his prime the time.
responsibility which was to work for the welfare
of the people. The best example for this is that The way that king Vasabha acted to reconstruct
during the construction period of Ruwanweli the Buddhist temples and Stupas in this country
Stupa the king ordered to run alms halls (Dan is not second to any other ruler’s task. A number
Sel) at the four gates of the Stupa and make of inscriptions mention the financial support the
payments for everyone who had participated king provided to reconstruct the decayed places
in its construction works. King Dutugemunu in Buddhist temples and to supply facilities to
should be admired not merely for his service the Bhikkus.
to Buddhism of this country. Taking initiatives
to organize the decentralized political power in We should understand that the decisions that the
Sri Lanka is also a prominent feature among his king made to make the lives of the people better
tasks. in the country by taking steps needed to increase
the local income and using the income earned
in that manner to develop the irrigation of the
country are exemplary.
41
King Vijayabahu I in a way in which maintaining the relationships
with Eastern region of India could take place
King Vijayabahu I is another prominent and a easily. Though ex-rulers had paid their attention
great ruler who belongs to the history of this on this before, king Vijayabahu I was the one
country. The king acted to suppress the power who acted practically regarding the matter.
of Chola through a war movement planned in a One of the main reasons that appear to have
very intelligent manner during a period in which affected to select Polonnaruwa as the ruling
Sri Lanka was under the Chola ruling for a long centre was the Trincomalee harbour, which was
time after the growth of power of the Chola kings named Gokanna Thiththa during that period,
in South India. was located facing the Eastern part of the South
Indian ocean and he understood that controlling
The King was called Keerthi in his childhood of the trade affairs of that harbour could be done
and grew in Ruhuna area. The royal family easily from the Polonnaruwa ruling centre.
including prince Keerthi and his parents were
given protection by a public officer who lived The way king Vijayabahu I acted as a ruler
in Ruhuna. He was Sithnarubima Budhal Na by influenced much on the history of Sri Lanka
name. He was a security officer. An interesting during the Polonnaruwa period. The sovereignty
description of the way that Budhal Na provided of this country, which was preserved until it was
protection to the royal family is included in the threatened by the Europeans, was a result of the
Panakaduwa copper plate which had been got intelligence and great ideas of the rulers of that
written by king Vijayabahu I. time.
All the steps taken by king Vijayabahu I to

act against the powerful Chola kings was an
effective fruitful procedure followed to protect Activity 1
the existence of the whole territory in the
country. The concepts of freedom of territory in Describe the persons who were introduced
any country and continuity are called territorial by the names given below.
integrity. The protection of the territorial integrity
of a country by a ruler is a prime responsibility of 1.Gruhapathi
him for the citizens. 2. Gamika
3. Parumaka
4. Raja
The king, who united the country by defeating
the Chola rulers through a fighting movement,
took much pain to develop the country. He acted
immediately to renovate the Buddhist temples
which were not maintained properly during the Activity 2
period of the Chola ruling. The king took a very
important step to strengthen the economy of the Write a short description about the
country; that is, making Polonnaruwa his ruling prominent kings who ruled the country during
centre instead of Anuradhapura. The king took Anuradhapura and Polonnaruwa periods.
such a step because the international trade based
on the Western areas of India by then had been
transferred to the Eastern Indian region. With
that transferring, what was very important for
Sri Lanka was to organize the administration
42
Important Facts
 At the early stages the political power in  In running the rule of the country, the rulers
Sri Lanka was in a decentralized nature. The appeared in different types of concepts. Most of
chieftains who were powerful provincially the time they attempted to appear as a god.
handled the ruling power.
 Those who were engaged in ruling affairs at

the village level were called Gamikas and those
who ruled a wide area consisted of several villages
Pancha Kakudha Bhanda – Pancha Kakudha Bhanda means
were named as Parumakas. Gamikas represented
the five items which are considered to provide prosperity when
the householders who were in charge of several
they are used. The Walvidunava, Mirivedi Sangala (a pair of
houses in a village. The word Gahapathi was
slippers), Magul Kaduva (king’s sword), Sesatha (Parasol),
used to name them.
Nalal Patiya (the strap tied on the forehead) belong to it.
Kings used them in their coronations. Mahawamsa says that
 A political body is needed to control power
king Devanampiyatissa held his second coronation using the
which is necessary to handle the conflicts and
Pancha Kakudha Bhanda sent by emperor Ashoka.
other complexities in a society, which are caused
due to the facts such as life competition caused
The title Devanapiya – Indian emperor Ashoka used the
by emergence of various social requirements
title Devanapiya (Devanampriya) meant ‘adorable to God’.
in line with development of settlements. The
King Tissa, who ruled this country in the contemporary
political power in the ancient society of Sri
period of emperor Ashoka, used this title and called himself
Lanka developed based on such needs.
Devanampiyatissa.
 The process of centralizing the political

Alakamandava – Literary texts describe that Alakamandava is
power, which had been decentralized in this
the dwelling place of the ‘Kuvera’ who is in charge of wealth.
country, was initiated by king Dutugemunu.
Accordingly, it is one of the prosperous cities which belongs to
That task, initiated by king Dutugemunu for a
the island ‘Uthurukuru’ where gods live.
political purpose for the first in the history of
this country, was accomplished by King Vasabha,
who was a member of the Lambhakarna lineage.
 Centralizing the power means the ruling

power of the country goes to one hand of one
ruler. There a group of officers are appointed to
run the administration of the country. The word
state is used to name the king, the officers, the
rules and regulations imposed by them and the
institutions which put them into practice.
43
4 The Ancient Society of Sri Lanka
Introduction are engaged in that process. The judiciary

provides the justice to the countrymen by
The majority who live in any society at any preventing the damage caused to the society due
given time is the general public. Rulers, to breach of law.
government officers, religious leaders and
other chieftains are a minority among the In the ancient time there were an executive as
people. History is the past that reflects well as a judiciary in our country. The executive
the activities of all of them. Though that acted as the legislature too. There was not an
is the truth, many of the historical source independent body as a separate legislature,
descriptions have presented information because then there was monarchism in this
paying more attention to the minority that country. The inscriptions written in 9th century
we mentioned secondly. Therefore, the A.D. had used the word ‘Ekthensamiya’ to
knowledge of information about the ancient name the executive and the legislature. In an
general public is limited. If we need to inscription in the place called Buddhannehela
understand the history of this country better, there is a note which could be put into words
it is necessary to learn the information of such as “Apa methuwak dena awud wathhimiyan
lives of the general public who lived during wahansege wadala ekthensamiyen”. The word
the ancient time. In this lesson you will have ‘Ekthensamiya’ is formed from the words ‘Eka
an opportunity to learn all this with more asthana’ and ‘Samya’. The word ‘Eka asthana’
information. means ‘king’s court’ and ‘Samya’ means
‘agreement’. Hence, the word ‘Ekthen Samiya’
4.1 The Nature of Ruling gives us the meaning ‘agreement of the king’s
court’. The inscription Buddhannehela was
The historical sources say that kings ruled our established to make a statement of an offering of
country in the ancient times. The inscriptions a land. The phrase of the inscription mentions
mention very important information about that the offering was made with the agreement of
the procedure of the statesmanship followed in the king’s court and due to the decree of the king.
ruling the country. The phrase “Wath himiyan wadala” means the
“king’s decree”. The word ‘Wathhimi’ is a similar
There are three institutions which handle word to king.
the ruling of any country. They are called the
legislature, the executive and the judiciary. The According to the inscriptions that belong to
government means these three institutions. The the 9th century A.D., the officers, who came to
legislature is the institution which makes laws in grant the land of the government to the Buddhist
a country. As it is done by the parliament of our temples, had represented a place called ‘sabhava
country today, in the ancient time it was done by – the council’. As mentioned in one of the
the king’s court. The executive is the institution inscriptions found in Anuradhapura district the
which implements laws. The government officers officers named Udaya in Meningamuva and Sena
44
in Nikawella had come representing the council (Sabhawa)
to offer a plot of land called Kerelegama to the nunnery
called Mahindarama. It goes like this in the inscription,
“Sabhayen a meningamu udahi isa nikaweli senu isa”.
Here the word ‘Sabhawa’ means the judiciary existed

then. It is a legal act to bequeath land of the government
to another. Therefore, the participation of the officers,
representing the judiciary, in such occasions was essential.
On such occasions demarcating the borders of the given
land and documenting the conditions that should be
followed in enjoying the land must have been the duty of
the officers.
In the literary sources the word ‘Mahale’ has been used

in several places instead of the word ‘Sabhawa’. That was
how the old Sinhala word ‘Maha Lekhaka – great writer’
was written. It is similar to the meaning ‘Maha Lekam
– general secretary’. The duty of the secretaries of the
government was to document all governmental affairs
and take necessary steps to preserve them. An inscription
found in Medirigiriya mentions about such a general
secretary. The inscription says that a general secretary
(Mahale Kasba) called Kashyapa had come to offer a land
to a Padhanaghara called Eth Wehera in Medirigiriya and
to do the legal affairs of it under the decree of King Sena II.
When Anuradhapura was the capital of the country, it was

the ruling centre too. The king ruled the country from the
capital. It is clear that as there were no transportation and
communication facilities like today, therefore handling
the administrative affairs of the remote areas from
Anuradhapura was difficult. There are facts that can be
seen in literary sources about separate administrative units
related to the government for provincial administration
because of the above reason. An example which can be
given for that is the golden plate - ‘Vallipuram’ written in
King Vasabha’s ruling period. It has been mentioned in
the document that a minister called Rishigiri, who ruled
Nagadeepa during king Vasabha’s ruling period, built a
Fig.4.1. Several symbols in an inscription written in the 9th century A.D. Here, the
mark ‘ Vatapatha (fan)’ indicates the sceptre which symbolizes royalty; the mark
‘Wela (creeper)’ indicates the swan. The swan symbolizes the purity of the given
allowance. The crescent mark at the top symbolizes that this allowance persists
until the sun and the moon exist. The marks of the dog and crow symbolize that
those who disturbed this allowance would be born as those animals in their next
birth.
45
temple called Piyangukatissa there. This clearly delivery’. In the inscriptions those buildings were
shows the manner in which the officers of the named as ‘Thimbirige’. From an ancient time,
central government had been appointed to rule there was the tradition of building maternal
the outer areas. hospitals in this country. There was a type of halls
called ‘Sottisala’ during king Pandukabhaya’s
Apart from these, there were independent reign. The annotative texts describe that the
councils, which were at lower levels to administer name ‘Sottisala’ was used by Brahmins for the
each area. In the inscriptions, those independent places where religious activities were performed
councils, which existed in 9th century A.D., have and to name the maternity hospitals.
been introduced as ‘Dasagam Ettan’. The heads
of them had participated in the administrative The intelligent kings, who ruled our country
affairs at a minor scale, representing ten villages. maintained mutual relations with their
An inscription situated in an old temple called neighbouring countries as well as with distant
Kaludiya Pokuna in Matale district says that if countries. The countries with which relations
there was a problem regarding offering alms to were maintained, changed from time to time.
the temple, Dasagam Ettan should gather and Relations were maintained with Asian countries
solve the problem. including India and Araby since a very long time
and with some European countries since several
In administration, the rulers of the country
centuries from the recent past. Inscriptions in
acted for the welfare of the people. They not only
the South India mention that King Gajabahu I
offered grants to the temples, but also acted for
(114-136 A.D.), who was a reputed ruler from
the betterment of the countrymen. Especially,
the ‘Lambhakarna’ lineage had arrived in ‘Chera’
the rulers frequently paid their attention to uplift
state in South India to participate in a ceremony
the health facilities of the general public, which
where a ‘Pattini’ Devala was declared open.
was essential to them. The word ‘Vejjasala’ has
been used in ancient literary sources. That word Perhaps the purpose of this journey might have
means ‘hospitals’. The inscriptions made in the been to strengthen the mutuality of statesmanship
2nd century B.C. mention about doctors who between two countries.
were called ‘Veja’.
Mahawamsa mentions that king Bhatikabhaya
King Buddhadasa (340 – 368 A.D) was a ruler (23B.C-7A.D.) had sent ambassadors to
who made a great effort to build hospitals. King ‘Romanuka Desha’. Here ‘Romanuka Desha’
Mahinda V (982 – 1029 A.D) acted to provide means Rome. The purpose of this mission was
everything required to the hospitals in various to fetch glass pebbles for a Pooja performed at
provinces in the country then. During the reign Ruwanweli Seya.
of king Kashyapa IV (898 -914 A.D) a dangerous
fever spread in and around Anuradhapura. In the 8th and 9th centuries A. D. the rulers of this
Historical sources say that the king who realized country built a close relation with China. During
that those patients could not be treated under the that time ambassadors from this country went to
facilities available in the hospital existed then, China. In the ruling period of king Aggabodhi
built a special hospital for that. For that the word VI these relations were very strong. During that
‘Upasaggaroganasa’ was used in the sources. time twenty foreign missions went to China.
The success in trading was the basic background
King Upatissa I (365-406 A.D.) built maternal of the relations built with China and it made a
hospitals for the needs of the pregnant women. cultural influence too.
Those hospitals were named as ‘Paswantinama
Sala’. That word means ‘the halls built for the
46
Sri Lanka had marital relations with 4.2 Economy
neighbouring countries. This reflects another
way that Sri Lanka maintained its foreign The majority of the people lived in villages. In
relations. Specially, there is information in the comparison to the present condition, those
Wamsakatha about marital relations that our villagers’ lives were shaped up in a very simple way.
rulers had with powerful Indian states such Most of their occupation was agriculture. Some
as Kalinga, and Pandya. King Vijayabahu I were engaged in Chena cultivation whereas the
(1070-1110) married a Kalinga princess named others were engaged in paddy cultivation. They
Thilokasundari and the king’s sister princess reared animals for living. Apart from these, some,
Miththa married a Pandyan prince. It seems who were engaged in different occupations, lived
that the fundamental purpose of these marital in villages completely separated for themselves.
relations was to maintain the political power
with stability through relationships. 4.2.1 Farming/ Agriculture
Though there were differences in languages and The main livelihood of the villagers who lived
religions, acting with trust with the neighbouring in the ancient Sri Lanka was farming. Animal
countries were one of the prominent features of husbandry or rearing animals was also done in
the foreign policy of our rulers. The best example line with the agricultural activities. Agriculture
for this is that King Vijayabahu I appointed the was done in two ways; one was muddy agriculture
Veleikkara army for defense of the Polonnaruwa alias paddy cultivation; second was Chena
Temple Tooth. Veleikkara force was a mercenary cultivation. The historical and archaeological
army which came from Southern India and sources substantiate that the Chena cultivation
served in Sri Lanka for payments. was the oldest out of these two. The term
‘Hena’ (Chena) used in ancient time has been
After the 10th century A.D., our kings had a mentioned as ‘Sehen’ in Buthsarana, the literary
mutual relationship with Arabian countries. text, ‘Sen’ in Ummagga Jathaka, and ‘Pitibim’ in
The purpose of that must have been giving Sri inscriptions.
Lankan contribution stably for the trade affairs
done by the Arabian traders in the Indian Ocean. Chena Cultivation – ‘Hena’ or Chena cultivation
As it is mentioned by the Arabian historian Al – is an inland cultivation. A suitable land for
Balasuri, who lived in the 9th century A.D., the ‘Hena or Chena’ is prepared for growing grains
king of ‘Ruby Island’ (Sri Lanka was called by this and vegetables after choosing a plot of land
name) had exchanged gifts with the Islamic king. from a jungle area, clearing it by cutting small,
trees, undergrowth and thorny bushes in it and
If it is summarized, the main purposes of the burning them after they dried. In this process the
ruling in this country were creating a peaceful farmers would not cut big trees. Before setting
co-existence among the countrymen, providing fire to the cleared jungle area, the owner of the
their welfare and protecting the territorial Chena shouts out in order to chase away animals
integrity for preserving the motherland from that area.
and future longevity of the countrymen. In
parallel to them, it seems that they have acted
with a farsighted vision to work in a mutual
understanding with the neighbouring countries.
47
Fig. 4.2. A scene of a newly arranged Chena (Nawadeli Hena)
A new chena, which has been cleared by setting thala, amu, mustard (Aba), dill (Duru), and
fire to it, is called as ‘Nawa Deli Hena’. Those millet (Thanahal) as well as vegetables such as
Chenas are fertile. The term ‘Nawadeli Sena’ has Karabatu, Thiththabatu, Brinjal (Vambatu), ash
been mentioned in ‘Saddharma Rathnawaliya’ pumkin (Alu puhul) and pumpkin (Wattakka)
too. In some parts of Sri Lanka, a different were cultivated in Chenas. Al vee (a type of
meaning is given to the term ‘Nawa Deli Hena’. It paddy), yams, Uk Gas (sugar cane) and Kapu
says the term ‘Nawa Deli Hena’ is used for Chenas (cotton) were cultivated in Chenas separated for
where the nine plants namely, finger millet them. During that time the cultivation of sugar
(Kurakkan), Kollu, Undu, green gram(Mun), cane and cotton was rich enough to produce
Corn (Iringu), millet (Thanahal), dill seeds jaggery and clothes needed for the country. The
(Asamodagam) and Amu have sprouted in Wamsakatha mention that there were labourers
lush. The villagers in Anuradhapura use the engaged in sugar cane industry. Our ancestors
term ‘Kanaththa’ to name the Chenas which are were able to produce jaggery needed within the
prepared to start cultivation again after giving it country itself for a long time. The scholars point
up for some time. The normal method practised out that until the 16th century A.D., sugar was
in Chena cultivation was abandoning a certain not imported to this country.
Chena after cultivating it for once or twice. As it
is abandoned for some time, it grows wild again. As a Chena is cultivated in a place which is away
Therefore, old Chena cultivation did not do any from farmers’ houses, they stay temporarily in
harm to the environment. a hut built in the Chena until it is harvested.
The fence, which is normally made out of sticks
The seeds such as Undu, Ma, Green gram (Mun), around the Chena to protect its crops from the
finger millet (Kurakkan), Corn (Iringu), Sesame
48
Illustration 4.1 A Chena is a beautiful scene. The hut, which was built for the farmer to stay at night to protect the Chena
from wild animals, the fence made with sticks around the Chena are things that can mostly be seen.
wild animals, is called ‘Dandu Weta’. The small Paddy Cultivation – In inscriptions the
hut built at the top of a tall tree in the Chena is places where paddy was cultivated have been
called ‘Pela’. It was in this ‘Pela’ that the farmers introduced as ‘Kumbura’ and ‘Ketha’. Sometimes
stayed sleeplessly at night to protect the crops in the word ‘Kumbura’ may have been used to
their Chenas from wild animals. introduce the small space which was used for
paddy cultivation. The term ‘Ketha’ has derived
During the times of some kings, taxes were from the Sanskrit word ‘Kshesthra’. It meant
charged for cultivating Chenas. Two types of 'considerably big fields'.
such taxes, ‘Kethi Ada’, ‘Ketu Kanaba Aya’ have
been mentioned in inscriptions. The inscriptions Mostly the paddy cultivation was done by using
say that King Nissankamalla (1187-1196 A.D), irrigation. During monsoon seasons, rain water
who ruled in Polonnaruwa, abolished those two was reserved in tanks. Then the water was
types of taxes. carried to paddy fields through canals. Twice a
year paddy was cultivated. The seasons in which
Since there was not much population in ancient paddy was cultivated were introduced in the
time, Chena cultivation was enough to meet the name of ‘Kanna’. The two ‘Kannas’ (seasons) in
needs of their lives. Muddy or paddy cultivation which paddy was cultivated were called ‘Maha
was started in order to produce more food Kannaya’ and ‘Yala Kannaya’. Apart from these,
required for the increasing population. another one introduced as ‘Meda Kannaya’ is
found in inscriptions. It came between ‘Yala
49
Kanna’ and ‘Maha Kanna’ and also depended on 4.2.2 Industries
the abundance of water.
You learned in previous lessons that from very
The main need of the dry zone to maintain ancient time the metal industry of Sri Lanka was
paddy cultivation successfully was to supply highly developed. There is some information
sufficient water. Gathering rain water and taking about artisans who worked in their industries
water through canal to paddy fields by putting using iron. Among them, blacksmiths were
a barrier across the natural rivers were the two prominent. The name ‘Kabara’ was used to
strategies followed. The tradition of making introduce them in inscriptions. That is how the
tanks developed in this country as a strategy to word ‘Kammara’ was written in old Sinhala. The
face the need of preserving water. The statement blacksmiths were very essential and important to
uttered by king Parakramabahu the Great (1153 the villagers. He was the one who made pruning
– 1186 A.D.) as “Not a single drop of water knife (Keththa), mammoty (Udella), and plough
that falls from the sky should be sent to the sea (Nagula) for them. In an inscription in a place
without properly using it” shows how the ruler called Muthugalla in Polonnaruwa, there is a
saw the importance of preserving water. reference about a blacksmith named Majjima.
Unlike at present, farmers in the past were Apart from this, there were artisans who
conscious of doing various customs in the were engaged in their industries using copper
paddy cultivation. It provided them with much (Thabakara) and tin metal at that time. The
assistance to be engaged in their livelihoods by word ‘Thuladhara’ had been used to introduce
being close to the nature. goldsmiths in ancient documents. In some of the
books they have been described by the name of
Animal Husbandry – Apart from agricultural ‘Swarnakara’. An inscription found in the place
activities, there was animal husbandry too. called Mandagala in Hambantota district, there is
Rearing cattle was the major activity in it. The a reference about a goldsmith named Thuladara
inscriptions mention Gopalagams, which were Sumana. Things such as bead and badges, made
reserved for those who were engaged in cattle of types of half gems and gems, found in old
rearing. What was taken from cattle was very cities such as Anuradhapura and Magama from
helpful for food. Mee kiri (milk or curd), Githel the archaeological excavations reflect the nature
(ghee), Wendaru (butter), were prominent of the gem industry existed in the society of this
among them. There is a word “Kirigeri” in an county. The artisans who were engaged in such
inscription, made by king Kashyapa IV, in the affairs were called ‘Manikara,.
Colombo Museum. What it means is the cattle
reared for getting milk. A nice carving of a Another industry, which existed in the ancient
woman who gets milk from a cow has been society of this country, was the art of carving on
engraved on the rock ‘Mahameru’, which was tusks. An inscription situated close to Vegiriya
settled in the ancient Stupa of the temple named Devalaya mentions a craftsman of tusks named
Nagapabba in Sigiriya. ‘Datika Sumana’. The term ‘Datika’ comes from
the word ‘Danthika’.
Apart from cattle, chicken and goats were reared
in houses. There is an inscription, written in the Earthenware was the most useful ones for the
9th century A.D., at the hospital in Padhanagara at ordinary people, who lived in those days, for their
Ethvehera temple in Medirigiriya, Polonnaruwa. day-to-day activities. A large number of remnants
It is mentioned in the inscription that for needs of such earthenware have been discovered in
of the patients only the flesh of naturally died archaeological excavations. Making earthenware
chicken and goats should be used.
50
was a well organized industry at that time. Even thus. That inscription had been written 2250
the inscriptions written more than 2250 years years ago. Except for a small group, others
ago mention about those who were engaged in worked by organizing themselves collectively.
pottery. Then they were named ‘Kumbhakara’ That kind of organization was addressed by
(Kubakara). the name ‘Poogaya’. In some places the word
‘Niyamasthana’ has been used for that.
In an inscription in a place named ‘Veherakema’
in Hambanthota district a word named Those who were engaged in trade were called
‘Thathvaya’ appears. This term is a combination ‘Wanija’ or ‘Vapara’ in those days. The word
of the two words ‘Thanthu Vaya’. Its meaning ‘Vapara’ was the old Sinhala term of ‘Vyaparika
is ‘one who spins strings’. Spinning strings is – business’. These traders were the rich in the
related to weaving clothes. Historical sources say ancient society. They had even offered caves for
that weaving clothes was an industry that existed Bhikkus to stay. An inscription in the place called
in our country from ancient time. The reference ‘Mandagala’ in Hambanthota district mentions
of the spinners of strings mentioned in the that a trader called ‘Sumana’ had offered such a
Veherakema inscription is an obvious evidence cave. Another inscription was found in a place
that proves the cloth weaving industry existed at named ‘Weherakema’. That inscription includes
that time. a description about an offering of a cave to the
Bhikkus by an organization of those who did
By mentioning information about artisans who their trading by weaving clothes.
were engaged in different types of industries
such as these occupations in our history, it There were markets for selling commodities
appears that the ancient society of our country in trade cities and villages. Literary sources
was well organized. All these artisans made a mention that one Suranimala, who came to
contribution out of their knowledge and labour Anuradhapura from Mahagrama, bought
to run the society well. perfumes at a shop. The information in the
inscription of King Udaya IV (946-954 A.D.)
4.2.3. Trading points out the way how ancient markets were
administered in an organized way.
In ancient time there were only a few number
of cities. According to sources, Anuradhapura The best example that can be given for this is
and Magama were prominent among them. To the description given in the Soraborawewa
call them the word ‘Pura’ has been used. The inscription about Hopitigama market. It includes
rich lived in big cities. There were both local and the laws imposed by the king on its administration.
foreign traders in those cities. At the southern There is a law mentioned in it which commands
gate in Anuradhapura, there was a bazaar called that taxes should be charged only from the carts
‘Kalasumana’. which come to the market, but not from the carts
which go passing the market. A law has imposed
Trade was a major occupation in our country stating that betel should only be sold keeping in
during ancient time. Trade activities were a hut covered from the sun. It was done in order
maintained locally as well as with foreign to prevent selling dried betel to people. There
countries. An inscription in the western water were no trading affairs on poya days then. A fine
park of Sigiriya mentions about a person was charged from those who did their business
called ‘Abala Wapara’. That is the way how ‘sour on poya days. Those did trading on poya days at
business’ was written in old Sinhala language. the Hopitigama market, had to supply oil to light
It is a ‘tamarind trader’ that was introduced lamps at the Mahiyanganaya temple as a fine.
51
Nilawalathiththa
Map 4.1 Old commercial cities and ports
52
The Tamil inscriptions, found in Sri Lanka, which existed in ancient Sri Lanka. In ancient
belonged to the period from the 11th century to documents the word ‘Acharya’ has been used to
the 13th century A.D., mention that there were introduce teachers. Not only those who taught
several South Indian trade organizations afoot crafts, but also those who excelled in education,
in this country during the same time. Nanadesi, were named as ‘Acharya’. These Acharyas were
Valagngniyar, and Ayinurwur are some of them. good at different types of crafts. The inscriptions
A metal stamp, which belonged to the trade mention information about teachers who trained
organization named Nanadesi, was discovered taming tuskers (Hasthi Acharya), going on
in Hambantota. horseback (Ashwa Acharya) and shooting with
the bow (Dunu Acharya).
There is enough evidence to prove that there
were a considerable number of foreign traders  Doctors
in this country in the early period. In an
inscription in a place named Bowaththegala in To run a society well, the citizens who belong to it
Southern Province, there is a term “Kajoba Maha must be healthy. The service of the doctors is very
Pugiya”. It is about a big trade organization of the important for that. In the Anuradhapura period
Cambodians. The Cambodians were traders medical profession held a high recognition. The
who came here from Afganistan. word ‘Veja’ was used to introduce doctors in
inscriptions. In the 9th century A.D. some doctors
From ancient time our country played a had been named as ‘Maha Vedana’. Such a term
significant role in international trade affairs. was used to name the chief doctor or surgeon.
One reason that affected for this was Sri Lanka
was located in the middle of the Indian Ocean.  Lawyers (Legal Advisers /Experts)
The contribution that Sri Lanka made as an
exchanging center in the East-West trading in 2000 years ago there lived professionals who
the ancient time cannot be belittled. were conversant with law. It seems that mostly
they gave the required instruction to the king to
One of the specific factors that contributed achieve justice. Such people who knew about law
Anuradhapura to develop as a city was were called by the name of ‘Vohara’. It derives
international trading. In the West Mathota from the word ‘Wyavahara’ in Sanskrit language.
harbour was located where as Gokkannathiththa, This name was given to the persons who were
known as Trincomalee harbour today, was situated proficient in the accepted practices of justice and
in the East. Apart from these, the actions of small goodness in the contemporary society.
harbours situated on the western and eastern
coasts made a direct influence on the emerging  Different Artisans
urbanization of Anuradhapura. Bringing Sri
Maha Bodhi from the small harbour named The persons, who were engaged in different types
Jambakolapattana situated in the Northern coast of industries and artistic occupations, lived in
and bringing the Tooth Relic from the small the society of this country during ancient time.
anchorage port called Lankapattana situated in The sources mention that there were dancers,
the Eastern coast by prince Dantha and princess painters and poets among these artists. In an
Hemamala to this country are examples for this. inscription, found in an old temple in Medagama
in Kurunegala district, inscribed 2200 years
 Teachers ago, there is a reference about a dancer named
Tissa. Introduction of the wife of this dancer as a
Teaching profession too was another occupation Parumaka is an important fact here. It gives us a
53
clear idea that dancing had been considered as an 4.3 Culture
important occupation in the society. The words
‘Chithakara’ and ‘Lapana’ were used to introduce 4.3.1 Religion
the painters. The first name had derived from the
word ‘Chithrakara’ and the second had derived From the time when Arahath Mahinda Thero
from the word ‘Lepana’. In Sanskrit language arrived here in the 3rd century B.C and preached
the word ‘Lepana’ is used to give the meaning Buddhism, it had continually been the main
‘applying’. Since applying colours create paints, religion of this country. Apart from this, with
the word ‘Lepana’ had been used to name the the arrival of Indian traders and others from
painters. In an inscription in the place named India, Hindu religion too spread in this country.
Nattukanda, there is a reference to a person Christian religion and Islamic religion were
called ‘Lapana Tissa’. introduced to Sri Lanka at recent times when it
is compared to the spread of Buddhism. It was as
In our country there were highly talented poets. a result of spread of trade in the Mediterranean
The word ‘Kavi’ itself had been used to name region after the 6th century A.D. and in Western
them. The son of above mentioned Lapana countries centered trade after the 16th century
Tissa had been introduced as a poet in the same A.D. in Eastern countries.
inscription. His name was Sanjaya.
Soon after the arrival of Arahath Mahinda Thero
and his followers, Buddhism and the rituals
related to it spread rapidly in the society of this
country. As there were no suitable monasteries
for the daily increasing number of Bhikkus to
Illustration 4.2. The Bhikkus stayed in the cave monasteries, offered by the Buddhist followers and devotees, from early
time of the introduction of Buddhism to this country. Temples and shrines were constructed much later.
54
Fig 4.3. In the same period when Arahath Mahinda Thero arrived in this country the caves like these were offered to
the Buddhist monks by virtuous devotees. In some of the drip ledges engraved on such caves, there are inscriptions with
the names of those who offered them.
stay, natural caves were cleaned and offered them Meaning- This cave was offered to the Sanga (the
to Bhikkus. More than 1600 caves offered in such Bhikkus), both who are present and not present
a way to Bhikkus can be seen in different parts of from the four directions, by Chief Sumana, a son
the country. of chief Guptha.
A suitable cave was found, cleaned, made a drip Apart from caves and temples, sources mention
ledge in order to prevent water from coming about certain buildings introduced in the name
inside during the rainy season and offered them of ‘Pannasala’. That means houses made of clay
to Bhikkus. In some caves the details of those and wattle and thatched with reeds and leaves.
who offered them have been engraved under the The Bhikkus stayed in such places, before
drip ledge on the rock. Those days Brahmi letters temples and monasteries were built with bricks
were used for that. Those inscriptions have been and granite. The word ‘Pansala’ we use today has
written in old Sinhala language named ‘Sinhala derived from the term ‘Pannasala’.
Prakrutha’. You, who participate in school
educational trips, will have the opportunity Several Bhikkus lived in ancient Buddhist
to visit such caves, in which drip ledges and monasteries. The Bhikkus who lived under the
inscriptions are engraved, in places such as chief monk were called “Anthewasika Bhikkus-
Mihintale, Ritigala, Vessagiriya and Sigiriya. disciples monks”. An inscription engraved in
Given below here is an inscription in a cave in a cave in Mahaelagamuwa in Anuradhapura
Mihintale. mentions about a person who was called
‘Athewasika Pussa’. During those days the chief
Inscription- Parumaka Gutha Putha Parumaka monks were addressed in the name of ‘Thera’.
Sumanaha Lene Agatha Anagatha Chathudisha In inscriptions the student monks who lived in
Sagasa. association with those chief monks have been
55
named as ‘Sadivihariya’ or ‘Saddi Viharika’. The
meaning of that term is ‘one who lives close by’.
Fig.4.4. A cross engraved on a
Until the Thripitaka (three scriptures) was stone post in Anuradhapura.
This belongs to a time after
documented during the ruling time of king the Portuguese came to this
Valagamba, Dhamma had been preserved by country.
oral tradition. There were monks who had kept
a part of the Thripitaka in their memory. They
were named as ‘Bhanakavaru’. The monks, who
had memorized the scriptures that belong to
the doctrine, were called by the name of the
particular scripture. For example the monks who their religious activities too were called by that
had memorized the Deega Nikaya were called name. And also, that book, which describes the
Deega Bhanaka and those who had memorized word ‘Sivikasala’, points out that it meant the
the Sanyuktha Nikaya were called Sanyuktha places where the ‘Shiva Lingas’ (phallus of god
Bhanaka. Siva) were established. Those ‘Pooja’ performed
for the God Siva is well-known among the Hindu
Inviting the monks to stay in the temples during devotees. As South India is located close to
the rainy season (Vas Visima) and holding Sri Lanka and there prevailed regular trade
ceremonies for offering robes (Katina Uthsava) relations between the two countries, ideas of the
were venerable customs among the people who Hindu religion were brought here. The oldest
lived during those days. In an inscription in the inscriptions of this country mention about the
place called Helambagala in Kurunegala district Tamil traders who came to Sri Lanka for trading.
the term ‘Vasavasika’ appears. Its meaning is They have been introduced as ‘Dameda’ in those
‘Vassavasika’ or ‘stayed inside during the rainy inscriptions. That is how the term ‘Dravida’ was
season’. In an inscription in Kothalakimbiyawa written in Sinhala Prakrit language. By the 7th
in the same district the words ‘Vasavasika century A.D.
Sahataka’ could be seen. That is how the two
terms ‘Vassavasika Sataka’ have been written in
Sinhala Prakrit language. Its meaning is ‘Katina
Cheewaraya - the woven robe’. It says that cousins
of a monk called ‘Uththiya’ offered a ‘Katina
Cheewaraya – the woven robe’. Both of these
inscriptions belong to a period of 2200 years ago.
4.3.2 Other Religions
There is evidence that Brahmin groups lived

in and around Anuradhapura city during the
time when Buddhism was rooted in the society
of this country. They were Hindu devotees.
Mahawamsatika, which described that there was
a type of buildings, mentioned in Mahawamsa,
in the name of Sottisala, points out that the Fig.4.5 This is an inscription, which belonged to the Arabs,
places where the Brahmins performed inscribed on a tombstone. This is a letter inscribed in Cufic
scripts.
56
There lived a considerable number
of Tamil people close to the
main harbours of this country.
Thirukethishwaram Hindu temple
built close to the harbour of Mathota
and Koneshvaram temple built nearby
the old harbour Gokannatitta, which
was in Trincomalee were places
worshipped by the Tamil people who
lived there during that time.
An old stone plate, with a cross

engraved on it, has been discovered
in Anuradhapura. That cross belongs
to a catholic sect named Nestorians.
Later the traders who held the ideas of
the Nestorian sect, which developed
Fig.4.6 An ancient Shiva Devala in Polonnaruwa. centred on Persia, migrated to
Sri Lanka through the trade routes. The traveller Cosmos Indicopletus, who belonged to the 5th century
A.D. has mentioned about a group of Persian traders who lived in Anuradhapura.
The scholars are of the view that the stone post with the Nestorian cross found in Anuradhapura was
made after the arrival of the Portuguese to this country.
There are evidences that the ideas belonging to Islam religion prevailed in Sri Lanka in the period after the
9th century A.D. In the ‘Quitab –Al- Musliqval – Mamalik, the oldest Arabic geographical book discovered
so far, has mentioned Sri Lanka as ‘Sarandib’. ‘Sarandib’ was the way that the Arabs pronounced the term
‘Sinhaladweepa’. This book
was written in or around
845 A.D. There was a mutual
relation between Sri Lanka
and Arab from ancient time.
It was a relation which went
beyond mere trade relations.
The book ‘Ajayib Al- Hind,
written by a person called
Iban Shahriar in 953
A.D. mentions that when
Prophet Mohammed, the
Fig 4.7 A graffiti written on the

mirror wall in Sigiriya. The scripts
in this belong to the 8th or 9th
century A.D. It begins with two
words ‘Konanathalmi Leemi’. Its
meaning is 'I am Konanathal. I
wrote this.'
57
Fig. 4.8 Sigiri nymphs painted on the walls of Sigiriya Rock: These paintings depict the nature of art prevailed in the royal
palace in the 5 th century. Scholars say that these paintings represent Meghalatha, thunder clouds and Vijjulatha, lightning.
leader of Islamic religion, was alive, a group of the clay pots containing burnt human remains
of people from Sarandib had arrived in Arab and the clay tub burials built in several places
to get a clear idea of his doctrine. The Muslim since 4400 year ago, it is very obvious that the
commercial domination, started by the knowledge on the technology that was needed
Abbaseede centred on Bhagdad, spread in Asia to make those things had been gathered in an
between 751 – 1258 A.D. The Arabic historian Al organized manner.
– Bhalasuri who lived in the 9th century A.D., has
mentioned that the Sri Lankan rulers had taken As it was mentioned early in this lesson, the
proper measures to manage the international group which is named as ‘Achariya’ in the oldest
trade affairs well. inscriptions in our country is teachers. The
things taught by those teachers were mentioned
in the places where they had been introduced.
4.3.3 Education
They have been introduced as “Dhanu Achariya”,
“Hathi Achariya”, and “Asa Achariya”. They
There was an organized method to acquire
were the teachers who taught archery, the art
knowledge and publicize it in this country from
of controlling tuskers, and the art of controlling
ancient time. At the early stages knowledge was
horses respectively.
passed from generation to generation through
exercise and listening to someone. When we
After Buddhism was rooted in this country,
study the similarities of the styles and finishing
Buddhist temples and monasteries became the
58
main educational centres. The scholarly monks Apirimithe Lokahi – Budha same nathi
who stayed in them were fully conversant not Athana parama dulabe – savanuthe pathe
only with the languages such as Sinhala, Pali, Anuthare sathe – Maha sarane
Sanskrit, and Prakrit, but also with the Buddhist Lokachaka Budha nama sayabu – Megalahi
doctrine. From ancient time they were the Vihare
teachers in this country. Naka Uvaraja nama – Budha sarana gathe
Michaditika Bidiya – yahamaga parayana Bhuthe
There was a sense of respect regarding giving
education and receiving education in our Its translation:
ancient society. The poem mentioned in the
Lokopakaraya is a fine example for that. It is This world is unlimited – no blessing equal to
given below. the Buddha
He is everywhere – being equal to him is rare
Ru Siri Yowun Guna – Nena Siyallen Noadu Vee It’s a great blessing – not second to anyone
muth He is omniscient – is an eye to the globe
Nodathoth Silpa Satha – Suvanda Nethi Kele Give up being a heathen – select the best path
Mala Sama We In this temple – vice king Naga entered the
Buddhist order.
The poem says that though someone is young,
wise and pleasant in appearance, he or she is Nearly 600 poems composed during the
similar to a wild flower without fragrance if he Anuradhapura period could be seen even today
or she has no proper education. on the mirror wall in Sigiriya. The sense of
inspiration of those poems is very high.
4.3.4 Literature and Appreciation The poets of our country in the ancient time,
who were disciplined with Buddhist teachings,
Works of literature belonging to the era of composed poems based on the experience
Rajarata Civilization are written in either one of gained from working with the nature constantly.
the three languages, Pali, Sanskrit and Sinhala. Hence, the theme of most of the poems was
Dipawamsa, Abhidhammappadeepika and impermanence. Such an attractive poem has
Sarattha deepani are examples for the books been written in an inscription, which belonged
written in Pali. Books such as Janakiharanaya, to the 9th century A.D, found in the premises
Balawabodhaya and Anuruddhasathakaya are of Abhayagiri temple. The techniques such as
written in Sanskrit. Siyabaslakara, Sasadawatha similes used in that poem create a very sensitive
and Muwadewdawatha are examples for the and subtle aesthetic sense in the reader. The
books written in Sinhala. poem says that life is like a ‘Vara’ flower caught
in a wildfire.
A poem written by such a poet 2000 years ago
could be seen inscribed in a rock in Kirinda You will be able to understand easily the nature
temple. It’s a free verse which could be read to a of aesthetic thoughts of the ancient Sri Lankans
rhythm. Both the poem and its translation are by reading, understanding and appreciating the
given below. Sigiri graffiti given below.
The poem inscribed in the stone. Viju Rakbo Pavijjan Lee Me gee
Nelen Vee Piripatha
Nalala Kehe Pitihi Huna
59
Maladama Gene Visira with suspicion. Instead, they worked and lived
Biyapath Ve Apa Beyanda Negiye with them amicably. An ancient inscription
Translation: found in Ampara mentions about a Tamil man
who was married to a Sinhalese woman. The
The song is written archaeologists were able to discover a street in
By Vajra Aggabodhi monk Anuradhapura where several Tamil families had
When climbing this rock lived.
We were disturbed by the wind
The tuff of hair on the forehead The merchants, who migrated from various
Fell on the nape due to the wind countries in the region around the Indian Ocean,
Flower garland worn on the neck was scattered lived in ancient cities in Sri Lanka. However, it
It made us frightened. seems that most of them had come from South
India. There was a special post in the king’s court
As our ancestors were engaged in farming and named as ‘Demala Adhikari’ by the 9th century
animal husbandry from a long period of time they A.D. His task must have been to look into the
were able to live closely with the nature. Therefore, matters regarding the welfare of the Tamil
they had a simple but deep understanding about people who lived in and around Anuradhapura.
the beauty and the uncertainity of the nature. A person named ''Demel Adhikari Pandiradh''
As those ideas were further developed by the has been mentioned in an inscription of king
teachings of Buddhism, a dispassionate taste was Kashyapa IV which is in the National Museum
developed in the ancient society. of Colombo. Among this Tamil community,
most of them were soldiers who served as the
mercenary soldiers in the army in our country.
4.3.5 Ethnic Co-existence The oldest kings who sought the assistance of
the South Indian mercenary soldiers were king
There are evidences to prove that there lived Ilanaga (33 -43 A.D) and King Abhayanaga (231
people, who belonged to different cultures in the – 240 A.D.) They, who came from Kerala, were
cities of our country from the ancient time. The called ‘Agampadi Senawa’. The Wamsakatha say
inscriptions point out that apart from the native that King Vijayabahu I had assigned the duty
Sinhala people, there were groups of people, of providing defence to the Dalada Maligawa
belonging to other cultures and beliefs in other (Temple of Tooth) to Welayikkar force. The
religions, who came here for trading , among Welayikkaras were the group of Agampadi who
the urban community. Among them there were came here from Kerala.
traders who came from South India, the Ionians
who came from the Greek and Macedonian In the 11th and 12th centuries A.D. a group of
regions, the Cambodians who came from the merchants named ‘Nanadesin’ who were engaged
Afganistan region, and the Jawakans who came in trade affairs in this country were a company
from the Malayan peninsula. who had a South Indian origin. A bronze cachet
which belonged to them has been discovered
Though there was much diversity among the in Hambanthota. An inscription, written
aforementioned nationals, they had never tried during the reign of queen Lilawathi, found in
to fight with each other. An inscription found in Anuradhapura, mentions about a customs barrier
Abhayagiri Vihara in Anuradhapura mentions which had belonged to the group of merchants
about a Tamil monk. It was written around called ‘Nanadesin’. According to the historical
1st century A.D. The ancient people of this records, these merchants had been engaged in
country did not use to look at other nationals their activities peacefully and the rulers too had
60
provided much assistance for their welfare and Important Facts
protection.
Our citizens used to work amicably not only The ruling affairs in ancient Sri Lanka were
with the Tamils, but also with the Arabs who done by three institutions namely executive,
were Muslims. The Sri Pada (Adam’s Peak) legislature, and judiciary. The king and the
mountain, which was consecrated with the public officers acted on behalf of the king
touch of the foot of the Lord Buddha, is a sacred belonged to the executive. The king’s court made
epitome of the Buddhists of this country. From decisions through discussions.
the 9th century it was worshipped by the Muslims
based on the belief that it is the Adam’s Peak. It  Our ancient rulers always followed a flexible
has been recorded that in 850 A.D. a merchant foreign policy.
and a traveller called ‘Sulaiman’ had arrived to
worship Sri Pada. None of them were disturbed
 There lived people who were engaged in
by the government or the citizens. Therefore, Sri
different professions in our ancient society. All
Pada is venerated by all four religions.
of them made a great contribution to the society
to make it more efficient and make the people’s
In the ancient time, the rulers and the citizens of
lives easier through that.
this country often thought how they could work
with all with co-existence for the betterment of
 From ancient time agriculture and animal
the country. Every occasion when the protection
husbandry was the main livelihood of the
of the stability of Buddhism and the unity of the
majority of people in this country.
country were not threatened, that co-existence
was well preserved. We should always remember
that the way the Sinhala Buddhist people, who  Ancient Sri Lankans had a high level of
lived in this country, acted to tolerate other aesthetic and literary appreciation. There are
nationals and religions is exemplary. evidences to prove that their creative ability and
talents were at a high level.
 Buddhism in this country in ancient time

Activity 1 was a profound philosophy and also it included
various activities which reflected people’s faith
Write an article to a newspaper including the and piety. There was a mutual, intimate and
administrative organization of the ancient respectable relationship with the Buddhist
society of Sri Lanka, religion, and literature. monks and people.
 Apart from Buddhism, other religious

thoughts too spread in the society in this country
from time to time. Based on the facts such as Sri
Lanka was an island and participated actively
Activity 2 in the trade affairs in the Indian Ocean, other
religious thoughts spread in this country.
Make a booklet including questions and answers
on the ancient society of Sri Lanka.
 Living mutually with other ethnic groups
belonging to other cultures was a special
characteristic in the history of our country.
61
Padhanaghara – These were ancient buildings used by
the Buddhist monks to be engaged in deep meditations.
The Padhanagharas were built by connecting two
buildings, with a moat around it, with a small bridge.
The Perimiyamkulam inscription, made by king
Vasabha, mentions a Padhanaghara named Sudassana.
Such Padhanagharas can be seen in places like
Ritigala, Manakanda, and Anuradhapura. The word
“Dvithwa Vedika Godanegily (Bi-platform buildings)”
is also used to name ‘Padhanaghara’.
Poogaya – The meaning of the Sanskrit word ‘Pooga’

is a council or a panel consisting of some people. The
word ‘Pooga’ has been written in ancient inscriptions
to introduce ‘the council of the merchants’. The word
‘Niyamasthana (Niyamathana)’ too has been used in
the inscriptions with the same meaning.
Cufic Arab Letters – The word ‘Cufic’ means the

original form of various Arab scripts. That script style
got developed centering the Kuffa city in Iraq in the
seventh century A.D. Cufic letters were used to copy the
sacred Quran which is the religious text of the Muslim
devotees. Several tombstones written with these scripts
have been discovered in Sri Lanka too.
62
5
The Ancient Science and Technology in
Sri Lanka
up, it falls down. It is a characteristic of the

nature. There is a fundamental which affects
Introduction that characteristic. Scientists introduce it as
gravitation. Scientists have proved through
Science is understanding and interpreting the
experiments that everything is attracted in a
elements that affect the function of the nature.
certain space limit on earth. If someone wants
It is a process based on experience. Though
to find its truth, he or she can experiment and
it was not discussed in the sense of science,
substantiate it. That is the nature of science.
many ancient societies had realized the
The normal order, which is followed in doing
fundamentals of nature and used them in their
something scientifically, is understanding
day-to-day activities. Even in the historical
the fundamentals in nature correctly and
society of Sri Lanka, scientific ideas were in
substantiating them by examining. After
use. In this lesson, we expect to explain the
examining, what needs to work practically, using
nature of such ideas and the way that they were
the fundamentals of the nature, is technology.
used practically and to emphasize the scientific
It is a fundamental in physics that the different
nature of our historical heritage through them.
types of energies in nature cannot be destroyed,
but they can be transformed to other energies.
Accordingly, transforming electric power into
5.1 Early Stages of Scientific Ideas kinetic power and making an electric fan is a
technical substitute.
By identifying what Sri Lankans did from ancient
time, we can realize the nature of the vision, which Some of the instances, which reflect how the
was the background of those work. When some ancient Sri Lankans had acted to apply the
of such activities are examined carefully, it is clear fundamentals of nature after having understood
that some of such things had been done thinking them, belonged to the prehistoric era. 28000
scientifically. When working with nature, being years ago symmetrical stone tools were made
knowledgeable on its fundamentals, is necessary. up of alabaster named ‘ground-glass’. Those
The success of the activities from making a symmetrical stone tools reflect the then prevailed
tomb to constructing huge irrigation systems organized technology to shape up those hard
depends on understanding fundamentals of the stone. This technology with which tools are
nature correctly, which is needed to keep them made after removing stone splinters by using
for a longtime. In this chapter we will discuss much power is called pressure slating.
the scientific ideas that existed in Sri Lanka and The early stages of applied science were reflected
the nature of the technical approaches which in the prehistoric age and it became matured in
were followed to put those scientific ideas into the proto-historic age that came next. Given be-
practice. low are some instances which describe the na-
ture of the scientific ideas that prevailed during
We have seen that when something is thrown that age.
63
Clay Tub Burials to live, appropriately. This is displayed by parts
of a stone parapet discovered in the excavation of
Clay Tub burials were made to cremate the Kithulgala Belilena. The archaeologists assume
dead people. They were made up in the shape that it must have been used to hold a cover made
of a huge basin or a boat using raw clay. After of leaves of trees.
selecting the appropriate clay type, the walls of
the tomb were built with a minimum height Clear evidences of building houses in Sri
and a suitable thickness. They had thought of Lanka could be found in the proto-historic
keeping the balance of the walls of the tomb by era. Archaeologists managed to discover ruins
building them perpendicular to the ground. Not of such a house built in 1129 B.C. That house
only in the tomb, but also the walls of the house, is in the village called Udaranchamadama in
found in Udaranchamadama, have been built Rathnapura district. Its floor has been made
perpendicularly. up of reinforcing it by strewing strong pieces of
stone and applying clay on it. Its wall had been
It’s a fundamental of physics that when any made of clay and wattle. This was revealed by
object is perpendicular to earth in that manner, discovering some burnt pieces of the wall. There
the pressure of those objects created on earth is was a wall in the middle of the house to separate
neutralized. Those who built them had thought it as the front part and the rear part of the house.
to minimize the harm to the walls by building The holes of its wooden doorframe were found
them so. You may have seen that even today the in excavations. For building a house with a roof
masons use a plummet in building walls. on a foundation in this way needs technological
knowledge.
Though the burials, made up of raw clay, were
not dried and burnt, when the skeleton was Making Earthenware (Clay pots)
cremated, it had burnt well.
Our country practised the technology of making
When the skeletons in a tomb, which belonged earthenware (pottery) from ancient time. Clear
to 1350 B.C, were cremated, a clay tube had been evidence in this regard can be seen in the proto-
fixed in order to get air inside it. It was in a recent historic era. During those days a simple machine
time about the 18th century that the modern called ‘Sakaporuwa’ (potter’s wheel) was used to
science propositioned that oxygen is essential make clay pots. ‘Sakaporuwa’ (potter’s wheel)
for the process of burning. But the people of this is a round board which can be rotated. If the
country had understood that fundamental three earthenware needs to be made with a good
thousand and two hundred fifty years ago. (More finishing, the clay should be seasoned and
information on this regard has been explained in prepared well. It needs a good knowledge of
the lesson ‘Settlements’.) several steps such as finding the suitable type
of clay, seasoning them, making a stove to burn
them and burning the raw earthenware at an
The Technology of Building Houses appropriate temperature. Some clay pots, which
belonged to the proto-historic era, had been
Though the archaeologists assume that the found. Their interior is in black colour and the
prehistoric people who lived in clear areas such exterior is in red colour. The term ‘Kaalaraktha
as Bellanbendipelassa had lived in a kind of huts, Varna Meti Bandun’ (black-red colour clay pots)
no evidence has been discovered regarding that. is used to name them. Before the clay pot is burnt,
It is found that the prehistoric man had shown his it is filled with chaff and kept upside down in the
ability in arranging the place, where he wanted stove. Afterwards, when it is burnt in the stove,
64
it gets red colour outside and black inside. Inside activities in our historical age was making
of it turns dark because it does not get enough large tanks. These large tanks were built based
oxygen to be burnt since it is filled with chaff. This on multiple-facts such as making agricultural
technology of burning clay pots disappeared after activities successful, controlling floods,
300 B.C. In addition, there was the technology and meeting the needs of the urban people.
of polishing and colouring the outside of the Constructing large scale tanks is a technical
clay pot after it was burnt. The best example for attempt with a very complex scientific knowledge.
this is the coloured clay pot discovered in the Some names of the large scale tanks constructed
ancient house in Udaranchamadama. It had a during the Anuradhapura era have been given
white background with lines painted in orange below. After understanding their magnitude,
colour. The natural red colour brown stones had you will easily realize the fact that how much of
been used to colour them. Before this clay pot scientific knowledge is needed to construct and
was made, clay was dissolved in water and kept maintain such tanks after they are filled with
until the tiny particles were deposited. Next, very water.
clean clay particles, as alluvial was used to make
this clay pot. This method is very similar to the Kawdulla Tank (2537 hectares)
one used at present day to make porcelain ware.
Minneriya Tank (2550 hectares)
Since our people used earthenware abundantly in
ancient time, the technology, which was needed Hurulu Wewa (2125 hectares)
to make them in a standard way, advanced from Kala Wewa (2125 hectares)
the proto-historic era. Padaviya Tank (2357 hectares)
Activity 1
Major factors that should be paid attention in
Prepare an article for a newspaper on the title constructing such large scale tanks are keeping
scientific knowledge and the technical skills of the gathered water for a long time by controlling
our ancestors referring to the lesson "the early
the pressure caused by its colossal capacity of
stages of Applied Science."
gathered water and controlling the power caused
by its extremely destructive pressure when the
5.2 The Maturity of Scientific Usage (growth)
water is taken out for use.
5.2.1 Water Management
Tank bund – It is essential to construct the tank
Since the oldest settlements in our country had bund strongly if it needs to hold a huge water
distributed in the dry zone, the major challenge capacity in it. When such a thing is practically
that those people had to face was collecting done, what is important is taking steps needed
sufficient water for agricultural activities and to prevent the tank bund from sinking when
their day-to-day needs. The need of constructing it is constructed. What our ancient engineers
tanks, ponds and canals arose on this ground. had followed for this is that constructing the
The term ‘water management’ is the most suitable tank bund on a naturally established rock. After
one to name any strategy used to gather water. finding such a rock located between two natural
We can understand the nature of the marvellous hills, the tank bund was built connecting the hills
knowledge of our scientists and engineers who from either side. As the tank bund is connected
lived in the ancient time by looking at activities to two natural hills, it provided some assistance
that they have done for water management. to the strength of the tank bund. The bund of
Constructing large tanks – One of the great the ‘Yodha Wewa’ is about seven miles in length
1}
65
Fig. 5.1 In the place where foreign engineers recommended to construct the sluice gate of the present day Maduru Oya
dam, a sluice gate which had been built hundreds years ago, was discovered. These are the ruins of that sluice gate.
and its height is 44 feet. You can understand how tank bund due to the power caused by water
strong an artificially built soil bund should be, if waves is known as Ralapanawa. The Ralapanawa
it is to hold the pressure caused by its magnitude is made by keeping stones on the interior slope
of water after the tank is filled. of the tank bund. Realizing the power caused by
water waves and using a method to prevent it was
The robustness is essential if the stability of the a result of the scientific thought of our ancestors.
tank bund needs to be protected. To maintain
this situation a systematic methodology has Sluice- Releasing water from tanks in which
been applied when the tank bund was built. To magnitude of water contains, is a task that should
understand this technology the archaeologists be done carefully. In parallel to the distribution
examined the tank bund of Sigiri Mahawewa tank of water filled area in a tank, the height of its
by excavating it. What was seen here was that the bund, which is holding water, also increases.
tank bund had been constructed of several soil Then, the height of the water level also increases.
layers. It had been made of several thoroughly An extreme pressure is created due to the height
beaten layers such as, a layer of clay, soil, gravel of water. When releasing water out of such a
and clay (Kirimeti) layer, kept one on one. Even place, one has to be highly careful because there
today you may have seen soil layers being beaten is a possibility of turning it to be disastrous every
in constructing roads to prevent them from time.
sinking. Though today we have machines to do
those things, in ancient time animals may have It seems that the engineers who lived in our
been used to do so. The historical sources say country in the ancient time had thought of this
that elephants were used to beat soil layers in well. The structure that they built to take water
constructing the foundation of the Ruwanweli out of the large scale tanks is known as ‘Sorowwa’
Seya. (sluice). The sluice was built at a specific level on
the tank bund using huge pieces of stones. In the
Ralapanawa – When a tank is filled with water, Wessagiriya inscription made by king Mahinda
waves occur on its surface. It happens so because IV, the two words ‘Mohol Naga’ could be seen.
of the wind and motion of the water. The structure It says that ‘having set the stick which controls
that is built to prevent the harm of eroding the the water in the sluice’. The sluice was built using
66
pieces of stones in a way in which it began from Water was carried through this to the tanks such
the area where water is filled in the tank bund as Minneriya, Giritale, Kawudulla and Kantale.
and going under the tank bund or piercing it. A There was another canal built barricading the
slab of stone, connected to the sluice vertically, Mahaveli River in Minipe area to carry water up
was used to release water. Water was released by to Polonnaruwa.
moving it. These slabs were known as ‘Diyaketa
Pahana’. In the Wessagiri inscription there is Another section related to the water management
a reference as “ Sathar Riyanak Diyat Hindavu in our country in ancient time was the ponds
Diya Keta Pahan’’. It means that a stone slab, dug and made for the use of monks who stayed
which was connected to a sluice to control water, in temples and monasteries. Kuttam Pokuna,
was of a four Riyans (a unit of measurement )in Kumara Pokuna, Eth Pokuna and Nelum Pokuna
height. were examples for this.
Bisokotuwa (sluice gate) - Bisokotuwa (sluice There used to be a technology in our country
gate) is also a one part of the sluice. It means the from ancient time to keep the standard and
rectangular space made of stones, from which coolness of water in personal using. Specially,
water flows out from the tank. When it is looked there is brackish water in the dry zones such
from above, it looks like a square. There are as Anuradhapura. Therefore, it is natural for
more than one sluice made in tanks with a high someone to invent techniques to protect the due
bund. Its purpose is to take water out with least standard of water. A major procedure is that
pressure level after releasing water at different they followed a systematic method in digging
pressure levels. The mud sluice is at the bottom wells for drinking water. Large sized clay pots
level of a tank bund. This structure called the were put into the well and covered the walls of
mud sluice was used to remove alluvial collected the well with them. These wells are known as
after a rainy season. ‘Uraketa Lin’. Such ‘Uraketa Lin’ (wells) have
been discovered in several places in the dry zone.
To build a sluice and to utilize it, a scientific
knowledge is essential. Specially, what related to Water Fountains in Sigiriya -The fountains
it is the understanding of the behaviour of the which can be seen in the Western park of Sigiriya
water well. That characteristic is known as the are one of the greatest creations. Four fountains
‘clearness of water’. That is why it is important to have been created on either side of the entrance-
learn about sluices under the title of ‘the ancient avenues that stretch across the Western water
science of our country’. park, towards the Sigiriya rock. The reason
for creating four fountains was the need of
Canals – Making anicuts across rivers, gathering making a certain change in the water- stream
water and taking the gathered water to tanks level which goes up out of them. The method
was a technicality, related to water management, in which these fountains have been made is
which prevailed in our country from ancient simple as well as efficient. The basic theory
time. There is a reference about an officer named followed there is lifting water abruptly, which
‘Adika’ in an inscription which belongs to the 2nd pours down from an approximate height of 600
century B.C. He was a one who engaged himself feet through a system of gutters to the flat land,
in constructing canals. by using pressure. By fixing a splinter of stone
with round shaped holes in the place where the
Constructing Elahera Ela barricading the Amban pressure is created, the water is thrown up in a
River, which was a tributary of the Mahaweli beautiful way. The method that has been used to
River, was a huge canal built in ancient time. change the height of the water stream due to the
67
water pressure generated naturally is to change Ruwanweli Seya and the other Stupas, built in
the diameter of the holes in the stone splinter, Anuradhapura in the North Central dry zone in
which has been fixed to the place where pressure Sri Lanka which gets heavy monsoon rains, may
is created. The water stream goes up more due to be vulnerable to lightning strikes at any time. But,
the high pressure created by the hole with a small there are neither historical nor archaeological
diameter and the water stream goes up only a evidences to prove that they were struck by
little as comparatively a lesser pressure is given lightning. The reason for this is that the ancient
by the hole with a bigger diameter. The system engineers had acted to provide the scientific
of gutters in the Sigiriya water park have been application to those buildings to protect them
made spirally in a way which makes water flow from such accidents. It is taught in physics that
for a long distance in a low slope by allowing lightning occurs when static electricity passes
the alluvial, which mixes with water when water between clouds containing two contradictory
flows down from the top of the Sigiriya rock, to electric charges. Such extremely powerful
sink down with the help of natural gravitation current comes to the earth through a tall object
power. Stone splinters have been kept in several with electric conduction. When the electricity
places in the gutters to remove the alluvial which passes in that manner, the object is destroyed
gathers in the rainy season. When heavy rains by burning. You will learn more details of this
fall in Sigiriya, one can see water fountains work process in your science lesson.
automatically even today.
At present even some houses have lightning
conductor to get protection from lightning.
5.2.2 Architecture When Ruwanweli Seya was built, the engineers,
who built it, did not forget to fix a lightning
Many details of the ancient architecture are conductor. In historical sources that tool is
found when the ruins in Anuradhapura and introduced in the name of ‘Vajra chumbata,.
Polonnaruwa kingdoms are examined. That ‘Vajra’ is the lightning which is an electric current
displays to us how different artisans in the ancient generated naturally. The word ‘Chumbata’ has
time had made great architectural creations. You derived from the word ‘chumbaka’ (magnetic).
will study some of the best architectural creations Its meaning is ‘Kandama’. In Sinhalese language
here. ‘Kandama’ means ‘attract’ or ‘cling’. Therefore,
using the word ‘Vajra chumbata’ to name the
Architecture – Many architectural creations structure made at the top of Ruwanweli Seya to
such as Buddhist constructions, Stupas, attract lightning is appropriate. The electricity
Bodhigharas, Pilimageval, shrines, monasteries, created by lightning is known as ‘static electricity’.
alms halls, meditating cells, palaces, fortresses, It is taught in physics.
and hospitals found from Anuradhapura and
Polonnaruwa eras could be seen. The Foundation of Ruwanweli Seya
Those evidences show us that there were Ruwanweli Seya was constructed by king
buildings from the ancient time in this country. Dutugemunu. It was the biggest Stupa constructed
Very advanced scientific knowledge and a by that time. An adequately long description on
training on technology would need to put that an ancient construction has only been written
scientific knowledge into practice in constructing about Ruwanweli Seya. Specially, a vivid and a
the buildings found in Anuradhapura such as descriptive explanation has been given in the
Jethvanaramaya, Abhayagiriya, Ruwanweli Seya, historical sources about how the foundation of
and several storeyed Lovamahapaya. For example this great Stupa was made. According to it, first
68
Fig. 5.2. There was a road system stretching from Anuradhapura at that time. The road engineers of that time built bridges
out of granites to cross the Malvathu Oya flowing across Anuradhapura. It clearly shows that they had known the basic
scientific theory of constructing bridges. These are the present ruins of a stone bridge built so.
the earth of the place, where the Stupa was due to technology. Such kind of strong base has been
be built, had been dug in seven Riyanas (cubits) laid because it is a must that the heaviness of the
deep. Secondly, using strong men lime stones mammoth stupa made of bricks is sustained for
were brought, put them into the pit, broken them a long time without any damage. This example
into pieces, poured water and trampled them clearly reflects the way that our engineers thought
well using tuskers wearing shoes made of animal and acted in making a huge construction and
skin. Thirdly, a type of clay named Wendaru the scientific thought relevant to it two thousand
was laid among those stones to reinforce them. and two hundred years ago.
Fourthly, another layer of stones and a layer of
gravel were laid on it respectively. A layer of Urban Park Designing
crystal was laid on the gravel layer. A type of clay
named ' Navaneetha’ was smeared on that stone There was an advanced knowledge of
layer. Next, an iron net smeared with wood apple constructing buildings and designing parks in
gum dissolved with a chemical fluid was laid our ancient society. The best example that can
upon it. Finally, the stones named ‘Ransiriyal’ be given for this is the city plan of Sigiriya and
soaked with sesame oil were laid upon it. its park complex. Sigiriya is a great city centre
which was built in the 5th century A.D. It has
When we pay our attention to this description, been built centreing a huge rock which stands
we can understand that the foundation of alone. The Sigiriya rock is 200 metres in height
Ruwanweli Seya has been made according from its surrounding valley. The extent of the
to a similar method of the modern concrete top of the rock, on which ruins of a palace
69
Fig. 5.3. The technology of melting iron has been mastered by the artisans of our country from ancient time. Archaeologists
have discovered a number of furnaces which were used to melt iron. The figure on left shows such a ruined and old iron
furnace, discovered in the Samanala Wewa area which belongs to the Sabaragamuwa province. It was operated with the
help of natural wind power. The figure on the right shows such a new furnace made by the archaeologists (rights of the
photograph belongs to Julian Julef).
could be seen, is approximately three hectares. was excavated. In that place ruins of an ancient
The eastern and western royal accesses located hospital emerged.
focusing on the rock are of 40 hectares and 90
hectares respectively. The brick walls which There was a hospital building of 147.5 feet in
have been constructed around the city complex width and 109.2 feet in length. The instruments
for its security is approximately 10 kilometres. which were used for complex surgeries too
Apart from this, the entire length of the moats were there among the things discovered from
made around the Sigiriya rock is 8 kilometres. the place. Those relics show us that our ancient
All of these things have been built according to a indigenous medicine was much advanced.
properly planned mathematical structure. Apart from this, information has been discovered
on medicinal texts, herbal boats, allocating lands
Hygiene and Medicinal Method for indigenous doctors, growing herbal gardens.
Sri Lanka has a considerable history of We can understand that ancient people had
medicine. Mahawamsa mentions the maternity acquired a good understanding about waste
houses (Sivikasala) which had been built in management from the remaining ruins of
Anuradhapura during the ruling period of king lavatories.
Pandukabhaya. The Wamsakatha mention that The lavatory systems used in the palaces were
king Dutugemunu had built eighteen hospitals. prepared to send the waste to a very deep pit. It
We earlier mentioned the details mentioned in seems that they had acted to emit the waste in a
the inscriptions about doctors who worked in manner in which no any harm was done to the
those hospitals in this book. environment. A gutter for unclean water too has
been discovered from the ruins in Polonnaruwa.
Some ancient rulers of our country had mastered Special tubes were fixed in bathing ponds to
the medicine. Or else they extended their fullest pump the polluted water out. Mahawamsa
support to widen the practice of medicine. In mentions that there were seven lavatories built
1982 the archaeologists were able to find some in comparison to the buildings at the Alahana
significant evidences regarding this. They were monastery (Pirivena). Accordingly, it is clear
found when the ancient land, called Alahana that in designing ancient buildings, the hygiene
Pirivena situated in Polonnaruwa, with ruins, of their users had been paid much attention to.
70
Samanala Wewa area in Balangoda
in the Sabaragamuwa province. The
second one is the ancient iron furnaces
discovered in the Alakolawewa,
Dehigaha Elakanda area close
to Sigiriya which belongs to the
Central province. The natural stones
abundant with iron have to be heated
much to leach iron from them. Iron
melts at 1538 degree Celsius. There
should be an efficient technology to
get an excessive-temperature. Iron
leaching in Samanala Wewa has
been done in third century B.C. The
natural wind power has been used to
inflame the furnaces used for melting.
The furnaces built in a mountain-
face would flame for nearly about 12
hours without extinguishing with the
help of the wind blowing between the
hills. Even today during the monsoon
time the wind, which blows across
that area in the evening, continues
until the dawn of next day. The
natural stones with iron that were
put into the furnaces after breaking
them into pieces would be inflamed
by placing cinders on them with the
help of the natural wind power in
the evening which would blow until
the following dawn. By the following
Plan 5.1 The foundation plan of the Alahana Pirivena in Polonnaruwa. This
morning iron would be leached from
hospital was used from the time of King Parakramabahu I. the stones. The stones, which were
used in Samanala Wewa to leach
The Ancient Iron Leaching Technology iron, are the types introduced in the
terms ‘Limonite’ and ‘Hematite’ in chemistry. To
From very ancient time our ancestors knew the inflame those furnaces, they had used the cinders
iron leaching technology well. The archaeologists taken by burning the trees called ‘Maran’. Even
were able to discover a piece of iron- slag from a now these trees can be seen in this province. The
tomb dated in 2400 B.C. in Beragala in the Uva term ‘Yakada Maran’ too is used to name these
province. It is a piece of evidence which reflects trees.
that the iron was melted in those days.
There are two instances which assist us The wind power to inflame the furnaces in
to understand the nature of iron leaching Dehigahaelakanda area has been provided with
technology in Sri Lanka. The first one among the help of bellows. From 180 B.C. to 200 A.D.
them is the iron melting furnaces found in the iron leaching had been done there.
71
or several lamps with a certain oil (Mee
or Sesame). This method was followed
by our ancient people to prevent the
threat of insects to their crops or to
cure some diseases infected to cattle.
In 2009 the archaeologists managed

to find significant information about
the Poojas performed for gods in the
ancient time. They discovered some
ruins of an ancient Devala in the
excavations carried out in the area
named Galpaya in Rathnapura district.
Clay pots were kept upside down in a
Fig. 5.4. A few pairs of metal scissors, found in excavations, among the
ruins of the hospital buildings in Alahana Pirivena in Polonnaruwa. These circle of about 6 feet diameter. There
were used for hospital surgeries. were marks of a fire of its inside space.
There were a clay water pot and a jaw of
an ox. The archaeologists were able to find holes
Minor Industries – Apart from this, making of posts which belonged to a hut which had been
various jewellery, clay industry, gem industry and built to cover everything. In later analysis, it was
forging industry were under minor industries. revealed that the place had been used to perform
The golden jewellery found in the excavations in ‘Kirimadu Shantikarmaya’. It is performed for
Jethawanaya can be taken as the best example for cattle’s protection. According to scientific dating,
the technology of making various jewellery. It is a that Devala had belonged to third century A.D.
part of a pendant as small as a paddy seed. There Performing the ‘Kirimadu Shantikarmaya’ for
had been 21 flowery carvings on it. It may be a the protection of cattle is done even today in the
challenge to the modern goldsmith. And also, the provinces of Uva and Sabaragamuwa.
coloured roof tiles discovered in Abhayagiriya
excavations reflect the advancement of the
ancient clay industry in this country. 5.2.4. Indigenous Knowledge
When we examined the instruments such as Measure and Calculation - There was
various types of arms and defense items found knowledge, in our ancient society, relevant to
so far, it seems that there was a vast advancement the fundamentals that existed in the nature by
in the forging industry. understanding them from such an old time. One
indicator which shows that there exists scientific
knowledge in a certain society is that there is a
5.2.3. Local Rituals methodology to measure the physical situations
which belong to the nature. Our ancient
Though Buddhism was famous among people, measurements can be introduced as examples
at the time, they tended to do other practices for them.
(Yathukarma) too. Performing Poojas for
various provincial gods was prominent among Measuring the space - Our ancient people needed
them. Apart from this, a simple practice called to measure the space when they used land for
“Kempahan” was performed to solve day- to-day farming. Therefore, suitable measurements for
problems. What they do normally here is that that were prepared with the help of farming.
performing a Pooja by lighting one votive lamp
72
Illustration 5.1. A drawing made by an artist to show the way the ancient Devalaya, which was found in Galpaya, must have
existed at its early stages.
They used the measurements such as, Kiriya,

Amuna, Karisaya, Pela. A field of one Karisa There is a description of a land which has
means a place where one Karisa of paddy can a reference that one Karisa was offered to a
be sown. One Karisa is equal to four Amunas. Stupa built in that area, in an inscription, got
One Amuna is equal to two acres field. Having written by king Bathikabhaya, found in a place
a multiple link in measurements in this way is called Dunumadalakanda in the Anuradhapura
an advanced mathematical feature. The fact district. An inscription, which was established
that should be taken into consideration here is by King Kootatakannabhaya, found in the area
that to measure the space the ancient people of named Horiwila in Anuradhapura, says that
this country had used units which are used to a plot of land of eight Karisa was offered to a
measure the volume. Look at the cycle given temple named Tissa in that area.
below.
There was a methodical system of measurements
Laha 40 = Pela 1 to measure the length in the ancient time. The
Pela 12 = Kuruni 12 smallest one of that was the atom. It was a small
Kuruni 44 = Amunu 1 one. To measure short distances, there were
Amunu 1 = Karisa 0.25 measurements such as Angulaya and Viyatha. A
73
Measuring the weight
There were methodical units to
measure the weight too. Specially,
in trade affairs measuring the
weight of some commodities was
needed. According to the pillar
inscription of Soraborawewa, it
was prohibited to use weights,
scales and measuring units
which were not approved by the
government. Try to understand
the nature of the measuring
system used in the ancient time
by reading the cycle given below.
Fig. 5.5. The ruins of an ancient Devalaya, discovered in a place named
Pallebadde Galpaya in Sabaragamuwa province. This was buried in four feet
deep from the ground level. The place, has been identified as a place where Veeha 4 = Gunja 1
‘Kirimadu Yagaya’ was performed. This belonged to the second century A.D. Gunja 2 = Masaka 1
Masaka 2.5 = Aka 1
Viyatha consists of 9 inches. Small measurements Aka 8 = Dharana 1
were essential in constructing buildings and Dharana 5 = Swarna 1
making statues. The measurements like Gawwa, Swarna 2 = Pala 1
Yoduna and Usaba were used to measure long
distances. King Nissankamalla ordered to erect We are well aware of the fact that we need digits
posts to mark every distance of Gawwa. It is very to mark the measurements. Present day we use
similar to present day Kilometer posts. Those digits introduced by the Arabs.
stone posts were named as Gawuthakanu. Two
of such Gawuthakanu posts have been discovered Therefore, they are called Arab numbers. But
in areas named Katugahagalge and Weligaththa there was an old digit system in our country. The
in the Southern province. It seems that this numbers ranged from one to ten can be seen in
measuring system had been used commonly in ancient inscriptions. The way they were written
ancient eastern countries. Try to understand its has been given in the chart 5.1.
mathematics by reading the cycle given below.
Measuring Time
Paramanu 36 = Anu 1 Measuring time is very important for a society
Anu 36 = Thjjari 1 based on agriculture. Sowing seeds and reaping
Thajjari 36 = Ratharenu 1 the harvest should be done according to the
Ratharenu 36 = Likkha 1 correct time. The sources provide us sufficient
Likkha 7 = Ukha 1 evidence to understand the methods used to
measure time by our ancient people. The term
Ukkha 7 = Dhannamasa 1
‘Varshaya’ was used to measure a long time period.
Dhannamasa 7 = Angula It was based on a method of months according
Angula 12 = Viyath 1 to the lunar cycle. Thirty days time, fifteen days
from new-moon day to the full-moon day and
another fifteen days from the full-moon day to
new-moon day, was considered a month. These
74
by king Abhaya, found in the place
called Rajagala in present day Batticaloa
district. It means ‘Thithiya’. A day is made
of Muhurthas (moments). The term
‘Mohotha (moment)’ has derived from
the term ‘Muhurtha’.
Scientific thoughts are needed in using

measurements and numbers. We can
understand that our ancestors had
thought scientifically to understand the
complex elements in the world. Several
scientific experiences of Sri Lankans,
who lived in the ancient time, have been
explained in this lesson by means of such
mathematical concepts.
Dedigama Elephant Lamp (Eth Pahana)
The place Punkagama, where king

Parakramabahu I (1153 -1186 A.D) was
born, is presently known as Dedigama.
It is in Kegalle district. A stupa has
been built in memory of his birth. It is
known as Dedigama Suthighara Stupa.
In 1951 this Stupa was excavated by the
archaeologists. They were able to find a
bronze lamp from the Stupa. This lamp
consists of two human figures sitting on
Chart 5.1 Several numerical figures that could be seen in a tusker. The tusker is holding a sugar
ancient inscriptions in Sri Lanka.
cane in its trunk. The special feature
two parts were introduced as ‘Purapakshaya’ and of this lamp is that it has been made to pour
‘Awapakshaya’ respectively. The terms Duruthu, the oil into the abdomen of the tusker. It is the
Navam, Medin, were used to name the months storehouse of oil. The oil trickles to the lamp
of thirty days time. through the genital organ of the tusker. When
the oil level of the lamp dwindles by burning,
The eastern term ‘Vasa’ or ‘Havajara’ has been spontaneously the oil stored inside the abdomen
used to name a time period of twelve months of the tusker trickles to the lamp. A scientific
in the inscriptions. The term ‘Vasa’ from the theory has been followed here. It belongs to the
Sanskrit word ‘Varsha’ and the term ‘Havajara’ non-motile hydrology. Here, the oil regulation
from the Sanskrit word ‘Sanvasthara’ were occurs automatically. Dedigama Suthighara
derived. The present term ‘Avurudu’ has derived bronze elephant oil lamp is an obvious example
from the ancient term ‘Havajara’ (Havajara > to substantiate the knowledge that the ancient
Havurudu > Avurudu). The term ‘Thithiya’ Sri Lankan engineers had on fundamentals of
was used to mean a day. The word ‘Thatha’ has complex physics.
been mentioned in an inscription, established
75
 The rituals and customs prevailing among
our villagers were invented by themselves to
solve their problems. It is another system of
knowledge.
Activity 2
1. Write an essay on the scientific knowledge

and technical skills of our ancestors.
2. Explain the instances which reflect the local

identity through science and technology used in
the proto-historic era.
Fig. 5.6 This elephant lamp made of bronze was discov-

ered from Kotawehera, Dedigama in Kegalle District. The
oil in the lamp is filled into the stomach of the elephant
image. When the oil level decreases, the principle of stat- Sigiriya Water Park – The ruins in the Western part of the
ic hydrology has been used to refill oil. This shows the Sigiriya rock reflect its water park. This park has been built
knowledge possessed by ancient craftsmen about the
principles related to Physics. according to a symmetrical plan. The things which can be seen
on one side can be seen on the other side as well in the park.
The part in its western end has been introduced in the name of
‘Kshudra Jala Udyanaya’, which means ‘minor water park’.
Important Facts
The reason why the entire Western part of Sigiriya Park is
named as Water Park is that the things such as ponds, water
 The two terms ‘science’ and ‘technology’ mean
ditches, and beautiful water fountains had been built there.
realizing the fundamentals prevailing in nature
and creating strategies to act accordingly.
Kirimadu Yagaya – This is a performance of ‘Shantikarma’
 Our ancient people had invented the done wishing for the security of cattle and success of
measurements for measuring space, time and agricultural activities commonly. It is done primarily on an
mass. indigenous god named ‘Mangara’. This is a practice common
to Sabargamuwa province.
 Our ancestors acted to make their activities
easy by applying the scientific fundamentals Diyaketa Pahana – It was a stone post connected to the sluice
practically. of ancient tanks. Water is released out by moving this stone
 The science invented by the Easterners is as post. The inscriptions mention that several such stone posts
important as the science got developed in Western were connected to the sluices in some large scale tanks.
countries. For example, the ancient scientific
ideas which prevailed in China influenced the
entire world. The sluice gate technology in Sri
Lanka spread in the South Asia.
76
6 Historical Knowledge and Its Practical Application
Introduction sustainability of a particular society. It is

a sociological concept. Anything becomes
Any society exists in a balanced manner successful when it is organized. Society is no
based on knowledge. This knowledge is exception. When the social organization is
formed related to the culture that is created unstable, its law, ethics and values get destroyed.
when he or she lives according to the As a result, that society becomes disharmonious.
natural environment which belongs to that
society. Therefore, in world spread societies, In the historical era, the intelligent and efficient
knowledge systems, which are different from rulers who ruled our country, constantly
each other, could be seen. All these knowledge dedicated themselves to well organize the society
systems corroborate with the sustainable of our country. Having an order in personal
existence and the production efficiency of relationships is one of the major characteristics
the society to which it belongs. There may in a social organization. It is called hierarchy.
be diverse aspects to the structure about the There is a social hierarchy in a society. If it is a
knowledge which is made up by a society. The hierarchy in which the power goes down from
criteria which are necessary to organize one’s up, it is called a vertical hierarchy. The order such
society, beliefs and criteria for practical steps as king, ministers, government officers, arranged
which are necessary to formalize economic in top down order is a good example for that.
exchanges are some of them. Such knowledge
structures produced by a historical society give There are also structures with similar power in
experiences even to a present day society. That the society. In various institutions, the officers
is known as the cultural heritage. This lesson are equal. Such a structure is called a horizontal
has been compiled with a view of forming hierarchy. Ministers, army generals, treasurers are
the basic foundation to create a citizen who similar in power. Study chart 6.1 to understand
has a historical consciousness by generating the social organization which existed in ancient
sensitivity in the student about six selected Sri Lanka.
concepts that belong to the historical cultural The king is at the top of this social hierarchy.
heritage in Sri Lanka. These concepts comprise It was accepted that the king should be highly
of the ancient social organization in Sri Lanka,
virtuous and an heir to the throne from the
law and tradition, finance and exchange,
lineage. Therefore, the king was noble. We have
protecting the environment, representation of
described in the third chapter that the word
women, and local food.
‘Nara Isera’ had been inscribed in an inscription,
which belonged to king Kootakannatissa, in the
Dambulla temple to show that the king was an
“Eshwara” to the countrymen.
6.1 Social Organization in the Historical Era
Those who worked close to the king were royal
Social organization means the nature of the officers. The term “Radkol Samdaru” had been
relationships between the people and groups used to name such officers. Its meaning is “Raja
of that society which helps to maintain the
77
Herdsmen
Chat 6.1. A chart which shows the social organization that existed in ancient Sri Lanka. (The extract is from an essay of
professor Senaka Bandaranayake, published in 2013)
The people of the country were below these

Kula Swami Daru”. The term “Radala” had been chieftains. The inscriptions call them as “Kudeen”.
derived from this word by the Kandyan kingdom. There were farmers, shepherds, potters, gem
(RajaKula > Radkol > Radol >Radala). cutters, blacksmiths, fishermen and people
engaged in other work were among them. The
The Buddhist clergy was at a top position in
whole society depended on the food produced
the social organization, as they advised the
by the farmers.
government. Sometimes they participated in
the affairs of country ruling. The kings acted to The relationship between the general public in
hand over the authority to the Buddhist temples the country and the chieftains in top positions
to collect taxes from the tanks in the 1st and 2nd existed through mediators such as traders and
centuries A.D. government officers. The inscriptions mention
about the government officers who travelled in
The rich merchants, naval captains, doctors, and
the villages from time to time. On these journeys,
teachers were considered to be the chieftains
the villagers had informed their problems to
of the society from ancient time. None of them
those officers who later informed those problems
participated in animal husbandry or farming.
78
Illustration 6.1 Sri Lankan kings got the things such as money given to the temples and information relevant to the law
written on rocks. It meant the long lasting feature of those writing.
to the government officers of higher ranks and At present the term social cohesion is used to
they informed them to the king. describe this concept. Therefore, they always
tried to rule the country righteously.
Slaves were at the lowest level of the society. Their
duty was to be engaged in various activities. They 6.2 Law and Tradition
did not have the freedom, which was enjoyed
The common principles formed by a society are
by the others in the society. There were two
very important to run a society. Those common
types of slaves those days. One group of them
principles later become the law. The principles
were slaves from lineage. They were named as
which are formed by a society are of two types.
‘Anwayathadasa’. There were mercenary slaves
Some of them are systems of written laws. Other
too those days. The term ‘Dhanankeethadasa’
social acceptances are traditional.
was used to name them.
The law and tradition control the anti-social
The king did the things which were needed to
behaviours of people for the benefit of the
maintain better relationships and protect the
society. To protect the goodness of the society
welfare of each group in this social organization.
our intelligent rulers acted in accordance with
Our intelligent kings had known that a society
law and tradition from ancient time.
could be protected from disruption by protecting
the bonds between each and every institution.
79
Our kings acted with good understanding to Main types of taxes charged under the tax law:
make laws, implement those laws and to supervise
those laws when they are used practically. In the • Dakapathi (Sanskrit: Udakaprapthi) – the tax
9th century A.D this country was ruled by a royal paid for using tank water.
lineage which belonged to the dynasty called • Bojakapathi (Sanskrit: Bhojakaprapthi) – the
‘Manawamma’. The inscriptions inscribed by tax paid for cultivating the lands of the king.
those kings, mention about law institutions of
that time. In those inscriptions the two words • Mataramajibaka
‘Wadala’ and ‘Sabhawa’ are found. In legal
activities officers from Wadala and Sabhawa (Sanskrit: Mathrikamathsyabaga) – the tax paid
engaged in them. Here the word ‘Wadala’ means for catching fish in water courses.
the 'legislature', which is the parliament. In
At times the government charged commodities
ancient time it was the king’s court.
as taxes. An inscription, which belonged to the
In those inscriptions the word ‘Sabhawa’ means 9th century, mentions that one nut out of ten of
the ‘judiciary’. The laws imposed in a country are the harvest should be paid to the government as
implemented by the judiciary. Other inscriptions tax.
corroborate that there was a methodical judicial
Apart from agricultural activities, the tax law
system in our country in the ancient time.
was relevant to several other sections. When
The laws are monitored among the people by the commodities were imported from foreign
the security officers. They implement the powers countries, custom fees were charged at the
of the executive. The term ‘Mekapper’ has been harbour. An inscription, which belonged to the
used in the inscriptions of the 9th century to 1st century A.D., found at an ancient Buddhist
introduce such officers. It had derived from the temple in Godawaya in the Hambanthota
Tamil word ‘Mayikappar’. Its meaning is ''security district, mentions that a custom fee charged by
officer''. The term ‘Dandanayaka’ too was used a fort which was situated close to the temple was
to name such officers. The Panakaduwa copper offered to the temple.
plate, which was made during the time of king
There was a judicial system to administer
Vijayabahu I, mentions that one ‘Dandanayaka’
punishments not only to those who violated the
named Sithnarubima Buddhanayake who had
tax laws imposed in this manner but also to those
provided protection to king Vijayabahu I during
who breached other laws imposed for securing
the time when the king had adversities from
the social justice. An inscription made by king
enemies.
Gajabahu I, in Situlpawwa, mentions about such
The evidence, which assists us to know about a high court. The inscription describes that the
the nature of the laws that belonged to the most fines charged by the Great Hall of Justice in the
ancient history of our country, is rare. However, area (Mahavinichahi Labanaka Watithi) were
at least the ancient inscriptions help us to have offered to the monks in the Sithulpawwa temple
a certain understanding of them. Among them by the king for their provisions.
the inscriptions of this country, which belonged
Our intelligent kings constantly acted to
to the 1st and 2nd centuries A.D., mention the
protect the natural quality of the environment.
laws regarding the irrigation, administration
Therefore, they were interested in imposing
and charging taxes for using lands of the state.
laws which were necessary to protect animals,
One sixth of the production had to be paid to the
vegetation, water and soil which belong to the
government as tax.
natural environment.
80
I
Fig 6.1 One of the oldest coins used in Sri Lanka. They were known as Hasebu coins. They were produced in India. Those
coins were brought to this country by Indian merchants.
The Kondawattawan inscription, which us to understand the nature of those laws that
belonged to the 9th century A.D., mentions a law existed in the 9th century A.D. in this country.
of charging a fine of five Kalan from those who This is known as the Sorabora Wewa inscription.
did not plough their lands at the proper time. It was made by king Udya III (946 -954 A.D.).
This law was imposed because when a land is This inscription describes the laws which were
ploughed in the rainy season, soil erosion occurs. imposed by the king preventing some frauds
afoot in a government market situated in a
The rulers had imposed various types of laws place called Hopitigamuwa. The king stepped
in order to protect the policies regarding into the market while he was on his way to the
maintaining agricultural activities properly. A Mahiyanganaya temple. Given below are some of
law regarding this could be seen in an inscription the laws in the above mentioned inscription;
in Wessagiriya. It says that the grains, except
Sihineti paddy, green gram (Mun) should not • Taxes should be charged from those who are
be sown in the paddy fields. This inscription engaged in business in the Hopitigama trade area;
belonged to king Mahinda IV. taxes should not be charged from the passers-by.
Trading was one of the important professions in • Twice the amount of taxes should be charged
the ancient society. Our intelligent kings took from those who do their business without
steps to impose the laws which were necessary showing to the officers.
to run the trade inside the country properly.
• The unstandardized Madatiya weighing units
The Badulla inscription is a source which helps
should not be used in scaling goods in business.
81
Fig. 6.2. This is known as the Elephant and Swastika coin. This coin too was used in ancient Sri Lanka.
• Aricanuts and betel should only be sold by Our kings were very strict regarding the criminal
keeping them in the huts made for them. law. The Wewalkaetiya inscription, made by
king Mihindu IV (956-972 A.D.), provides
• An oil tax should be charged from those who
us with descriptions on this. It describes the
were engaged in trading during poya days.
punishments that should be given for the crimes
By examining the rules and regulations in the such as stealing and murders. Death sentence by
Sorabora Wewa inscription, we can understand hanging is the punishment for murder. It further
the nature of the civil laws which were relevant says that when cattle thieves are caught, the cattle
to the internal trading of this country during the should be given back to the owner and the seal
time in which the above mentioned inscription on the skin of the cattle should be marked on the
was made. foreheads of the thieves with a heated iron. The
responsibility of catching the hiding criminals
For the first time a law which said “no animal were given to the villagers who lived in the same
should be killed” was imposed by King villages in which the criminals too lived. The
Amandagamini Abhaya (19-29 A.D.). It was villagers had to pay a tax to the government until
known as ‘Maghatha Law’. The Mihinthala they caught the hiding criminals. It was known
inscription , made by King Mihindu IV (956 -972 as ‘Gruhadanda’.
A.D), mentions that a law was imposed to give
the death sentence to those who kill buffalos, ox Criminals were punished as an example to
and cows, and goats. King Nissankamalla (1187- the people of the society to emphasize that
1196 A.D) imposed a law stating that the birds they should not commit crimes. That was the
living in reservoirs should not be killed. foundation of our law. At present Roman –Dutch
82
law is practised in Sri Lanka. It was introduced to There is evidence that an independent coin was
our country a long time later. produced in this country either in the last half
of the first century of B.C or in the first half
of the first century of A.D. The coin on which
6.3 Finance and Exchange the figures of an elephant and a Swastika were
engraved, which had been discovered from
Here, the exchange means the process of
archaeological excavations, is an example for
interchanging with an economic purpose.
this. Afterwards, many kings had issued coins
According to the information in the historical
during their ruling periods. There was a separate
sources, the barter system was used in economic
officer performing the duty of moulding coins.
affairs in the most ancient era in this country.
He was named as ‘Rupa Adyaksha (Picto-
The archaeologists believe that the circular shells
director). This name appears in the inscriptions,
made of clay, discovered from archaeological
belonging to the 2nd century B.C., as ‘Rupadaka’.
excavations, may have been used for exchange in
Above mentioned (Fig. 6.2) is a picture of a coin
economic affairs.
used in this country.
The usage of coins in this country was started
In the past, metal weight too was used as a value
in about 250 B.C. Those are a type of silver
in exchange activities in this country. A piece
coins brought to this country by the merchants
of gold-metal was discovered in an excavation
from the North India. The archaeologists name
at the Abhayagiri temple in Anuradhapura. On
them as ‘Hasebu coins’.
Various symbols were
engraved on these coins
which were round,
square and rectangular
shapes. Those coins were
brought to this country
by the merchants who
arrived here from India.
These ‘Hasebu’ coins

have been named
as ‘Kahapana’ in the
ancient inscriptions and
‘Kahawanu’ in literature.
This term derived from
the word ‘Karshapana’
Fig.6.3. These colourful beads were found in ancient Magama city. These relics reflect that
in the Sanskrit language. the women who lived in those days preferred to wear jewellery made up of such beads.
83
it the words ‘Ran Devisi Kalanday’ have been be substantiated through literary sources as well
engraved. Those letters belonged either to the 8th as archaeological sources. Women were given
or 9th century A.D. ‘Kalanda’ is a unit used to the opportunity to rule the country. This reflects
measure weight. An inscription, discovered in the respect and the trust that our ancient society
Wessagiriya, which belonged to the 10th century had placed on women. An inscription, found
A.D., mentions that king Kashyapa IV (898 -914 near the old Stupa named Neelagiri situated at
A.D.) had offered 200 Ran Kalan (Golden Pieces a place called Lahugala, mentions a great queen
of Kalan) to Buddhist monks who stayed in a named Chula Seewali. Queen Leelawathi ruled
temple called Veerankura. the country three times.
Coins, of which the origin is related to foreign When it is considered in common, the ancient
countries, are found in various places in Sri women in this country were not oppressed
Lanka. Among them what most abundant are with strict social bonds. There is no evidence
Roman coins. Foreign coins were used in this in the literary sources which state that women
country, considering the value according to had hindrances to do their activities freely. The
their metal weight. Most of the Roman coins Rasawahini, an old literary text, mentions a
discovered by now have been made of copper. description of a woman who lived alone for three
In ancient time, customs were charged in the years until her husband returned from a foreign
harbours in our country. When the foreigners country where he did his trade affairs. Women
bring their commodities to this country, they were paid a special respect since the responsibility
paid taxes in the money of their country. On they held as mothers. The Rasawahini mentions,
those occasions, the metal weight of the coins once, the Bhikkus said to Queen Vihara Maha
was considered. Apart from the Roman coins, Devi 'you possess wealth and a luxurious life
Chinese coins, Arabic coins and British coins because you had done meritorious deeds in your
were used in Sri Lanka. The coins that we have previous birth'. Vihara Maha Devi, in replying,
seen with the English letters V.O.C belonged to said that there was no happiness or luxury in life
the Dutch trade company called East India Trade without sons and daughters.
Company.
Being married was considered a social mission
This clearly shows how in the ancient time Sri that should be fulfilled by women. A girl when
Lanka practically applied the usage which was reached sixteen years old was qualified to get
essential in economic affairs to be successful. married. The girls had to spend their time
under protection of their parents until they were
6.4 Representation of Women old enough to get married. The source named
Sahassawathuppkaranaya mentions that it was
In the ancient time the Sri Lankan society thought the responsibility of the parents to make their
about women with respect and treated them daughters master cookery. Saddharmalankaraya
with high regard. The facts regarding that can describes that prince Saliya’s wife,
84
Ashokamala won the hearts of everyone in Samana. It says that she is the wife of the Parumaka
the king’s palace by making delicious food. named Nadika. Here, the name Parumakalu is
Dampiyaatuwagatapadaya says that the women the feminine noun of the word Parumaka. That
who were clever at cookery were introduced by inscription is a good piece of evidence to prove
the special respected name as ‘Madhupachika’. that women had also participated in the then
At times the name ‘Madhurahaththarasa’ too provincial ruling. The names of female devotees,
was used. Its meaning is ‘having the ability of who played a major role in offering caves to
delicious cooking’. Buddhist monks, have been inscribed in those
caves. A rock inscription, found at the place
Apart from the royal families, there was no
called Kokebe in Anuradhapura district, which
impediment for women in the general society to
had belonged to the 2nd century A.D, mentions
possess leadership. In about the 2nd century B.C.
a name of a woman as Thalatha Lakshmi. It
there were leaders by the name of ‘Parumaka’
further mentions that she offered a half of her
who were related to the provincial ruling of this
family property to a Buddhist temple during
country. An inscription, discovered at a place
the time of king Bhathiytissa. The women who
called Brahmanayagama in Anuradhapura
lived then had the freedom to support religion
district, mentions a woman called Parumakalu
by spending their wealth.
Archaeological evidence discovered
in archaeological excavations are
necessary to substantiate the ideas
such as these found in literary
sources about the women who lived
in the ancient Sri Lanka. A metal
stick, which was used by a woman to
colour her eye lashes in the distant
history of 1129 B.C, was discovered
in an old house at a place named
Udaranchamadama in Rathnapura
district. Not only that there were
a few red and yellow brown stones
scrubbed on something strongly
and a clay bead. These brown
Fig 6.4. This drawing displays a group of

people eating delicious food. This was
drawn in the 19th century A.D. This can be
seen in the Mulkirigala temple.
85
Fig 6.6. Our ancestors paid great attention to the environment. They always attempted to protect the environment. This
drawing displays the liveliness of the environment. This picture, which was drawn in the 19th century, is in the Kelani
temple.
86
stones were used to colour their skin. It reveals Paddy, Undu, Mun (green gram) and Thala
that women, who lived three thousand years (sesame). Saddharmarathnawaliya mentions
ago spent their time to increase their beauty. that the meat of peacock cooked in ghee and El
Many factors related to women’s jewellery have rice (El Hal) was one of the most favourite foods
been discovered in archaeological excavations. among the chieftains in Sri Lanka in the 12th
There is a grave, which belonged to the time century A.D.
period between 700 -450 B.C., in Ibbankatuwa
Pala Maluwa and Kadi Embula with Niwudu rice
close to Dambulla. An attractive necklace was
was a most frequent meal of poor people in that
discovered in excavating it. Some beads in that
time. Kady Embula is made of stale rice powder.
necklace have been imported from India.
Ancient Sri Lankans had a habit of drinking
The women, who lived in this country in ancient various types of gruels (Kenda). The words ‘Yagu’
time, were respected as a sister and a mother by or ‘Hambu’ had been used in old books, instead
the society. There is no evidence to prove that she of the word ‘Kenda (gruel)’.
had lived a depressed life under one’s oppression
A food named ‘Athsunu’ made of fried grain
or suppression. Since the ancient time our society
powder had been mentioned in old books.
respected the freedom of women.
‘Thala (sesame)’ was eaten as a dessert. The
Thonigala inscription mentions that one had
offered ‘Thala (sesame)’ as a dessert to a Bhikku.
6.5 Local Food
Dampiyaatuwagatapadaya mentions a food
From ancient time the people of this country named ‘Thila Sangulika’. This may be ‘Thala Guli’
consumed things which grew in the country. (sweet balls made of sesame mixed with treacle
Evidence has been discovered on wild breadfruit or sugar with pieces of juggery).
and Atikesel which were consumed by the pre-
In addition to different types of grain, various
historic people who lived in the Beligala cave
kinds of yams had a significant place among
10500 years ago.
food in the ancient time. Old books mention
In the historical era paddy and Kurakkan were kinds of yams such as Wel Ala, Kukulala, Katu
profusely used for food. Apart from these, Undu, Ala, Kondola, Bathala (sweet potato). The word
green gram (Mun), sesame (Thala), marrow ‘Sondala’ can be seen in Saddharmalankaraya.
(Mae), Amu, Menari, Kongu, Waru, Yawa were
There were Wetakolu, Thampala, Weraniya Dalu,
also eaten. The historical books of Sri Lanka
Kara Kola, Lunuwila Kola, Labu (pumpkin),
mention seven types of grain, which were used
Puhul (pumpkin), Karabatu, Kekiri (melon),
as food by ancient people. They are namely Sali,
Thibbatu, Nelambu Ala, Murunga (drumsticks),
Veehi, Kedesa, Varaka, Kangu, Duma and Yawa.
among the vegetables used then. There is a
The Thonigala inscription, made by king Keerthi description in Saddharmarathnawaliya as “Labu,
Sri Meghavarnabhaya (301 -328 A.D.), mentions Puhul, Sondala, Wetakolu, aadi wu siyaluma liya
87
jathihu katu ethi rukaya”. of the people to eat curd. It is mentioned in
Poojawaliya that a father says “Mage Duwaniyata
Apart from the three methods of cooking Bedum
Kiri Kannata Sarak Banakuth Dunamana
(frying), Mellum (cook in a half way, specially
Wedayi – (Shouldn’t I give a couple of cattle for
kinds of leaves cut into small pieces) and Hodda
my daughter to eat curd?)” at the moment when
(gravy), vegetables were cooked in three ways.
his daughter was about to leave her house on her
Those are Anama, Embula, and Niyambalawa.
marriage day.
Curries, cooked without gravy and can be eaten
taking by hand, is called Niyambalawa. Having various types of Kenda (gruel) was a
custom of our country from very ancient time. It
Various types of spices (Kulu Badu) were used to
is an easily digestible food. Instead of the word
make curries tasty in Sri Lanka in ancient time.
‘Kenda (gruel)’ the three words ‘Ambu’, ‘Hambu’,
They were called ‘Katuka Bhanda’. Present day
and ‘Kaadi’ have been used in our old books.
women use the word ‘Thuna Paha (curry powder)’
When rice was boiled with salt mixed water,
instead of ‘Kulu Badu (spices)’ commonly. That
it was called ‘Diya Kenda’. The type of ‘Kenda’,
word means three special types and another
which was made by mixing one portion of rice
five types. The first three types mentioned are
with six portions of water for patients, was called
Lunu (salt), Duru (dill) and Miris (chilly).
‘Yawagu’. This was named as ‘Ulu Kenda’ as well.
The other five are Sudu Duru (dill), Kalu Duru
Today we call it ‘Lunu Kenda’. Various types of
(dill), Koththamalli (coriander), Aba (mustard)
‘Kenda’ (gruel) were made mixing various types
and Uluhal. In some areas Asamodagam (dill
of medicines for different kinds of illnesses.
seeds) and Sathakuppa were used instead of Aba
Saddharmarathnawaliya mentions a kind of very
(mustard)and Uluhal. Apart from this, various
sweet gruel in the name of ‘Rasa Ulu Kenda’. It
types of sours were used to make food tasty. Dehi
was cooked in milk without water, using bee
(lemon), Dodam (orange), Goraka, Nasnaran,
honey and ghee. When it came to the right
Gadadehi were used. The word ‘Karambembiya’
temperature, orange juice was mixed. Ancient
in old books means ‘Karapincha (curry leaves).
people of this country drank Kenda as the first
The oils which were used to cook food were meal of the day. Those types of Kenda cooked
commonly named as ‘Kana thel’. Its meaning is mixing the leaves with medicinal quality were
‘the oil for eating’. Among them Dunthel and known as ‘Embulhambu’ or ‘Embul Kenda’.
Githel (ghee) were major ones. ‘Polthel (coconut
There was animal meat consuming too. People
oil)’ was used less.
in the ancient time used to eat meat of animals
Consuming milk was common even among living on land as well as kinds of fish. The tax,
villagers. The name ‘Kirigeri’ can be seen in the which was charged for catching fish in the water
inscriptions of the 9th century used for the cows channels that led from tanks to paddy fields, was
in villages. The word ‘Dee Kiri’ too has been used called ‘Mathrika Mathsya Bhagaya’ then. Here,
in the inscriptions. It is clear that it was a custom ‘Mathrika’ was small water channels.
88
In the ancient time Sri Lankans were very attentive for drying water sources. There is an inscription,
to their food. It seems that they had paid much made by king Udaya III (935 – 938 A.D.), at a
attention to food and health because they had to place called Buddhannehela in Anuradhapura.
be healthy and strong in activities of agriculture In that inscription there is a note as “Wal Wala
and animal husbandry. They never consumed Dandupath Nokapanu Isa”. Its meaning is that
artificial food. They used to consume natural trees in the forests should not be cut. According
things by preparing them without harming their to the rules in the Kondawattawan inscription,
nutritional value. It is a good example for us who made by king Kashyapa V, government officers
live at present. had been ordered to act according to the rules
and regulations imposed by the government in
managing trees and woods.
6.6. Protecting the Environment
Rules and regulations regarding things such as
If the members in any society need to maintain protecting wild animals and soil protection can
their society in a desirable manner they should be seen in our ancient inscriptions. When we
protect their environment. We have to face review all these facts, it is obvious that we had an
numerous adversaries if the environment is organized procedure to protect the environment
destroyed. There is the danger of getting shortage in ancient time.
of water due to cutting trees. Crops may be less
productive due to infertility of soil as a result What you should realize from the facts that
of soil erosion. All these bad results have to be we have discussed so far in this lesson, is that
borne up by ourselves. respectable citizens had lived in our country
in the past. You should take as an example the
Our ancient rulers who were constantly conscious way they, who had been settling in this country
of the importance of protecting the environment, continuously for thousands years, applied their
acted to impose laws on that. In the Anuradhapura knowledge which was gathered through their
plate inscription, made by king Mihindu IV, an life experiences and lived without being second
order had been given forbidding clearing forests to any nation in the world.
on high lands. There is a possibility of eroding
soil and land slides due to clearing the forest on
high lands. On the other hand it is a direct cause
89
Important Facts Activity
 Our ancient society was systematically 1. Describe how the tasks assigned to each
organized. As it was formed in a way in which group in the social hierarchy contributed to
the power went down from the top, it urged build a better society.
each other in the society to perform their 2. Point out the examples that the present
responsibilities properly. society could take from the ancient social
organization.
 The rulers in this country in the ancient time
3. Describe how the old law and tradition
acted to implement law and justice for the well-
assisted to build a better society.
being of the society. From ancient time our
ancestors were well aware of law and they tended 4. Point out how the environmental
to act according to the law. conservation methods used in the past can be
applied to the present.
 Ancient Sri Lankans had acted to handle 5. Point out the examples that can be taken
the economic affairs efficiently. As a medium from the food habits of the past to prevent
of economic exchange, they started the use of being victims to diseases.
metal coins. There was a special officer called
6. Point out the good relationships which
‘Roopadaka’ to keep the standard of moulding existed between each groups in the social
metal coins. hierarchy which contributed to preserve the
old society.
 There was a deep attention given to the respect
and the identity of women in the ancient Sri
Lankan society. Since she had many admirable
Urbanization – The word urbanization is used to name the
qualities, she was adored by the society. Our
process in which a village transfers itself into a city. It is a
ancient society had selected women to rule the
complex process. In comparison to a city, a village is a
country too.
small human settlement. A village is formed when a limited
community gathers into a small space. Family bonds based
 Our ancestors were healthy enough to build
on relationships are a major feature in a village. A city
a great civilization because their food habits
is a human settlement, which consists of a considerably big
were properly organized. That food, which had
population. The people, who live in it, maintain their relations
a local flavour, can be used even today to spend
based on their professions. A village turns to be a city when
a healthy life style.
the capitalists are generated due to increasing production of
the village. The predominant features in the settlements , where
 Since our ancestors were farmers, they
wealthy people live, are engaging in local and foreign trade
maintained a good relationship with the natural
affairs, mastery in craftsmanship, having a ruling structure
environment. Instead of destroying animals and
and using a script system.
trees, there were even laws to deal with them in
an eco-friendly manner. Social Stratification – Social stratification simply means
the differences in any society according to their wealth.
Proletariats middle class, capitalist class are the stratas in a
society.
90
7
Decline of Ancient Cities in the Dry Zone and
Origin of New Kingdoms in South West
Introduction B.C. That does not mean by then the things such
as walls, moats, and streets, which were essen-
The city of Anuradhapura which had belonged tials for a city, had been constructed. A popula-
to the North Central dry zone and the city of tion with a life condition which is needed for a
Magama which had belonged to the Southern city could be seen.
dry zone continued to be wonderful cities for a
long time. The historical sources have described You learnt in the second lesson that there is
the background of the origin of those cities. evidence, which goes back to 2400 B.C., that
For example Mahawamsa mentions that the reflects that the proto-historical community who
place which was called Anuradhagrama was lived in this country abandoned their nomadic
transformed as the city of Anuradhapura by hunting life style and got used to an agricultural
King Pandukabhaya. Historical sources provide life style. The major change that occurred as they
an accurate description of the development of got used to agriculture was that they started to
a previous village as a city. Certainly, a rural stay in one place for a long time. This was the
settlement develops as a city. basic reason for the origin of the most ancient
The transformation of a rural settlement to an villages in this country.
urban settlement is a very long and a gradual
process. Certainly, what happens there is the Those who lived in these basic villages were
life style of the people transforms from a rural engaged in agriculture and animal husbandry as
form to an urban form. It happens as a result their livelihood. They engaged in hunting too.
of a long process. On one hand, the internal Due to agriculture and animal husbandry their
economic development of the country affects food safety was ensured. Unless those people,
that process directly. On the other hand, trade who were engaged in those two occupations,
relations with foreign countries too affect that had not been affected by natural disasters such
process decisively. This lesson will describe the as droughts, floods, and epidemics among ani-
origin of ancient cities and the decline of them. mals, their life could have been more peaceful
and co-existent.
There were signs of making a clear change among

those who lived then due to their engagement
7.1 Background of the Urban Life in agriculture for a long time. It depended on a
number of facts such as the nature of agricultural
The first urbanization in Sri Lanka is reflected land and the skill each individual showed in
by Anuradhapura which belongs to the North managing the agricultural activities.
Central dry zone and ancient Magama city
which had belonged to Southern and South– The farmers who cultivated lands where the soil
eastern part of Sri Lanka. There were basic signs was fertile and water was easily available had a
of development in these two cities by about 450 good harvest and those who cultivated in infertile
91
lands perhaps could have a harvest which was who could help poor farmers.
hardly enough for a year’s consumption. Those,
who reaped a rich harvest, had an excess of grain As the surplus owner described in the above
remaining in the granaries after consuming source was a village leader, there is an important
during the whole year. This remaining grain is fact that we should understand. That is , the
introduced in the special name ‘Athirikthaya’ major reason that affected him to be a village
– surplus. When there is an economic surplus leader was that he was economically rich.
in a society and a group of owners of surplus is There is information in the inscriptions about
a highly transformative situation. In this way, the same type of provincial leaders introduced
there is an example that shows that there lived as ‘Parumaka’ and ‘Batha’. We learnet about
a surplus owners in the ancient society of this ‘Parumakas’ in the third chapter.
country in ‘Jathakaatta Katha’. As it mentions,
one villager, who didn’t have enough food as he The division as rich and poor, which occurs in
had not received the harvest from his seasonal the society based on the economic capability
crop, borrowed a bag of paddy from the village of people, is introduced as the origin of social
leader on the promise that he would give it back stratification. One of the most important
on the following season. processes that based the origin of cities was this
separation of the society in to strata.
7.2 The First Urbanization
By 450 B.C. the social stratification

of our country had become complete
to a certain extent. Early inscriptions
substantiate that there were a large
number of chieftains who owned
production surplus, spread in the dry
zone by that time. The number of the
persons introduced by the name of
‘Parumaka’ in the inscriptions so far
is numerous. These chieftains had
been organized as families. One of
the strategies that these families used
to show and keep their power and
prestige was using articles imported
from foreign countries. Some articles
such as imported earthenware and
beads have been discovered from
Plan no. 7.1. A sketch which displays a plan of the ancient Anuradhapura city. excavations done in the ancient
cities such as Anuradhapura and
This story in the ‘Jathkaatta Katha’ is a good clue
Tissamaharama. These things were exchanged as
that projects the transformation happening in
a result of joining the foreign trade.
the ancient society of our country. It gives us an
idea of the villager who became poor due to the
failure of his farming and the surplus owners
92
As Sri Lanka participated
actively in the international
trade activities operating
then in the Indian Ocean, an
immense wealth came into
the country. The minority
who was the owners of the
production surplus were
able to live a luxurious life
as they were free from other
external problems. Since
the influx of income needed
to be administered, the
requirement of a mechanism
of administration was felt.
The groups who became the
chieftains due to possession
of surplus gathered in a well
planned settlement. Such
a settlement with markets,
Pabalu Wehera Tempale Complex
religious buildings for
offerings, aesthetic parks,
defensive moats, and tanks is
called a city. The description
in Mahawamsa about
how King Pandukabhaya
planned Anuradhapura
city proves that ancient
Anuradhapura city was
such a planned one with
a finish.
Anuradhapura continued
to be the capital of the
Island for nearly 1400
years due to its self
sufficiency with food
and animal products Plan no. 7.2. A sketch of
the ancient Polonnaruwa
produced by the village city.
farmers and their efficient engagement in industries including iron industry and irrigation technology
for a long time. Magama city which was in the Southern province was like a mirror which reflected the
cultural advancement of that province.
After the 6th century A.D., the international trade operating in the Indian Ocean fell into the hands
of Arab traders. The Western part of the Indian Ocean, which was the geographical centre of the
international trade affairs in the Indian Ocean, was widened and the South-eastern Asia and the
93
Fig. 7.1. Thuparama Stupa in a ruined and overgrown state. After the downfall of the Anuradhapura kingdom, all of such
monuments were ruined. This photograph was taken before the reconstructions of the recent time.
Southern China were annexed to it. After the time of king Parakramabahu I, who succeeded
9th century A.D., the trade in the Indian Ocean king Vijayabahu I, it is clear to what extent the
was centering on the Eastern part of the Indian South-eastern Asian trade relations had affected
Ocean. Our farsighted rulers had understood the the political, religious and economic affairs
needs of activating the ports in the Eastern coast, of Sri Lanka during that time. As Mahawamsa
administering the income which came into the mentions, several kings,who succeeded King
country through those ports, preventing the Vijayabahu I, had married royal women from
threats to the security of the country from different Asian countries such as, Burma and Cambodia.
people who entered the country through those The South- East Asian characteristics could
places and basing a city very close to the coastal prominently be seen in some of the art works
area for ruling if Sri Lanka wanted to obtain created in this country during the period
the benefits provided by this transformation. It considered as the Polonnaruwa era, for example
seems that this situation had influenced directly in some architectural creations and Buddha
King Vijayabahu I to select Polonnaruwa as his statues. The Buddha statues in Polonnaruwa
ruling centre. Gal Viharaya and the building introduced as the
Polonnaruwa Sathmahal Prasada are two best
When we examine the social background and examples for it.
the international relations existed during the
94
7.3 Downfall of
Polonnaruwa
During the time when King

Mihindu V was the last ruler of
the Anuradhapura kingdom it
collapsed due to Chola invasions
and afterwards King Vijayabahu
I liberated the country from the
Cholas and united the country
by making Polonnaruwa his
capital. The political turmoil
which prevailed after the demise
of King Vijayabahu I due to the
internal problems was ended
and the country was reunited
by King Parakramabahu I.
He developed the capital
Polonnaruwa further and made
this country prosperous again
by reconstructing the irrigation
system. But, it seems that the
Polonnaruwa kingdom fell
into a track of gradual decline
due to the political disorders
emerged after the demise of
King Parakramabahu I. After
King Parakramabahu I, only
King Nissankamalla carried out
a strong ruling for nine years.
There were several reasons Fig. 7.2. The way Polonnaruwa Lankathilaka image house looked before its recent
for the gradual decline reconstructions. After the downfall of Polonnaruwa kingdom, the monuments such
and the downfall of the as this went wild (The photograph belongs to the Times Studio).
Polonnaruwa kingdom. build a political stability. It caused the decline of
the Polonnaruwa kingdom.
1. Weak rulers came to power.
2. Power struggle between the Pandyan and
During a period of 29 years from the year 1186 Kalinga clans
in which King Parakramabahu I’s demise took
After the death of King Vijayabahu I, the fights
place and to the year 1215 in which the downfall
between the Pandyan and Kalinga clans who were
of Polonnaruwa kingdom occurred, 12 rulers
in this country aggravated. As a result, the people
came to power from time to time. Among them,
who supported the Pandyan clan tried to bring
except for the 9 years’ ruling period of King
Pandyan leaders to power. In the same way those
Nissankamalla, the ruling periods of all the
who supported the Kalinga clan attempted to
others’ were limited to very brief time periods.
bring their leaders to power. As a result of this, the
This clearly shows that those rulers could not
95
Kalingas , after the death of king Nissankamalla, no security for the lives and properties of the
who belonged to their clan, brought several Rajarata people.
Kalinga members such as, king Nissankamalla’s
nephew (his sister’s son) Chodanga, his brother Its result was that the oppressed monks and
Sahasamalla, his wife Kalyanawathi to power. the people migrated to Ruhuna, Malaya Rata
The Pandyans brought queen Leelawathi, the (upcountry) or Maya rata for protection.
wife of king Parakramabahu I, to power thrice. Therefore, many areas in Rajarata were devoid
Thus, the struggle between the Pandyans and of people. Some parts freed from the central
the Kalingas was a reason for the decline of the ruling became rural areas. The religious places
Polonnaruwa kingdom. such as, Ruwanweli Seya, Abhayagiriya, and
Jethawanaramaya, which were worshipped daily,
3. Economic Deterioration were gradually went into wilderness. Many
populated cities in Anuradhapura became ruins.
Since weak rulers came to power after the death of
King Nissankamalla and as they could not build The reasons for the decline of the ancient cities :
a political stability, it seems that the tanks and
anicuts were not maintained properly. As there • Invasions of the enemies
were political disorder at this time, provincial • Downfall of the central ruling
ruling too may have been paralyzed. This led to
• Lack of security
a decline in agriculture and trade. This led to a
complete economic paralysis. • Paralysis of the trade and transport affairs
• Migration of people to other areas
4. Invasion of Kalinga Magha
The immediate reason that affected the decline 7.4 The Second Urbanization
of the Polonnaruwa kingdom was the invasion
of Kalinga Magha. When Magha invaded this
country with a huge army in 1215, Sri Lankans When the prosperous cities existing in the dry
could not face them due to the disordered zone declined, several cities, especially outside
political situation that prevailed in the country. the dry zone, emerged in the South-eastern areas
As a result of that, the city of Polonnaruwa and a in no time. The emergence of these cities is a result
number of areas in Rajarata went under Magha’s of another process of urbanization. Operating
army. When we consider the destruction, several ruling centres due to decentralization
and the outcomes of the invasion of Magha, it of political power, growth of new harbours,
made a great influence not only on the capital reflecting a new intelligence awakening due to the
of Polonnaruwa, but also on the Rajarata rebirth of literature provide a sufficient base to
civilization, which had a history of not less than introduce this process as a second urbanization.
one thousand and five hundred years. Another important trend that should be taken
into consideration regarding the advancement
This is a part from Mahawamsa, which describes of urbanization during this time is setting up
the destruction caused by Magha: “People were of new trade relations network and widening of
tied, tortured and made them beggars by looting commercial activities with that.
their wealth; statues were broken down, temples
were robbed; devotees were attacked; children When we compare the cities originated in the
were beaten (..by the invaders).” Thus, due to the second urbanization process with the great
destructive activities of the enemies, there was cities that existed in the previous era, the main
feature that could be seen is that the plans of
96
the cities developed in the second urbanization a kind of provincial ruling unit originated after
had freed from the geometric structures of the the downfall of the Rajarata civilization. In this
previous ones. Even in the size, they were not way, it seems that king Vijayabahu III too was
as large as the Anuradhapura and Polonnaruwa a provincial leader at first, gradually became
ones. The scholars point out the reason for that powerful, dispelled the enemies who were in
is the decentralization of power after the second Maya Rata and built Dambadeniya as his ruling
urbanization. centre. When Polonnaruwa was surrendered
by enemies, the Bhikkus protected the tooth
relic and the bowl relic. They took those sacred
Dambadeniya objects to Kothmale and protected them. King
Vijayabahu III came to know of this and took
The period from the downfall of the Polonnaruwa steps to bring them to Dambadeniya. He built a
kingdom in 1215 A.D to the establishment of Dalada Maligawa at Beligala and deposited them
the Dambadeniya kingdom in 1232 A.D was in it. This task of the king added an importance
a chaotic time in this country. Mahawamsa to the Dambadeniya Kingdom as the people
mentions that in this difficult time when the considered that the possession of the tooth relic
capital was in the hands of the enemies, some was the legal receipt of kingship. King Vijayabahu
local leaders had protected both the country III performed a number of religious and national
and Buddhism from the enemies by building activities such as building Dambadeniya
inaccessible places in safe areas. Subha Senevi Vijesundararamaya, reconstructing Kelani
who protected the area from enemies by building temple, making a Sanga amendment by holding
an inaccessible place in the Yapahuwa rock, the the Upasampada festival again and taking steps
duke Buwanekabahu who prevented enemies to rewrite the books in disuse. His ruling time
from entering Ruhuna by making a citadel at was 4 years and he died in 1236.
the top of the Govindamalaya mountain, and
Sankha Senevi who had built a citadel in the rock King Parakramabahu II(1236 A.D. – 1270 A.D.)
in Gandeniya close to Mahiyangana area were
prominent among them. King Vijayabahu III had two sons namely
Parakramabahu and Buvanekabahu. After his
Though they took much pains to act for the death, his elder son, Parakramabahu became the
security of the country, none had a hope of going king of Dambadeniya in 1236. He is named as
beyond their own purpose, which was defending king Parakramabahu II. King Parakramabahu
their own ruling area, and uniting the country II had a good education in his childhood. He
suppressing the enemy. It seems only one person had his education from the Bhikkus led by
acted with this purpose. He was a chieftain Sangharakkhitha Thero when his father was
named Vijayabahu III. He lived in Dambadeniya. living and later became an educated erudite.
He ruled making Dambadeniya as his ruling He was offered the scholarly title Kalikala
centre in between 1232-1236. During this time Sahithya Sarwagna Panditha. The great books he
Dambadeniya got developed consisting of all composed remain even today.
that needed for a city.
By the time king Parakramabahu II attained the
King Vijayabahu III established the Dambadeniya kingship, the country was not freed from the
kingdom in 1232. His relationship with the old clutches of the enemies. And also he had to face
royal family in Anuradhapura is not clear. The a new invader. He had a number of challenges
sources mention that this king was a Wanni before him, including bringing the life style
Nayaka- provincial leader earlier. Wanni means of the countrymen to normalcy and acting for
97
the betterment of religion and education. Plan No. 7.3. A sketch of the plan of the ancient Yapahuwa city.
However, the king was able to overcome all
these challenges since he was educated and
intelligent.
When King Parakramabahu II was getting

ready to fight with Kalinga Magha that is
in the 11th year of his ruling (1247 A.D.),
a Javaka invader named Chandrabhanu
landed in this country with a large group of
soldiers. Though all the invasions came to
Sri Lanka from India so far, Chandrabhanu
arrived from the Northern part of the
Malaya peninsula in the South- East Asia.
As that area was a Buddhist country then,
the purpose of Chandrabhanu may have
been to possess the sacred Buddhist relics.
In 1247 A.D. Chandrabhanu’s army was
repulsed by the Sri Lankan army led by
king Parakramabahu II.
The greatest challenge that King

Parakramabahu II had to face was to
liberate the country from Magha’s ruling.
Magha ruled the areas in Rajarata for
about 40 years and had reinforced the security was a great battle between the king’s army and
by building citadels around the area. Therefore, the army of Chandrabhanu. In this battle king
a decisive attack had to be made on Magha. Parakramabahu II had the support from the
According to a plan of the king, the army was Pandyan Empire. In this battle, the enemies were
directed to besiege Polonnaruwa city from the defeated and the invader Chandrabhanu too
eastern and western sides. Magha’s soldiers, was killed. King Parakramabahu II saved the
in the surrounding citadels, had gathered to country from the enemies and at the same time
Polonnaruwa to face the king’s army. Magha’s he took steps to use the minister named Deva
army had had a debacle at the attack launched Pathiraja to develop the economic, religious and
by the king’s army. It is believed that this decisive educational sectors.
battle took place in around 1255 A.D. Liberating
the country from Magha was a great achievement Yapahuwa
of the king.
As king Parakramabahu II passed away in about
Chandrabhanu, who fled after suffering a 1270 A.D, his son prince Vijayabahu attained
defeat in the previous battle with the army of the kingship. He is named as Vijayabahu IV.
the king, had invaded Sri Lanka once again The name Bosath Vijayabahu too was used for
in about 1261 A.D. by obtaining mercenary him. His reign was limited only for two years.
soldiers from India. Chandrabhanu, who came He died due to a military coup. After that, prince
with a large army, besieged Yapahuwa and Buvanekabahu, who was the brother of king
threatened the king to hand over the state, the Vijayabahu IV, overcame the conspirators and
tooth relic and the bowl relic. Once again there
98
became the king in about 1272. He is named It seems after the demise of king Buvanekabahu,
as king Buvanekabahu I. He faced a number of a dispute was started among prince
problems. As soon as he became the king, a group Parakramabahu, the son of Bosath Vijayabahu
of provincial leaders rebelled against him. During and prince Buvanekabahu II, the son of king
the same time several south Indian forces invaded Buvanekabahu I about the kingship. During
Sri Lanka. One invasion was led by an army this time a provincial leader from the South
general named Kalingarayara. Another platoon India named Arya Chackrawarthi had arrived
was led by one army general named Chodanga. in Sri Lanka with a Pandya army, attacked the
The king faced all these adversaries successfully Yapahuwa citadel, took the tooth relic to South
and spent a few years in Dambadeniya. Later India and handed it over to King Kulashekara,
the king selected Yapahuwa, since it was a safer who was the Pandyan king. Later the son of king
place, as his capital. King Buvanekabahu I was Bosath Vijayabahu, prince Parakramabahu went
very interested in having trade relations with to India, met king Kulashekara, discussed with
foreign countries. It is reported that a group of him and brought the tooth relic back. He went to
ambassadors sent by the king to the Sultan in Polonnaruwa and started his ruling. This king is
Egypt to discuss to develop trade relations with named as Parakramabahu III. His ruling period
Egypt had been welcomed in Cairo in the month started in 1287 A.D. But, prince Buvanekabahu
of April in 1283. After some time of that event, II besieged Polonnaruwa, defeated the king and
king Buvanekabahu I died in 1284. took back the tooth relic to Kurunegala in about
1293. He made Kurunegala his
Plan no. 7.4 A sketch of the
ancient Kurunegala city. capital.
Kurunegala
The first ruler who established the

Kurunegala kingdom was king
Buvanekabahu II. His ruling time
was 9 years from 1293 A.D. After
the death of king Buvanekabahu
II, his son, prince Parakramabahu
acceded to the kingship in
Kurunegala. Since he was the
fourth Parakramabahu we meet
in the history of this country, he
is named as Parakramabahu IV.
According to the Tamil poetry
Sarajothimaleyi, he became the
king in 1302 A.D.
Much service was done to the

uplifting of Buddhism as well as
education during the Kurunegala
ruling period. One of the most
prominent services done during
99
this era was translating the Jataka story book, uncle to nephew or to a son of a sister of the ex-
which was in Pali language until then, into king. This was a mother-central system (matriachy)
Sinhala. The texts like Dalada Siritha, Sinhala more than a father-central system (patriachy).
Bodhiwamsa, Anagatha Wamsaya, and Dalada
Poojavaliya were written during this period. It One significant fact was that one Arab traveller
is mentioned that after king Parakramabahu IV, named Iban Batuta came to Sri Lanka during
the two kings named Buvanekabahu III or Vanni the Gampola period and he recorded what he
Buvanekabahu and Vijayabahu V or Savulu witnessed and heard. Iban Batuta, who came to
Vijayabahu ruled Kurunegala respectively. Much Jaffna in 1344, had journeyed to Adam’s Peak
information has not been disclosed about the (Sri Pada) by gaining assistance from the Jaffna
activities of these kings. However, folklores ruler, Arya Chakravarthi. Batuta mentions a
mention that king Buvanekabahu III constructed ruler named Alakonar who possessed a white
the Kurunegala tank. elephant (tusker). That Alakonar was a one of the
Alagakkonara lineage.
Gampola Kingdom
It is mentioned by the ruling period of Gampola
The Gampola kingdom was established by king Vikramabahu III the officers of Aryachakravarthi
Buvanekabahu IV in 1341. He is believed to be in the North had come to Gampola and collected
a son of King Savulu Vijayabahu, who was the taxes from some areas. This was a blow not only
last ruler of the Kurunegala kingdom. King to the independence of the Gampola kingdom
Buvanekabahu IV had another brother and he but also to its economy. Therefore, the chief
maintained his ruling by building a kingdom minister of the King, Nissanka Alakeshvara,
in Dedigama at the same time period as built a fortress in Kotte and had punished the
Parakramabahu V. When the Gampola kingdom tax officers of the King Aryachakravarthi. When
started, there were two other kingdoms except Aryachakravarthi, who was angry with this
for Dedigama. There was a kingdom in Jaffna treatment, invaded Gampola kingdom, his army
under Aryachakravarthi dynasty and another was defeated by the Alakeshwara’s army. Though
one in Rayigama under Alakeshwara lineage. the actions followed by Nissanka Alakeshvara
Therefore, the Gampola kingdom had to face made the Gampola kingdom strong, it seems
many challenges. with time there were disputes among the
There were several special characteristics of Alakeshwara family itself.
the Gampola ruling period. There were two
respectable–families having connections with In the last period of the Gampola kingdom, there
the Royal family, which was one characteristic. was a Chinese invasion in Sri Lanka. An army
Senadhilankara Senevirath family in Gampola general named Chen Ho sent by the Chinese
was one. Senadhilankara Senevi Dedigama had emperor called Yung Lo landed in this country
married a sister of King Parakramabahu III and in the years of 1405, 1409, and 1411. When he
the one who became the king in Gampola in the came to this country in 1409, the then Rayigama
name of Vikramabahu was a son of them. The ruler Veera Alakeshvara had not welcomed
second respectable family was the Alakeshwara Chen Ho properly. Therefore, he had offered
family in Rayigama. The prominent figure in this the offerings he had brought to the Devundara
family was Nissanka Alakeshwara. Devala and left after making an inscription
written in Chinese, Persian and Tamil languages.
In the Gampola period, kingship did not pass to That inscription is known as the Trilingual letter
son from father or from brother to brother. It was in Galle. Afterwards general Chen Ho, who came
the old system. The system which was practised to this country back in 1411 with a large army
in Gampola period was passing kingship from
100
Map 7.1 The distribution of ancient kingdoms in Sri Lanka.
101
and fought against the army of Alakeshvara his daughter, Ulakudaya Deviya, acceded to the
and captured him along with some others as throne in the name of Jayabahu. But his ruling
prisoners, and went back to China. time was short. Prince Sapumal, who was assigned
to rule Jaffna by King Parakramabahu VI after
Several buildings, constructed during the capturing Jaffna, came with an army, besieged
Gampola ruling period still remain and Kotte capital and usurped power by assassinating
Lankathilaka and Gadaladeni temples built by king Jayabhu. He became the king in the name of
king Buvanekabahu IV are prominent among Buvanekabahu VI in 1469. At the beginning of his
them. ruling a rebellion named Pasyodun Rata Sinhala
Peraliya or Sinhala Sange started. This rebellion
Kotte Kingdom was suppressed by prince Ambulugala under
the guidance of King Buvanekabahu. The king
We mentioned above that minister Nissanka forgave the rebel leaders including Kekulandala
Alakeshvara built a strong fortress in Kotte Siriwardana Pathiraja. The inscription made
during the Gampola ruling period. But, the Kotte for this is known as ‘Abhayadana Shilalipiya’ or
kingdom was established by king Parakramabahu ‘Dedigama Inscription’.
VI. His father was one Jayamahalena. His
mother was Sunethra Devi. Since there were After the demise of king Buvanekabahu VI, one
adversaries during the last part of the Gampola of his sons named Panditha Parakramabahu
ruling period, prince Parakramabahu had to came to power. He was known as Parkaramabahu
live in hiding. Here, Veedagama Thero provided VII and his ruling time was not a long one.
him protection. Afterwards, in 1412 prince Prince Ambulgala, who was in charge of ruling
Parakramabahu came to power in Rayigama affairs in Sathara Koralaya, came, dethroned
with the courtesy of Veedagama Thero. After Panditha Parakramabahu and became the king
three years’ time in 1415 he came to Kotte, in the name of Veera Parakramabahu VIII. It is
which was famous as a safe place, and held his believed that he came to power in 1490 A.D. The
coronation. From then on he ruled the country Portuguese arrived in this country during his
for a long time until 1467. These are prominent ruling time in 1505.
in King Parakramabahu’s service.
• Bringing Wanni areas under the Kotte kingdom. Jaffna and the Vanniyars
• Winning Jaffna by sending the army under The ruling unit, which started in the Jaffna
prince Sapumal. area after the downfall of Rajarata civilization,
is known as the Jaffna kingdom. There are no
• Suppressing the rebellion raised by Count contemporary sources to study the beginning
Jothiya, who was the provincial ruler of Uda and the history of this kingdom and the most
Rata. famous book which assists to study its history is
Yalpana Vayipava Maleyi. But it was written in
• Uniting the country under the Kotte kingdom the 18th century. Apart from these, the Tamil texts
and making the country prosperous. such as Kayilaya Maleyi and Shegarashashekara
Maleyi are also important.
• Making a great contribution to the enhancement
of country’s education and literature. The founder of the Jaffna kingdom was Vijay
Kulankeyi Arya Chakravarthi. There is a
As there was not an heir to the throne after description in the Yalpana Vayipava Maleyi
king Parakramabahu VI's demise, the son of text about twelve rulers such as Kulashekara,
102
Vikkirama, Varodaya, Marthanda from the environment. Origin of kingdoms in the areas
ruling time of Arya Chakravarthi to the arrival of where there were ghats and non existence of the
Portuguese. The royal dynasty who ruled Jaffna capital at one place for a long time are special
was named as Arya Chakravarthis. It seems features of this. As the wet zone received a good
when Iban Batuta came to this country in 1344, rainfall, it seems that they did not pay much
the Arya Chakravarthis had a strong ruling. We attention to construct huge tanks and irrigation
mentioned earlier how minister Nishshanka systems. They tended to use rainwater for the
Alakeshvara acted against the representatives agricultural activities. Even during this time,
of Arya Chakravarthi, who collected taxes in their main livelihood was agriculture. The main
the areas belonging to the Gampola kingdom. cultivation was paddy and Chena cultivation was
During the Kotte period King Parakramabahu done in areas which lacked water.
VI sent prince Sapumal and brought Jaffna under
the Kotte kingdom. After king Parakrambahu Gradually they tended to a commercial economy.
VI, the ruling over the Jaffna area loosened from The surplus of the crops grown for food was sold.
the grip of Kotte. From then on we will discuss The reason for this was that the international
the information of the Jaffna kingdom until trade relations got more developed.
it surrendered to the Portuguese in the tenth
lesson. Cinnamon, which grew in the forest areas in
the wet zone, was a main trade crop during this
The Vanniyars time. The surplus of the crops such as aricanuts,
cardamom, nutmeg and pepper was exported.
After the downfall of Rajarata civilization, small Apart from these, trade items such as pearls,
ruling units called Vanni emerged in the areas gems, tuskers and tusks were exported.
with low population density, such as East, North
central and North Western. The provincial rulers Sri Lanka had trade relations with India, Arab,
in these units were known as the Vanniyars. China, Persia and Egypt. International trade was
According to Poojavaliya Vijayabahu III who under the monopoly of king.
established the Dambadeniya kingdom was a
Vanni leader at first. The contemporary sources The rich trade that existed in ancient Sri Lanka
say that there were eighteen such Vanni areas by has been mentioned in literary, archaeological
the time when king Parakramabahu VI started sources as well as in tourist records. The
his ruling. Though the Vanniyars enjoyed archaeological evidences found in Dedigama
some independence during the time when the reveal that porcelain has been imported from
central government was weak, during the ruling China. The ola leaves called Kurunegala
periods of King Parakramabahu II and king description mentions that there were bazaars
Parakramabahu VI the Vanni areas were under related to internal trade. The Arab traveller
the main kingdom. There is information that named Iban Batuta, who came to Sri Lanka in
there were Vanniyars in the Eastern area during 1344 A.D., has mentioned in his records that
the Kandyan kingdom. But they were under the there was a rich trading in harbours in the
Kandyan king. Western coasts.
7.4.1. Economic Style 7.4.2 Religion

During the second urbanization period
The people, who migrated to the wet zone after
Buddhism grew as further as the main religion.
the collapse of the Rajarata civilization, had
The kings from Dambadeni to Kotte periods
to adjust themselves to a new geographical
acted to build palaces for the sacred Tooth relic
103
and construct many temples and monasteries. too. Having Devalas in the idol-houses is a proof
There are proofs that the people of this time had that displays that the Hindu and Mahayana ideas
a great devotion and belief in god. They believed influenced the architecture.
in the gods such as Upulwan, Vibheeshana,
Skandakumar and Saman and constructed The Embekke Devala, which was constructed
Devalas for the gods. There is a reference to by king Wickramabahu III during the Gampola
the gods Upulwan and Vibhishana in Sandesha period is a valuable construction with wood
Kavyas. carvings. Its magnificence is displayed by its
posts with beautiful wood carvings and its
There is information that there was a Shiva wooden roof.
Devala adjacent to Sri Jayawardhanpura in the
fifteenth century. It is believed that it must have There are a lot of evidences to prove that there was
been constructed for Siva devotees. a great revival in language and literature during
the second urbanization. Learned monks, kings’
The Munneshvaram temple in Chilaw was a sponsoring, and having a number of educational
sacred religious place for the Hindus during this centres influenced the advancement of literature.
time.
During the ruling period of King Parakramabahu
There were sacred Islamic religious places in sea- II in Dambadeniya, many literary texts were
port areas where the Muslim devotees resided written. He was given the honorary title Kalikala
and engaged in their international trade affairs. Sahithya Sarvagna Panditha. Several literary
texts were written by him. It is accepted that
7.4.3 Arts and Architecture Kawsilumina, one of the great Sinhalese literary
works, was written by King Parakramabahu II.
A lot of architecture could be seen in the cities, Saddharmarathnawaliya written by Dharmasena
which were created from Yapahuwa period to Thero, and Poojawaliya written by Mayurapada
Kotte period. It is a special feature that these Parivenadhipathi Buddhaputhra Thero were
creations have been influenced by the South two significant prose texts written during
Indian architecture. the Dambadeniya period. Sidath Sangarawa
on Sinhalese grammar, Elusandes Lakuna
It is believed that the steps in the Yapahuwa on prosody too belonged to this period.
kingdom and creations of its posts have had the Dambadeni Kathikavatha, which consists of the
Pandyan and Cambodian influences. It could disciplinary rules of the monks, Kandawuru
clearly be noticed that the contemporary South Siritha, which describes the daily routine of king
Indian architectural styles had influenced the Parakramabahu II and the valuable medicinal
Pilimageya (Idol-house) at the Gadaladeniya text name Yogarnvaya written by Buddha Puthra
temple which belonged to the Gampola period. Thero were written during the Dambdeniya
period. There are several important texts written
Another feature that could be seen in these in Pali language during this time. Vishuddhi
periods is constructing Devals connecting to the Marga Sannasa, Samanthakuta Varnana,
Pilimageyas (Idol-houses). Rasavahini, Sara Sangrahaya, the medicinal book
named Bhessajja Manjusa, Hathvanagalla Vihara
One example for this is that a Devala has Vansaya and Thupavamsa are examples for that.
been built for God Upulvan connecting to the
Gadaladeniya Pilimageya. Devalas have been During Kurunegala period the Sinhalese prose
built connecting to Lankathilaka Pilimageya literature was further advanced. Translating
104
Pansiya Panas Jataka Potha into Sinhala, Dalada Important Facts
Siritha, Dalda Poojavaliya, and Sinhala Bodhi
Vamsa were written during this period.  One of the main factors that affected to transfer
the ancient kingdoms in Sri Lanka was changing
Writing Sandesha Kavya started during the
of the city centres. The situations arose in the
Gampola period. Mayura Sandesha and
country and the transformations occurred in the
Thisara Sandesha are considered as the oldest
Sandesha Kavyas. Pali texts such as Parami international trade too affected that situation.
Shathakaya, Jeenabodhavali, Balavathara and
 The process of origin of cities in the ancient
Saddharmalankaraya too were written during
time of this country can be analyzed through
this period.
two processes named the first urbanization
The Kotte period was the golden age of and the second urbanization. There are distinct
Sinhalese literature. The period of Perakumba differences in the cities which emerged from
VI made a great service to the literature. King these two processes.
Parakramabahu VI was a great ruler as well
as a pedant. There were a number of learned  Those urbanizing processes and series of
people who contributed to the advancement of activities that took place centred on the cities
literature. should be understood through the socio-
political background on which those processes
Thotagamuve Sri Rahula Thero, Keragala originated.
Vanarathana Thero, Irugalthilaka Piriven Thero
were learned monks who nurtured the literature.  After the downfall of Polonnaruwa kingdom,
several other kingdoms namely, Dambadeniya,
Perakumba Siritha, Kavyashekaraya, Yapahuwa, Kurunegala, Gampola and Kotte
Budugunalankaraya, Loweda Sangarava, Guttila came into being. The Jaffna kingdom had started
Kavya, Hansa, Parevi, Gira, Selalihini Sandesha
in Jaffna.
Kavayas were written by these literati.
 There was a great revival in educational and
Another important feature is that the texts
literary spheres during the Kotte period.
like Bhakthi Kavya, Shilo Kavya, Hatan Kavya,
Prashasthi Kavya, Upadesha Kavya, Kosha
Grantha, directed the literature to different
aspects. Sanskrit texts too were written and
Bhakthi Shathakaya is an example for that. Activity
A number of Buddhist educational centres came 1. Mention the reasons for the origin and
into being during this time. King Parakramabahu downfall of the ancient Sri Lankan cities.
VI built Pepilayane Sunethradevi Pirivena in
memory of his mother. The Buddhist centers such 2. Mark the places given below on a map of
as Keragala Padmavathi Pirivena, Devinuvara Sri Lanka.
Irugalkulathilaka Pirivena, Veedagama Anuradhapura Gampola Yapahuwa
Ghunananda Pirivena did a great service to the Polonnaruwa Kotte
advancement of literature. Kurunegala Dambadeniya
105
8 Kandyan Kingdom
The successor of king Senasammatha

Introduction Vickramabahu was his son, Jayaweera Bandara
(1511-1551). He ruled the kingdom, for a long
time. He was a friend of king Mayadunne, who
After the collapse of the Kotte and the
was the ruler of Seethawaka. In the incident
Seethawaka kingdoms, it was the responsibility “Vijayaba Kollaya” that took place against
of the Kandyan kingdom to protect the king Vijayabahu VI, who was the then ruler of
independence of the country. Until 1815 the Kotte, king Jayaweera Bandara supported king
kings and the people of that kingdom fulfilled Mayadunne.
this responsibility completely by facing
numerous challenges never faced by any After King Jayaweera Bandara, his son
kingdom that prevailed in this country. In this Karaliyedde Bandara acceded to the throne
of Kandy. He maintained a friendly policy
unit you will learn about the beginning of the
with the Portuguese. The Kandyan chieftains
Kandyan kingdom, which was the last kingdom were unhappy about this policy of Karaliyadde
in Sri Lanka, its expansion, its administration Bandara. Therefore, they supported the
and its social and economic patterns. Seethawaka ruler, king Rajasinghe. Peradeniye
Veerasundara Bandara, who was a chieftain
of Kandy, assisted king Rajasinghe I to invade
Kandy. Karaliyadde Bandara, who could not
8.1 Beginning and Expansion face this invasion, fled to the Portuguese with
his daughter Kusumasana Devi and his son in
The Kandyan kingdom was known by various law, Yamasinghe Bandara. Kusumasana Devi
names such as Senkadagala Nuwara, Udarata was baptized in the name of Dona Kathirina and
Rajadhaniya, Kande Nuwara, Mahanuwara Yamasinghe Bandara as Don Philip.
Rajadhaniya.
King Rajasinghe I, who captured Kandy in 1580,
The capital of the Kanda Udarata Rajadhaniya was ruled the areas in Kandy from Seethawaka.
Kandy (Mahanuwara). It is a naturally protected But, king Rajasinghe I suspected Veerasundara
location. The city of Kandy is protected by the Bandara and tactfully killed him. After this
river of Mahaweli. It is very difficult to access incident, the son of Veerasundara Bandara fled
this city due to the ghats such as Balana and to the Poruguese and was baptized in the name
Hunnasgiriya. Further, the Kandyan kingdom of Don Juan of Austria.
consists of a balmy climate and a fertile land.
The Kandyan chieftains were dissatisfied with
King Senasammatha Vickramabahu made the policies of king Seethawaka Rajasinghe
Kandy an independent kingdom for the first on Kandy. As a result, the Portuguese, who
time. It was a provincial ruling unit under took the advantage from this opportunity, sent
the Kotte kingdom during the ruling period Yamasinghe Bandara who was under their care
of king Parakramabahu VI. Therefore, King to Kandy and established a ruling, which was
Senasammatha Vickramabahu is considered as loyal to the Portuguese, with the help of some
the founder of the Kandyan kingdom. Kandyan chieftains. On the occasion when the
106
Plan 8.1. A map of the plan of old Kandy city. T- the Temple of Tooth A-Magul Maduwa N- Natha Devalaya P- Paththini Deva-
laya V- Vishnu Devalaya K- Katharagama Devalaya AV- Asgiri Temple AW- Adhikaram Manor House MV- Malwaththa Tem-
ple S- Sthupa B – Sacred Bo Tree KV-Kumaruppe Street BR- The House of King’s Army Brigade KP- King’s Palace
King Vimaladharmasooriya I (1592 – 1604)

Portuguese sent Yamasinghe Bandara to Kandy,
they sent Konappu Bandara, who was the son of King Vimaladharmasooriya I, who became
Veerasundara Bandara, too with the army who the king after Yamasinghe Bandara, was the
went for his protection. As Yamasinghe Bandara, son of Weerasundara Bandara. He was the
who was a puppet of the Portuguese, died in a beginner of a new dynasty in Kandy. After king
short time, the Portuguese attempted to make the Vimaladharmasooriya I came to power, there
youngest son of Yamasinghe Bandara the king of were several challenges faced by him.
Kandy. But it was unsuccessful due to Konappu 1. Not having a legal royal inheritance.
Bandara. Konappu Bandara, who got the support
of the Kandyans, captured the power of Kandy 2. Had to liberate the Kandyan kingdom from
against the Portuguese and became the king in the clutches of the Portuguese.
the name of Vimaladharmasooriya I. Due to this 3. Protecting the Kandyan kingdom from
brave action of Konappu Bandara, the possibility Seethawaka influences.
of a Portuguese ruling in the Kandyan kingdom
was prevented. 4. Had to rebuild the declined Buddha Sasana.
5. Had to enhance the economic affairs of the
Kandyan kingdom.
107
 King Vimaladharmasooriya I took several 1. Taking actions to develop agriculture.
steps to establish his legal right to the Kandyan
kingdom. 2. Encourage to enhance the cotton cultivation.
3. Developing the iron and steel industries in

1. Establishing his right by marrying Kusumasana Kotmale and Walapane.
Devi who had a legal right to the Kandyan
kingdom. 4. Take steps to develop nitre industry in the
Kandyan kingdom.
2. Abandoning Roman Catholic religion and
embracing Buddhism. King Vimaladharamasooriya I, who attempted
to develop the kingdom of Kandy in this way,
3. Getting a Buddhist name as died in 1604 A.D. after being infected with a
Vimaladharmasooriya.
sudden fever.
4. Bringing the Sacred Tooth Relic,which was
hidden in the temple of Delgamu, to Kandy.
 The king defeated king Rajasinghe I with

the help of the Kandyans in order to protect the
country from the influences of the kingdom of
Seethawaka.
 There were several steps that the king took to

save the Kandyan kingdom from the clutches
of the Portuguese.
1. Defeating the Portuguese completely in the

battle of Danthure in 1594 A.D.
2. Supporting the rebellions against the

Portuguese, organized by the people of low-
country.
3. Try to get the assistance of the Dutch to expel
the Portuguese.
 King Vimaladharmasooriya took several

steps to rebuild the declined Buddhism.
1. Bringing Upasampada from Mianmar.
2. Renovating old temples such as Lankathilaka,
Ridee Viharaya and Gadaladeniya.
The king took several measures for the

economic development of the Kandyan
kingdom. Fig. 8.1. A drawing of King Rajasinghe II. This was drawn by the
British national named Robert Knox, who stayed in this country.
108
King Senarath (1604- 1635 A.D) 1. Preventing the attacks of the Portuguese to the
Kandyan kingdom.
When king Vimaladharmasooriya I passed away, 2. Expelling the Portuguese from this country.
his sons were at a very young age. Therefore, a
cousin brother of King Vimaladharmasooriya 3. Minimizing the threats to the Kandyan
I named prince Senarath became the king of kingdom from the chieftains.
Kandy in 1604. There were several challenges
that he had to face. 4. Liberating the Kandyan kingdom from the
Dutch influence.
1. Establishing his royal inheritance in the
Kandyan kingdom. The king had acted to suppress the attacks
from the Portuguese to the Kandyan kingdom
2. Minimizing the threats that came from the since his father’s ruling period. He defeated the
Portuguese against the Kandyan kingdom. Portuguese completely in Uva–Randeniwala
battle as well as in the Gannoruwa battle in 1638.
During the early period of the King Senarath’s
ruling, he married Kusumasana Devi (Dona The king needed the assistance of a naval army
Kathirina) and established his kingship. to expel the Portuguese from this country.
King Rajasinge II acted to get assistance from
Queen Kusumasana Devi had two sons from the Dutch for that purpose. King Rajasinghe
King Vimaladharmasooriya I and one son from II managed to expel the Portuguese from this
king Senarath. Among them, the cleverer one country by getting the support of the Dutch in
was Prince Maha Asthana (Prince Rajasinghe II). 1658. Even though the Portuguese was expelled
In order to avoid the competition between the from the country, unexpectedly the Dutch
princes for the kingship, king Senarath divided established their power in the Portuguese areas.
the Kandyan kingdom into three parts and gave The Dutch, who established their power in a
each one to each prince. Accordingly, Uva area number of coastal areas, attempted constantly to
was given to prince Kumarasinghe; Matale area expand their ruling area from 1658.The Dutch
was given to prince Vijepala; Kandy area was captured several areas in Kandy during the
given to prince Rajasinghe. years between 1665 and 1668. King Rajasinghe
II, who stayed silent during that time, launched
a number of powerful attacks during the years
Prince Maha Asthana alias Rajasinghe II assisted between 1670 and 1675 and liberated many areas
his father to protect the Kandyan kingdom from that the Dutch had possessed. Therefore, the
the Portuguese. He was a great warrior and he Dutch, who realized the power of the Kandyan
annihilated the Portuguese in the battle of Uva- kingdom, attempted to be peaceful with the
Randeniwala in 1630. Further, he attacked and Kandyan kings from then on.
paralized the Portuguese villages on the borders
in Kandy. Establishing power by the Dutch in the coastal
areas was an impediment to the purpose of king
Rajasinghe II to become the king of the whole
King Rajasinghe II (1635- 1687 A.D.)
country. However, when the Portuguese was
expelled from the country, the king managed
Prince Rajasinghe acceded to the throne of to capture more areas that had belonged to the
Kandy as Rajasinghe II with the demise of king Portuguese. The ports such as Kalpitiya, Chilaw,
Senarath in 1635. He faced several challenges Trincomalee and Batticaloa had belonged to the
during his ruling time. Kandyan kingdom then.
109
Fig. 8.2. A rare photograph which displays the Kandyan pageant and the nature of the streets of the Kandy city in the 19th
century.
King Rajasinghe II, who made a great By the time of King Vimaladharmasooriya II, the
contribution to the expansion of power of the higher ordinance (Upasampada) of the Kandyan
Kandyan kingdom, ruled more than 50 years and kingdom was in a state of decline once again.
passed away in 1687. Therefore, the king took measures to bring the
higher ordinance from Burma into this country
once again. There is information to state that
King Vimaladharmasooriya II (1687-1707A.D) the Dutch assisted the king for that purpose. It
is recorded that he had renovated the Temple of
Tooth. King Vimaladharamasooriya II passed
After king Rajasinghe II, his son away in 1707 A.D.
Vimaladharmasooriya II became the king.
He was not as clever as his father. Therefore, it
seemed that the Kandyan chieftains strengthened King Sri Veera Parakrama Narendrasinghe
their power during this king’s time. (1707 – 1739 A.D.)
He acted peacefully with Dutch after he became

Sri Veera Parakarama Narendrasinghe, who was
the king. Though he was not a clever ruler, he
the son of Vimaladharmasooriya II, acceded to
was able to protect the areas where the power
the throne of the Kandyan kingdom in 1707.
had been expanded in the Kandyan kingdom.
110
The weakness of the king was that he did not was at a very young age as 16 years old when he
have a good knowledge on administration. The came to power, his father Narenappa Nayakkar
result of this was that the Kandyan chieftains interfered in the affairs of the ruling.
strengthened their power further.
When king Keerthi Sri Rajasinghe came to
power, Buddhism in this country was of a very
This king, as his father, married a South Indian decaying state. Therefore, according to the
princess. They did not have children from this instructions of Weliwita Saranankara Thero, the
marriage. The result of this was that the queen’s king acted to create a Buddhist revival in the
brother inherited the kingship, following the country. Following are the several steps taken by
South Indian tradition. the king for that.
Nayakkar Dynasty  Establishing higher ordinance again by
sending messengers to Thailand by the king and
King Sri Vijaya Rajasinghe (1739 -1747 A.D.) accompanying the Bhikkus led by Upali Thero.
With this the beginning of the present day Siyam
King Sri Veera Parakrama Narendrasinghe sect took place.
passed away in year 1739, without leaving an heir
 Renovating the temples in upcountry as well as
to the throne. In this case, in accordance with
in low country.
the South Indian tradition, the queen’s brother
prince Sri Vijaya Rajasinghe became the king of  Granting the post of Sangaraja to Saranankara
the Kandyan kingdom. The new royal dynasty, Thero and assisting the Thero to create a Buddhist
which was started with this king, is known as the revival.
Nayakkar dynasty. The major challenge that King
Sri Vijaya Rajasinghe faced was the strengthened  During the years between 1760 and 1765 the
power of the chieftains of the Kandyan council of good relationship between the Dutch and Kandy
the palace. To ameliorate this situation the king collapsed. As a result, there were a few fights
appointed his relatives to the council. between the two sides. Those conflicts ended
when the king and the Dutch signed a peace
Even though this king, who had embraced pact between them in 1766. King Keerthi Sri
Buddhism and grown in the association of Rajasinghe too passed away without leaving an
the Buddhist Bhikkus, acted to bring higher heir to the Kandyan throne.
ordinance from Burma according to the
instructions given by Weliwita Saranankara
Thero, his effort was not successful. King Rajadhirajasinghe (1781-1798 A.D)
King Sri Vijaya Rajasinghe, who married a South After the death of king Keerthi Sri Rajasinghe,
Indian princess, passed away in 1747 without his brother became the king of Kandy in the
leaving a royal heir as he did not have children. name of Rajadhirajasinghe. By this time disputes
were developing between the Kandyan chieftains
and the Nayakkar kings.
King Keerthi Sri Rajasinghe (1747 -1781 A.D)
An important event that took place during his
ruling time was seizing the coastal areas of Sri
After the death of king Sri Vijaya Rajasinghe, his
Lanka by the English in 1796. King Rajadhi
wife’s brother Keerthi Sri Rajasinghe accecded to
rajasinghe too passed away without a successor
the throne of the Kandyan kingdom in 1747. It has
in 1798.
been recorded that since Keerthi Sri Rajasinghe
111
King Sri Vickrama Rajasinghe (1798-1815 King’s Power :
A.D.)
After king Rajadhirajasinghe’s death, prince ■ The king was the one who possessed the highest
Kannasami was made the king as Sri Vickrama power in the country.
Rajasinghe in 1798, according to the need of the
■ Maintaining the peace in the country and
then Maha Adikaram, Pilimathalawwe. This king
providing protection were the king’s major tasks.
started gradually to be obedient to his Nayakkar
relatives, as a result the relationships between the ■ The king was expected to act in accordance
Kandyan chieftains and the king were disrupted. with the tradition and customs.
Though the English invaded Kandy in 1803, the
king managed to defeat the English with the ■ The king held the authority as the highest court
support of the Kandyans. However, during the in the country and had the power to order death
last few years of the king’s ruling time he acted sentence to a convict.
cruelly. Therefore the relationship between the
king and the people was disturbed. Thus, the ■ The king held the priority in executing all
English, who acted tactfully, sent their army to political, economic and administrative affairs in
Kandy and arrested the king in the month of the country.
February in 1815. In accordance with the accord
signed between the Kandyan chieftains and the
English in the month of March in 1815, the Adikarams
English possessed the Kandyan kingdom. King
Sri Vickrama Rajasinghe, who was in the English
The areas given below were administered by the
custody, was deported to Vellor by the English
relevant Adikaram.
king.
Maha Adikaram Devana (second)

8.2 The Administrative Structure of the Adikaram
Kandyan Kingdom Hath Koralaya Hathara Koralaya
The highest position of the administrative Uva Thun Koralaya
hierarchy of the Kandyan kingdom was held by
the king. There were two Adikarams for the king’s Matale Sabaragamuwa
assistance. Politically, they were second only to
the king. There was a royal council to discuss the Walapane Uva Palatha
important affairs of the kingdom. Adikarams, Binthenna Udu Nuwara, Yati
Disawes, Maha Lekams, and Badde Lekams Nuwara, Thumpane
participated in this council, which was headed Wellassa
by the king. The administration of the kingdom Kothmale, Bulathgama
had been divided into several sections. Service Nuwara Kalawiya
in the palace (Maha Vasala Sevaya) was under
the direct rule of the king; the provincial ruling
There were two posts of Adikarams. Maha
structure (Rata Wasama) was afoot through
Adikaram was called Pallegampaha Adikaram
Maha Adikarams, and under the supervision of
and Devana Adikaram was called Udagampaha
the king; Maha Badda alias tax structure which
Adikaram.
was under the relevant sectional heads and
administration of temples and Devalas were the The messengers who brought the decrees or
major administrative sections. messages of Adikarams to provincial officers
112
were called ‘Katupulle Messengers’. Their official Badde Sanvidhanaya (Badde Structure)
symbol was a silver ringed cane, the top part of
which was bent. Apart from the politically existed provincial
organization network, the artisans or the castes
Mahawasala alias the Officers in the Palace in a Disawa had been categorized separately
according to their tasks. Though the Badde
Sanvidhanya (structure) was afoot separately at
Their duty was to run the affairs of the palace
first, it came under Disawe during the last period
by maintaining the pride and grandeur of the
of the Kandyan kingdom. Following are some
kingship. Providing food and drinks to the people
examples for the Badde Sanvidhanaya.
in the palace, providing clothes, jewellery, and
furniture to the palace were their duties. These
officers were under the direct supervision of Madige Badda (transport affairs)
the king. Many Nilames and Muhandirams had Kuruwe Badda (catching tuskers)
been in charge of those sections in the palace.
Gajanayaka Nilame (the officer who looked into Badahela Badda (pottery)
the affairs of the tuskers), Maha Lekam (chief
Rada Badda (washing clothes)
secretary), Maha Gabada Nilame, Diya wadana
Nilame, Halu Wadana Nilame, Bath Wadana Handa Badda (weaving clothes)
Nilame, As Panthiye Muhandiram, Kavikara
Maduwe Muhandiram are examples to the
officers in the king’s palace. Administrative Affairs of Temples and Devalas
The administration of temples and monasteries

Ratawasam alias Provincial Ruling were mainly under Mahanayaka and Anu Nayaka
Theros. The activities in the Dalada Maligawa
The Kandyan (Udarata) kingdom consists of 21 were done through Diya Wadana Nilame. There
areas named Rata and Disawa. The areas, which were people who provided their official labour
were close to Kandy, such as Udu Nuwara, Yati for the maintenance of temples and Dewalas,
Nuwara, Thumpane, Harispattuwa, Dumbara, organization of various types of Pooja and affairs
Hewaheta, Kothmale, Uda Bulathgama, Patha of the procession (Perahera).
Bulathgama, were known as Rata. Hathara
Koralaya, Hath Koralaya, Uva, Sabaragamuwa,
Mathale, Walapane were some of the 12 Disawes. Judicial Affairs
The officers who were in charge of the Ratas were
called Rate Rala or Rate Mahathwaru. Liyana ■ The king possessed the highest judicial power.
Rala, Undiya Rala and other minor officers were
■ Every officer possessed a judicial power
under them. The officers who were in charge of
according to their posts.
the Disawas were called Disawa. The unit of
Disawa was divided into Koralas and Koralas ■ Only the king had the sole authority to hear
were divided into Pattus. The officer in charge of some cases.
a Koralaya was called Korale. In a Koralaya there
were Muhandiramas who were in charge of each
caste. Under them there were Vidanes who were
in charge of each village.
113
There were several cases heard only by the king.
Cases regarding important leaders Cases regarding temples and monks
Cases regarding riots Cases regarding treason
Cases regarding conspiracies / coups
Some of the punishments administered to the convicts at that time.
Beating Expelling to gypsy groups
Fining Drowning
Keeping in the Dandu Kanda Banishing
Cutting hair Whipping
Killing by trampling upon by elephants Thrashing with Ipala
Imprisoning
8.3 Economic System
It was an agricultural economy that existed during the Kandyan kingdom.
■ It was a consumer based one.

■ The economy was a self-sufficient one.
■ Since there were many hilly areas, lands for paddy cultivation were limited.
■ Though the Kandyan possessed the same administration as in ancient Raja Rata and Ruhun areas,
agriculture was limited due to the decline of irrigation.
■ In the precipices on the steeps of the mountains paddy cultivation was done.
■ A large quantity of land in the Kandyan kingdom was used for Chena cultivation.
■ Grains such as Kurakkan, Amu, maize, wheat and yams and sweet potatoes were cultivated.
■ Jak, bread fruit, pepper, cardamom, aricanuts, vegetables and fruits were grown in home gardens.
■ Iron, wood, metal, lacquer and reed industry were in a developed state.
■ Animal husbandry too was done for agriculture and getting milk.
■ Food needs were satisfied by supplementary crops.
114
Fig. 8.3. A family in the 19th century, who were engaged in the industry of weaving mats.
8.4 Social Organization People supplied some service or a specific

amount of items to the king for the lands they
■ It was accepted that the owner of all land in the enjoyed.
country was the king.
The countrymen's service system was called
■ The lands in the Kandyan kingdom were divided
‘Rajakariya’.
into several parts based on the ownership and
enjoyment.
 It was a rural society that existed in the
Kandyan kingdom.
Gabadagama – The lands allocated for the use of
king’s palace - Village was self-sufficient.
Nindagam - The lands granted to the aristocrats - Its social relations were based on the caste
for their service system.
Viharagam - The lands offered to the temples - Each caste had its own economic activities.
- Marriages were based on the caste system.

Devalagam - The lands offered to the Devalas
There were three type of marriages known as
Paravenigam (Nindagam) - The lands enjoyed ‘Deega Vivahaya (the bridegroom accompanied
by the villagers for generations. the bride to his house), Binna Vivahaya (the
bridegroom stays permanently in the house of
115
the bride after the marriage), Eka Geyi Kema King Sri Vijaya Rajasinghe
(one bride was brought for two male persons in (1739-1747 A.D.)
the same family)’.
- All the activities in the Kandyan kingdom was King Keerthi Sri Rajasinghe
done according to the barter system. (1747-1781 A.D.)
- Family was the main social unit.
King Rajadhirajasinghe
- The prominent feature of the society was virtue. (1781-1798 A.D)
- Temple was the centre connected with the lives
of the villagers. King Sri Vickrama Rajasinghe
(1798-1815 A.D)
The Rulers of the Kandyan Kingdom

Important Facts
King Senasammatha Vikramabahu
(1469-1511 A.D.)  Kandyan era was the last kingdom in Sri Lanka.
During this period the rulers had to work with
King Jayaweera Bandara three European nations namely the Portuguese,
(1511-1551 A.D.) the Dutch, and the English.
King Karaliyadde Bandara  During this time, our kings acted tactfully by
taking much pains to protect the unity of the
(1551-1581 A.D) country.
King Rajasinghe I  The then society had been organized based on

(1581- 1591 A.D) various groups.
King Vimaladharmasooriya I  Some of the kings, who ruled the Kandyan

kingdom, had belonged to a South Indian
(1592 -1604 A.D)
dynasty known as Nayakkar.
King Senarath
 In 1815 the Kandyan kingdom was bestowed to
(1604-1635 A.D) the king of England through a document called
‘Udarata Accord’ signed by the then governor of
King Rajasinghe II Sri Lanka Robert Brownrig along with English
(1635-1687 A.D) officers and the Kandyan Sinhala chieftains. It
seems the main cause for the downfall of the
kandyan kingdom.
King Vimaladharmasooriya II
(1687-1707 A.D)
King Veera Parakrama Narendrasinghe

(1707-1739 A.D)
116
Activity
1. Explain with examples how the rulers of

the Kandyan kingdom became great.
2. Describe how the administrative

organization of the Kandyan kingdom
contributed to its socio-economic efficiency.
3. Write an article for a newspaper about the

social organization of the Kandyan kingdom.
117
9 Renaissance
9.1 The Reasons for the Renaissance

Introduction
 Surrendering the city of Constantinople by
The word Renaissance means rebirth. The the Turks
historians use this word to mean the wide
transformation that took place in the fields of Constantinople, which was a very advanced
art and science from the 14th to 16th centuries trade city during the final part of the mediaeval
A.D. in Europe. era, attracted the attention of the scholars. The
Greek and Roman literature books were stored
The period in which ancient Greek and in libraries in the city of Contantinople and a
Roman civilizations existed is called the number of Greek and Roman scholars were
Pristine age in the history of Europe. The engaged in studying there. But, the Islamic
period of around thousand years that followed Turks surrendered this city in 1453 A.D. and
the downfall of ancient Rome civilization in therefore, the Roman Catholic scholars found it
the 5th century is called the mediaeval period difficult to stay in the city any longer. Therefore,
in Europe. Once again an interest grew in these scholars fled to other European countries
studying literature, art and philosophy that with those books and propagated the Greek
existed in the ancient Greek and Roman and Roman literature and languages in those
civilizations in the latter part of the mediaeval cities. As a result, the Greek and Roman cultures
era in Europe. As a result of it, the European revived.
society experienced a broad transformation
as the Europeans utilized the art styles that  Growth in Trade and Origin of a New Group
were used in the ancient Greek and Roman of Rich
civilizations once again and tended to study
literature and philosophy in depth. By this, There was a growth of trade and commercial
the above mentioned ancient civilizations affairs between the Eastern and Western
were revived. It is called the Renaissance. Due countries in the 12th century A.D. Therefore,
to the transformations that occurred during a new group of rich people originated in the
the Renaissance in every field, the mediaeval cities like Venice and Genoa in Italy with the
period died out and the modern era of the money they earned from trade, production and
European history started. bank affairs. Since these wealthy people did not
depend on the ancient feudal nobles, they had a
free mind to pay their attention to artistic work
and also a financial power to support it. As there
were a number of small kingdoms in Italy then,
the wealthy people who live in them offered to
support artistic affairs. It was a predominant
reason for the origin of the Renaissance from
Italy. The family called Medici who lived in the
118
Fig 9.1 A drawing, which displays two divine children, painted in the Sistine church by Michael Angelo.
city of Florence in Italy is a good example for a ■ Criticism of the Domination of the Church
rich family who supported the artistic affairs.
By the mediaeval era, both the Pope and the
 Intellectual Revival church had a great power. Therefore, the religion
had affected many aspects of human life to a great
After the decline of the Roman civilization, extent. Some of the priests in the Catholic council
subjects like Theology, Philosophy, and Law had tended to a more worldly life. As a result
were the main subjects in the education system of the revival of thinking in the Renaissance,
centred in the religious institutions. But, since some weaknesses in the Catholic council were
new subjects such as Ancient Literature, dramas, criticized. John Wyklip in England, John Huss in
Phonetics and History were taught in the new Bohemia, Irasmus in France and Martin Luther
educational centres which started after the 12th in Germany were prominent among such critics.
century, there was a new group of scholars by
the time of Renaissance. Another reason that
caused the intellectual revival of the Europeans How the Renaissance Transformed Europe
was the printing industry. After the invention
of the printing machine by Gutenberg in 1454, The Renaissance affected much to transform the
printing shops were started in a number of areas course of Europe. It transformed every section
in Italy. Therefore printed books were abundant such as academic, political, economic and
and much interest grew in Greek and Roman scientific.
literature and drama.
119
Academic Renaissance
The Academic Renaissance means the

revival that took place in the fields of
language, literature, arts, sculpture,
and architecture in Europe in the 15th
century.
The Revival of Language and Literature
The languages used in the mediaeval

period were tribal languages. Latin
language was used in the affairs of
religion and law to a certain extent.
Greek language had the state of a dead
language. However, since studying
the books written in Greek and
Latin languages increased during the
Renaissance, there was a revival in
those languages. This was an important
thing that happened in the Academic
Renaissance. And also, learning Latin
and Greek languages became a fashion.
Therefore, the provincial languages used
so far went into disuse.
Fig 9.2 A drawing, which displays how Galileo Galili examined the space
There was a revival in literature after through his telescope. Scientific inventions was a prominent feature in
the studying of books written in Greek the European Renaissance.
and Latin languages. Specially, there
was a great interest in Greek dramas. humanism Europe started to look at everything
A number of authors, who made a great service critically. Humanistic subjects were taught
to literature, emerged during this time. Dante, instead of theological subjects. For example,
Petrach, Baccasio in Italy, Sir Thomas Moor, subjects like literature, history, art, law and
Francis Bacon and William Shakespeare in ethics were taught. Therefore, many authors who
England and Irasmus in France were prominent. had the Greek and Roman influence and tended
They wrote a number of books. Divine Commedia to humanism, emerged in this period.
written by Alguri Dante and the Sonnets for Lora
written by Petrach can be taken as examples. Arts and Crafts
Humanism Transformations that took place in the fields

of Arts and Crafts
Humanism or considering man as noble was
a prominent feature in the Renaissance. In the All the craftsmen were organized in grades in
mediaeval period everything was based on the mediaeval period. Therefore, the creations
religion and therefore, everything happened of the mediaeval period were called by grades.
within a religious framework. But, with Another special feature was that arts and crafts
had religious characteristics. The reasons for that
120
were that only the church had the strength to Sculpture
support the arts and the mediaeval thinking had
been built upon religious teachings. Therefore Sculpture too had an important place among
the artists were not independent enough to the arts and crafts during the Renaissance.
make creations according to their talents. But, Sculpturing in alabaster was a prominent feature
during the Renaissance everything changed. The at that time. Michael Angelo was a great sculptor.
rich, who appreciated worldly pleasure, offered He has sculptured Lorenso Medici of the Medici
to support the artists during the Renaissance. family out of alabaster. The statues of Pieta,
As individualism was appreciated during the Moses, and David are among his other creations.
Renaissance, the artists started making their
creations independently by showing their Architecture
talents. They started to produce the artworks by There were significant changes in architecture
the names of artists, which had been introduced during the Renaissance. The special feature of the
by the grades so far. Therefore, a number of architecture in the mediaeval period was high
artworks, which displayed worldly pleasure roofs in the shape of pointed cone and pillars in
instead of religious thoughts, were produced. the shape of pyramids. Instead, the main features
in the architecture during the Renaissance were
Paintings the circular archs, high pillars and half round
domes according to the Roman architecture.
Paintings, among other arts and crafts, had a Even luxurious castles were constructed
broad transformation during the Renaissance. imitating the Romans.
The city of Florence was a centre which produced
a new art of painting. As the creations were made The buildings such as Saint Peter’s Basilica
giving priority to the worldly pleasure, paintings church, and Seat Church in Florence are among
and sculptures in this period displayed nude the constructions which reflect their architecture.
and half nude figures. So far the personalities Michael Anjelo, Leonardo Da Vinci and Raphael
related to religion like Jesus Christ and Mother were talented architects in the Renaissance
Mary were the subjects of paintings. But in the period.
Renaissance the figures of wealthy people were
drawn. Leonardo Da Vinci, Micheal Angelo, Scientific Advancement
Raphael, Masekshio, and Botta Chelli were
important painters in this period. Another significant feature of the Renaissance
was the advancement of science. The scholars,
Leonardo Da Vinci was clever at many fields in who were influenced by the Greek books, tended
addition to painting. He was a poet, a musician, to experiment scientifically without being
a scientist and a practical engineer. His paintings confined to one field. They observed everything
such as Monalisa and last supper of Jesus Christ including the earth, the sun, the moon and the
have been considered as great masterpieces stars. As a result, they put forward novel ideas on
even at present. Michael Angelo was also a great the universe. And also there was advancement in
painter as well as a sculptor and an architect. science too.
The paintings which he drew on the ceiling of
the Sistine church displays the greatness of his Novel ideas on the Universe
paintings. The painting ‘Last Judgement’ and
Nicholas Copernicus (Polish)
"The Painting of Adam" drawn in the Sistine
church itself are important among his paintings. He discovered that the earth is round and the
other planets rotate around the earth. Since he
121
Fig. 9.3. The transformations of the Renaissance influenced many spheres. Architecture and sculpture is one of them.
This photograph shows a residential building which was built according to the style in Renaissance period in France.
made a great service to science, he is known as and discovered that there are craters on the moon
the father of modern astronomy. and sub planets around Jupiter. He is known as
the father of experiment.
Isaac Newton (England)
Advancement in Medicine
He discovered the law of gravitation.
There was a revival in the medicine during this
Johannes Keplar (German) period.
He confirmed the propositions put forwarded by William Harvey (English)

Copernicus and he further discovered that the
planets in the solar system go round it. He discovered significant information regarding
the blood circulation system in the human body.
Galileo Galili (Italy)
Paracelsus (Swiss)
He invented the telescope. He observed the
objects in the sky with the help of his telescope He experimented on the causes for diseases and
122
remedies for them. He made a great influence on obtained the assistance of these middle class
the modern pharmacology and the methods of representatives in the administrative affairs. The
treating illnesses. middle class gained the royal assistance for their
trade affairs.
Michael Certes (Swiss)
Economic Revival
He discovered information on the process of
spreading blood throughout the body after being A broad transformation occurred in Europe
purified by lungs after coming into it from the during the Renaissance. The self sufficient
heart and going out through the right side of the economy in the mediaeval age declined and
heart. a growth of trading happened in this period.
After the national states originated in Europe,
Johannes Gutenberg (German) the governments extended their direct support
to widen the trade affairs. For that, national
The German national Johannes Gutenberg trade policies and national tax policies were
invented the printing machine. implemented in the European countries. Further,
as a result of explorations, new sea routes were
The Political Revival discovered and it helped the Europeans to
travel to the East and the American continent.
During the feudal period ruling of each region Therefore, they could take the trade commodities
was assigned to provincial rulers. The land- and items such as, spices, gold, silver, pearls,
owning aristocrats acted as provincial rulers. gems, elephants, and tusks to Europe. Through
As they acted independently, they enjoyed more this their trading developed.
powers than the king in the administrative
affairs. As the people then lived were under each With the widening of trade affairs, the usage of
provincial ruler, they just thought of themselves currency increased. Using monetary notes and
as the people of their own province but did not coins spread. As it was difficult and insecure in
act as one nation in one country. taking money to distant areas for transactions,
exchange of cheques and banking system started
The origination of national states during during the Renaissance. Further, the banks
the Renaissance was the most significant supplied loan facilities to businessmen for their
transformation experienced in the field of commercial affairs.
politics. The separate provincial states were
united under one king. Therefore, the king
was significant in administrative affairs and all Discovery of New Trade Routes
powers centered on the king.
With the capture of the city of Constantinople
A middle class originated with the growth of trade by the Turks in 1453 A.D, the trade affairs in the
affairs in the12th century. The middle class was East and West of the Europeans were disturbed.
those who became rich by earning money from All trade routes by sea and land came under the
the trade by then. Traders, bankers, ship-owners, Turks’ empire. Therefore, the Europeans tended
and caravan owners belonged to the middle class. to find new sea routes to reach Asia to gain Asian
When the middle class became more powerful in commodities.
the society, the land-owning aristocrats started
to lose the powers and the rights that they By this time a conducive background to explore
enjoyed so far. The kings in the national states new sea routes was setting in Europe. That is,
123
 The compass, which could be used for the American continents. Therefore, some countries
safety of navel journeys, had been invented. in the above mentioned continents were colonies
of several European countries for about four and
 The fact that the world is round had been half centuries beginning from the 16th century.
discovered during the Renaissance. Therefore, new relations developed with Europe
and other countries in the world commercially,
 Proper understanding had been provided on socially, culturally as well as politically. As a result
the world by Ptolemy’s world map. of these relations, printing industry spread over
the world. Through this, European thinking and
 National states sponsored for this journey. its literature spread in other countries. Sons and
daughters of the rich in the colonies migrated
to European countries for their education. The
The first two countries which were interested Europeans propagated their religion in colonies
in the purpose of exploration were Portugal under them. Further, as a result of constructing
and Spain. Prince Henry in Portugal (Henry churches and other buildings in their colonies,
the Navigator) extended a huge support to the they received the architecture and arts and crafts
explorative affairs. of the Europeans. Due to the relations between
the Europe and other countries the world
Bertholamiudus who attempted to find a sea inherited scientific knowledge and technology
route from Portugal to the East and was caught of Europe. By this, the Renaissance became a
in a tempest in the South cape in Africa, named it global trend.
the Tempest Cape and sailed back to his country.
Later the king of Portugal renamed it as Cape of
Good Luck. 9.2 The Influence of the Renaissance on Sri
Lanka
Vasco de Gama, who sailed in the same route
travelled by Bertholamiudus, reached the Calicut The influence of the Renaissance, which took
harbour in India. This was the first sea route to place in Europe, reached Sri Lanka with the
Asia, discovered by the Europeans. arrival of Portuguese, Dutch and English nations.
Since the Kandyan kingdom was independent
Christopher Columbus was able to discover during the period in which these nations ruled
West Indies under the auspices of Ferdinand in the coastal areas, they could not make a broad
and the queen Isabella in Spain. Amerigo change in the society of this country. However,
Vespuchi discovered America (The New World). after the conquest of the Kandyan kingdom by
Ferdinand Magellan discovered Philippines and the British in 1815, Sri Lanka remained a colony
Cabe brothers discovered Canada. of the British until 1948. Therefore, a number
of broad transformations took place in this
The Global Trend in the Renaissance country not only politically but also socially and
culturally during that time.
The Renaissance first started in the city of
Florence in Italy. Afterwards it spread in the Political Changes
other regions in Italy and then throughout the
Europe. Europeans started travelling to discover By the 19th century Europe had experienced a
new countries as a result of the explorations in broad thinking transformation as a result of the
the Renaissance. As a result of it, Europeans Renaissance, religious reforms, advancement
spread their power in the Asian, African, and in printing, rise of capitalism and industrial
124
revolution. Accordingly, we consider that the economic reforms implemented by the English,
transformations, which took place in this country there started an import and export economy
during the British ruling, occurred due to this in the country. As a result, even food items
novel thinking. Though there was a traditional were imported to Sri Lanka. Apart from this,
system of king’s ruling until the Kandyan spreading the usage of money, starting a railway
kingdom was surrendered, that ruling system and a road system, beginning of trade cities such
ended after Sri Lanka became a colony. This as Colombo, Galle and Trincomalee and a new
country received a parliamentary government middle class which earned money from the new
system due to governmental reforms introduced means are examples for other transformations
by the English. During the British rule, the which took place economically in this country.
then existed provincial ruling of this country
too underwent a change. They introduced a Social and Cultural Transformations
new administrative system and a class of new
administrative officers instead of the traditional The introduction of the printing industry to Sri
leaders such as Adikarams, Disawes, Mohottalas, Lanka was another effect of the Renaissance to
and Koralas in the Kandyan kingdom. Further, this country. Though the printing industry was
the ancient legal system which existed in this first introduced to this country by the Dutch,
country too went into disuse. During the Dutch it became more popular during the British
ruling, the Roman and Dutch law had also been ruling. With the advancement of the printing,
introduced to this country. During the British due to publication of books, magazines and
ruling, they established a legal system, which newspapers, the knowledge of the society
accorded with the fundamentals of the European increased. Through that, this country inherited
legal system, and a court system for justice in the European thinking as well as its literature.
this country. Some Sri Lankans migrated to European
countries for education and returned to the
Economic Changes country. In this way too Sri Lanka acquired the
Western thinking.
The cities close to the Mediterranean Sea such
as Venice, Genova, and Constantinople were Europeans came to Sri Lanka in a period in
prominent in the European trade affairs during which the unity of Christianity in Europe
the mediaeval period. However, after the had collapsed. The religious revolution which
Renaissance the countries close to the Atlantic took place in 1517 in Europe was the cause for
sea such as Portugal, Spain, France, Holland and that. The Portuguese propagated the Roman
England were more important in the European Catholic religion around coastal areas in this
trade affairs. country and the Dutch propagated their cult
in this country. Through this the religious sects
With the arrival of European nations to this in Europe were propagated in this country. The
country, direct trade relations started between European education system was propagated in
Sri Lanka and Europe. The Dutch cultivated this country due to the education which was
cinnamon in this country aiming at trading implemented in this country during the Dutch
and the British cultivated trade items such as and the British ruling; further, as the Europeans
coffee, cocoa, cinchona, tea and rubber. As constructed churches and other buildings in this
this country got accustomed to a commercial country, Sri Lanka received the architecture then
economic pattern under the Europeans, the practised in Europe.
rural self sufficient economy, which had existed
so far in this country, collapsed. Due to the
125
Important Facts
 The broad transformation that took place in

the fields of arts and science in Europe between
the 14th and 16th centuries is known as the
Renaissance.
 There were many reasons for the Renaissance

in Europe.
 The Renaissance first started in the city of

Florence in Italy.
 Due to the transformations that occurred in

the sections of arts and science in the Renaissance,
human thinking underwent a great change.
 Due to travelling in search of new trade routes

during the Renaissance period, new relations
between Europe and other countries developed.
Activity
Explain how the Renaissance in Europe

influenced the political, economic and cultural
sections in Sri Lanka.
126
10 Sri Lanka and the Western World
They used ships in the sea and the caravans on

land to transport the commodities when they
Introduction made their trade relations. By the mediaeval
period, the monopoly of trades in Asia was in the
The Europeans paid their attention to Eastern
hands of the Muslims. The Muslims made a great
countries as a result of the new revival in the
profit by collecting the commodities including
trade centred on the Southern Europe from
spices in Asia and selling them to Europeans.
the beginning of the second millennium A.D.
As all three trade routes above mentioned had
The purpose of it was to use the resources in connected with the city of Constantinople, that
those countries for trade. city which was under the European Christian
Some specialties can be seen in the way believers, had become the main centre of the
Sri Lanka, which had a long history in East and West trading. But, when this city was
connection with the trading in the Indian captured by the Turks who followed the Islam
Ocean, acted with the European nations. There religion in 1453, it was a great blow to the
was a series of remonstrance in the relations traditional trading between Asia and Europe.
between Sri Lanka and the Western world in
The European Christians suffered a great loss,
this period since the political motives emerged
due to the capture of the city of Constantinople
more than the commercial purposes. A series (present day Istanbul) by the Muslims. The
of reactions between the remonstrances of Muslims who captured the city created many
the natives against the domination of the difficulties to the Europeans by increasing
foreigners could be seen in this period. It is the prices of Asian spices, creating a dearth of
expected to discuss those facts in this lesson. commodities and not supplying the commodities
in time. As the Europeans had got used to
consume Asian spices for a long time, there was a
10.1 Arrival of the Portuguese in Asia
great demand for the spices including cinnamon
and pepper. The Europeans faced a challenge in
There were three main routes through which finding new routes to reach Asia since all the
Asia and Europe continued their trade relations aforementioned trade routes were under the
from the distant past. Islamic followers. In this effort, the Portuguese
1. The Silk Route which led from the city of acted as pioneers.
Constantinople through Persia, the Central Asia The motherland of the Portuguese was Portugal.
to China. Portugal is a country situated in the Iberian
Peninsula in South-West Europe. And also
2. The route which led from Constantinople to
Portugal is located facing the Atlantic Ocean.
Egypt through the Mediterranean Sea, Red Sea
Therefore, the Portuguese had to run their
to the Indian Ocean.
foreign relations through sea routes. As a result,
3. The route which led from Constantinople they showed a great competence in sea affairs
through Bagdad, the Persian Gulf to the Western from the distant past. Prince Henry alias the
coast of India. Henry the Navigator, who lived in Portugal in
127
Fig.10.1. The Dutch symbol which has been carved in an old building in Colombo.
objectives. Gaining economic benefits,

the 15th century, was very interested in explorative
propagating their religion and winning the
affairs.
international reputation were major among them.
He ran a naval school in Portugal and taught The objectives of the arrival of the Europeans to
subjects such as naval craft, mapping and Asia had differences according to the political
astronomy in that. Because of these reasons, and economic changes that took place in Europe
the Portuguese were in the forefront more than during the period from the 16th century to the
other Europeans in the effort of finding a new sea 20th century.
route to Asia. With the arrival of the Portuguese
national Vasco De Gama to Calicut in 1498 The major objectives of the arrival of the
after travelling round Africa, the European Portuguese to Asia were gaining economic
domination over Asia started. After the arrival benefits and propagating Roman Catholic
of the Portuguese to Asia, other Europeans such religion. Their purpose was to defeat the Muslims
as, the Dutch, the English, and the French too and take over the trade monopoly in Asia since
arrived in Asia and spread their power over the Muslims had the trade monopoly, when they
various regions. Thus, the Europeans extended arrived in Asia. The Portuguese knew that they
their power over Asia for about 450 years from could gain a huge profit by that. After the arrival
the beginning of the 16th century. of Vasco De Gama to Calicut, the statement
they made that “we arrived here in search of
The Europeans came to Asia with several the Christians and spices” clearly shows their
128
economic and religious purposes. The second representatives were accompanied to meet the
Portuguese group, who came to India after king through a road consisted of many bends.
Vasco De Gama, had been given instructions This tact was used by the representatives of the
by Portugal to establish a store house for storing king in order to pretend them that there was a
commodities and to get permission from the great distance between Colombo and Kotte.
ruler of Calicut for five priests to come and preach With this incident a proverb has come into
usage as “Parangiya Kotte Giya Wage” (like the
sermons. This clearly shows that the Portuguese
Portuguese went to Kotte).
had the purpose of propagating their religion in
the areas where they would spread their power. The division of the kingdom of Kotte, which was
the largest kingdom when the Portuguese arrived
in this country, into three parts with the incident
10.2 The Political Condition in Sri Lanka called ‘Vijayaba Kollaya’ which took place in
when the Portuguese arrived in Sri Lanka 1521, made easy for the Portuguese to spread
their power. After King Veera Parakaramabahu
VIII, one of his sons, prince Vijayabahu VI
There was a commercial and military became the king. King Vijayabahu had three
importance to Sri Lanka in the Asian affairs of sons named respectively prince Buvanekabahu,
the Europeans as Sri Lanka was a significant prince Mayadunne and prince Rayigam Bandara
centre situated close to the sea trade routes in from his first marriage. A conflict arose as there
the Indian Ocean. The Portuguese, who had was an attempt to confer the future kingship
recognized this country as Seilan, knew that this to another prince called Devaraja without
country produced cinnamon of good standard. conferring it to three prince-brothers. The three
Therefore, the Portuguese paid their attention princes heard that they were going to lose the
to Sri Lanka within a short time period after inheritance of kingship. Then they attempted to
they had come to India. In the month of March capture the ruling power by coming to Kotte after
in1505, the king of Portugal sent Francisco De taking support from the then ruler of Udarata,
King Jayaweera Bandara. In this attempt a
Almeida appointing him as the viceroy in East.
person called Salman killed king Vijayabahu.
Finding Seilan (Sri Lanka) was one among the
This incident, which occurred in attempting to
instructions that had been given to Almeida by
usurp the ruling power from king Vijayabahu
the Portuguese ruler. His purpose was achieved
VI in 1521, is known as the ‘Vijayaba Kollaya’.
when Lorenzo De Almeida, a son of Francisco After the ‘Vijayaba Kollaya’ incident, the three
De Almeida, reached this country accidentally kings divided the kingdom of Kotte into three
after being caught in a tempest. parts amomg them and ruled. Accordingly,
When Lorenzo De Almeida arrived in this Buvanekabahu VII came into power as the ruler
country in 1505, there was a conducive of Kotte. Prince Mayadunne was the ruler of
background set for a foreign invasion as there Seethawaka area and prince Rayigam Bandara
was not a political unity in Sri Lanka. Though was the ruler of Rayigama area. In this way, when
king Parakramabahu VI had united the country the kingdom of Kotte was divided into three
and created a political stability by establishing parts, it provided the Portuguese, who were
Kotte Kingdom, that unity collapsed after a expecting to spread their power in this country,
certain time of his demise. Therefore, when a great advantage.
the Portuguese arrived, there were two more
kingdoms named Udarata and Jaffna in addition
to Kotte kingdom. The Portuguese, who came
to Sri Lanka, first built their relationships
with the kingdom of Kotte. It is said that
when the Portuguese came to Colombo, their
129
Expansion of the Portuguese Power in the provide the naval support to king Mayadunne to
Coastal Areas in Sri Lanka attack the Portuguese. Though king Mayadunne
launched several attacks against the Portugese
with the support of Samorin, those attacks were
Before long after the division of Kotte kingdom not successful due to the naval power and their
into three parts, disputes started between king weaponry power.
Buvanekabahu VII and king Mayadunne. The
issues regarding the inheritance of future kingship There were several fights between Kotte and
of Kotte and attempting to take over several areas, Seethawaka kingdoms when king Buvanekabahu
which belonged to the Kotte kingdom, by king was alive. In these conflicts, the Portuguese
Mayadunne were the causes for these disputes. fought for the protection of the Kotte kingdom
Though king Buvanekabahu had a daughter and the military expenses of the Portuguese had
named Samudradevi, he did not have a son to be to be paid by the king. Though king Buvakebahu
conferred the future kingship of Kotte. Veediya gained the support of the Portuguese, he did
Bandara, who was known as a great warrior at not act as a puppet-ruler of them. Though the
that time, had married Princess Samudradevi Portuguese attempted to convert the king to
and they had two sons named Vijayapala and Roman Catholic religion, the king refused it.
Dharmapala. King Buvanekabahu’s expectation Therefore, with time disputes between the king
was to confer the future kingship to his daughter’s and the Portuguese aggravated. Apart from
son prince Dharmapala. King Mayadunne, who religious reasons, some economic reasons such
had future expectations to be the king of Kotte, as, selling their commodities at a very high price
did not like this decision of king Buvanekabahu to the people in Kotte by the Portuguese and
at all. King Mayadunne, who played a major buying Kotte products at a very low price too
role in the incident of ‘Vijayaba Kollaya’ was a affected. These disagreements ended when king
great warrior and he had the ability to get the Buvanekabahu was shot dead by a Portuguese
support of king Jayaweera Bandara, who was soldier. As it was reported by the author named
the ruler of Udarata. King Buvanekabahu, who Kutho, the king’s assassination occurred on 29th
had feared of an attack on the Kotte kingdom December 1550.
from king Mayadunne, called the Portuguese
for his protection. As a result of the disputes When king Buvanekabahu was alive, he made
between the kingdoms Kotte and Seethawaka, a statue of prince Dharmapala, his grandson,
the Portuguese, who entered the capital as the and sent it to Portugal for coronation. By doing
protectors in this way, implemented a tactful that the king Buvanekabahu had provided
campaign to extend their power by intervening him necessary protection. Therefore, after
in all affairs of the kingdom. the demise of king Buvanekabahu, prince
Dharmapala became the ruler of Kotte amidst
Since there was a competition for trading between
the protection of the Portuguese. Since king
the Portuguese and the Muslims, the Muslims did
Dharmapala became a puppet-ruler under the
not wish to see the construction of fortresses by
Portuguese, embraced Catholic religion, allowed
the Portuguese in this country. The Portuguese,
the Portuguese to propagate their religion in
who took the maximum advantage from the given
his kingdom, did not take action to prevent the
opportunity, persuaded king Buvanekabahu to
harassments and injustices done to his people
take actions against the Muslims in the kingdom
in Kotte by the Portuguese, the king did not get
of Kotte. Therefore, the Muslims, who lived in
the support of the people. Therefore, even the
the coastal areas, supported king Mayadunne.
sacred Tooth Relic was taken to Seethawaka for
At the request of the Sri Lankan Muslims,
its protection. Though king Dharamapala was
Samorin, the ruler of Calicut in India offered to
on the throne from 1551 to 1597 as a nominal
130
king, the Portuguese was the real rulers in 1557 Mayadunne launched an attack on the city
the kingdom of Kotte. As king Dharamapala of Kotte using all his power. But the Seethawaka
assigned his kingship to the Portuguese from a army could not enter the city due to the attacks
deed of gift, the Portuguese had a legal right to of the artillery guns of the Portuguese. Later
rule Kotte after the king’s death. Mayadunne followed a policy of attacking the
areas away from Kotte from time to time.
Veediye Bandara The Seethawaka rulers, who abstained from
Veediye Bandara, who had married Princess massive attacks after the unsuccessful effort
Samudradevi, who was the daughter of king of besieging and attacking the city of Kotte,
Buvanekabahu, was a great warrior. During the launched an onset to attack both Kotte and
very beginning of the ruling of king Dharmapala, Colombo fort at once. In this, there was a
his son, he arose against the Portuguese due to horrendous fight between the Sinhala army led
looting of the Kotte palace and various injustices by prince Tikiri and the Portuguese in the paddy
done to Kotte people by the Portuguese. field in Mulleriyawa. The Portuguese suffered
Therefore, he was arrested and imprisoned in a debacle in this fight which lasted for a whole
the Colombo fort by the Portuguese. But, the day. It is reported that around 1600 Portuguese
wife of Veediye Bandara made a tunnel which soldiers were killed in this fight. This is one of the
led to the cell where he was detained and freed biggest battle losses of Portuguese in an Asian
him. Afterwards he fled to Pelenda area in Pas country.
Yodun Koralaya and started a fight against the
Portuguese by building a fort there. The people of Due to the occasional attacks from Seethawaka
Kotte, who were despondent of the Portuguese, on the city of Kotte, King Dharmapala abandoned
supported Veediye Bandara. The Portuguese the city and shifted to the Colombo fort around
suffered many losses due to the attacks of Veediye 1565. And also, in about 1581 king Mayadunne
Bandara. Further, Veediye Bandara’s actions were died and prince Tikiri acceded to the throne
a great nuisance to the rulers of Seethawaka. of Seethawaka in the name of ‘Rajasighe’. No
Therefore, king Mayadunne and the Portuguese sooner he became the king, he repulsed the
combined and invaded the fort of Pelenda and then ruler of Kandy, Karaliyedde Bandara, and
defeated Veediye Bandara. Veediye Bandara, annexed the Kandyan kingdom to Seethawaka.
who had fled to Kanda Udarata afterwards, was Accordingly, king Rajasinghe was able to confine
killed in a conflict later in Jaffna. the Portuguese power to the Colombo fort and
a few other areas by about 1582. Therefore,
Kingdom of Seethawaka many areas of the Kotte kingdom, kingdom of
Rayigama and the whole Kandyan kingdom
Mayadunne, who was the ruler of Seethawaka,
were under the Seethawaka kingdom.
continued a policy against the Portuguese from
the very beginning of that kingdom. When King Rajasinghe attempted to besiege and
the power of the Portuguese developed in the repulse the Portuguese from this country twice.
kingdom of Kotte, king Mayadunnne tended to But, king’s effort was unsuccessful due to the
fight both with the Portuguese and the rulers of weaponry power of the Portuguese and the
Kotte. Therefore, the attacks of Mayadunne were support they had from Gowa, which was the
increased after king Dharmapala became the east headquarters of the Portuguese. Though
ruler of Kotte. As prince Tikiri Bandara, the son in 1587 king Rajasinghe attempted to enter the
of king Mayadunne offered to give the leadership Colombo fort by digging a canal to send the
to the Seethawaka army as a great warrior, the water of Bere tank to the sea in his second siege,
army was more strengthened in about 1555. In it too was abortive. One of the reasons for these
131
fights to be unsuccessful was that Seethawaka named Sankili captured the power of Jaffna and
kingdom did not have adequate naval strength. ruled the area until 1561.
King Rajasinghe, who was on a constant battle
with the Portuguese, died of being wounded There started conflicts between King Sankili and
by pricking a bamboo thorn in the Pethangoda the Portuguese because the trading ships of the
garden on his way back to Seethawaka after Portuguese were disturbed and the king acted
being defeated in a battle with the king of the against their attempt to spread Catholic religion
Kandyan kingdom, Wimaladharmasooriya. in the areas in Jaffna during the king Sankili’s
Afterwards, the kingdom Seethawaka collapsed. ruling period. Accordingly, the Portuguese
There were many reasons that caused the collapse invaded Jaffna against the king in 1543. But, the
of the Seethawaka kingdom; engaging of the battle was prevented as king Sankili agreed to pay
Seethawaka rulers in a constant battle, following the ransom without going to a battle with them.
anti-Buddhist policy by king Rajasinghe in his
later time, killing Veerasundara Bandara, who After coming to a peaceful agreement with the
assisted King Rajasinghe to surrender the Kadyan ruler of Jaffna, the Portuguese acted to propagate
kingdom and therefore, getting less support from Catholic religion in the areas of Jaffna. As the
the Kandyans, acceding of Konappu Bandara, Hindu priests rose against this, king Sankili
who was the son of Veerasundara Bandara, to disturbed the Portuguese affairs of propagating
the Kandyan throne, having no proper heir to their religion in the Mannar area. King Sankili
the Seethawaka kingdom were some of them. went to the area of Mannar with his army and
However, the attempt of the Portuguese to ordered all the people, who had embraced
extend their power in this country was limited Catholic religion, to embrace their traditional
due to the patriotic fight against the Portuguese religion. He administered severe punishments
by the Seethawaka rulers. to those who did not obey his order. As it was
an impediment to spread Catholic religion in
The Portuguese, who become stronger again Mannar area, the Missionary priests requested
during the period of decline of Seethawaka the Portuguese to dethrone the Jaffna ruler.
kingdom, established their power in many Therefore, king Sankili came to an alliance with
coastal areas in this country by capturing the Seethawaka Mayadunne in 1548. When Veedeye
areas of the kingdoms of Kotte and Rayigama and Bandara, who was an anti-Portuguese, fled to
some of the areas which were under Seethawaka Jaffna, king Sankili welcomed him. But nothing
after the collapse of Seethawaka. of these was successful.
In 1560 the Portuguese invaded Jaffna again,
king Sankili had to abandon the capital and flee.
Jaffna Kingdom
Afterwards, though he protected his power once
again on the strict conditions of the Portuguese,
The Jaffna kingdom, which started after the
at this time the Portuguese captured Mannar and
downfall of Rajarata civilization, was ruled
built a fortress there. The deprivation of Jaffna
by a dynasty called Arya Chakrawarthi. King
was a great loss to the Jaffna ruler. As a result of it,
Pararajasekaram, who belonged to that dynasty,
he not only lost a considerable land, but also the
was ruling Jaffna during the period in which the
income that Jaffna received by diving for pearls
Portuguese came to this country. The Portuguese
in the Mannar area. Further, the Portuguese
did not pay much attention to Jaffna during the
had the opportunity to intervene in the political
first decade after their arrival to this country
affairs of Jaffna from Mannar.
because Jaffna did not produce trade items
such as cinnamon and pepper. In 1519 a prince In 1561 a prince named Puvirajapandaram
132
dethroned king Sankili and captured the power. Dutch and the English until 1815. Here, let’s
Hereafter, a struggle started among the heirs for consider the attempts of the Portuguese to extend
the throne of Jaffna. In this effort, since some their power in the areas in Kandy and the actions
sought the assistance of the Portuguese, the that the Kandyan people took against them.
Portuguese could bring those who were in favour
of the Portuguese to power. Even some of those The attempts to extend their power in the
rulers acted against the Portuguese when they Kandyan kingdom alias Udarata kingdom was
had the opportunity, the Portuguese invaded started by the Portuguese during the same time
Jaffna once again and appointed a person called in which they were interfering in the political
Edirimannasinham, who was loyal to them, to affairs of Kotte. We described in the eighth
the throne of Jaffna. Though he ruled obediently chapter how the Portuguese attempted to spread
to the Portuguese, several times he allowed king their power in the Kandyan kingdom even before
Senarath, who was the ruler of the Kandyan king Wimaladharmasooriya came to power in
kingdom, to maintain trade relations with South the kingdom.
India through Jaffna sea. With the death of the
Jaffna ruler in 1617, once again power-struggles
started. As a result of it, one prince Sankili The Battle of Danthure
Kumara, who was a member of the royal family,
captured the power. The Portuguese never
tolerated the occasional supports of the Jaffna The Potuguese was never pleased with acceding
rulers to the Kandyan king for his trade affairs Konappu Bandara, who was well aware of
and his relations with South India. Accordingly, warfare and other strategies of the Portuguese
a Portuguese army under the leadership of Philip by staying under them for a certain period of
De Olivera seized Jaffna in 1621. Afterwards, time, to the throne of Kandyan kingdom in the
though there were some rebellions against the name of Vimaladharmasooriya I. Therefore,
Portuguese, the Portuguese suppressed them the Portuguese attempted to accompany
and established their power by in Jaffna 1621. Kusumasana Devi (Dona Kathirina), who
The following facts caused the collapse of the was in the care of the Portuguese and was the
Jaffna kingdom; the division of Jaffna people due daughter of Karaliyadde Bandara, to Kandy
to the power-struggles of the heirs to the throne and bring her to power. By doing this they tried
of Jaffna, there was not an adequate army for its to establish a ruling which was loyal to them.
rulers, and Jaffna was not naturally protected as In the invasion made under the leadership of
the Kandyan kingdom. Captain General Gero Lopes De Susa, they
made Kusumasana Devi the queen of Kandy in
1594. But the Kandyans, who hesitated to accept
The Attempts of the Portuguese to expand one appointed by the foreigners as the queen,
Their Power in the Kandyan Kingdom supported the king Vimaladharmasooriya I.
Pero Lopes De Susa had to withdraw with his
army. In October in 1594 there was a great battle
Since the Portuguese had spread their power between the Portuguese army and the Kandyans.
in many parts of the low-country after the The whole Portuguese battalion was destroyed
collapse of Seethawaka kingdom, the Kandyan in this battle and even Pero Lopes De Susa, who
kingdom was held responsible of protecting led this invasion, too was killed. Kusumasana
the independence of the country. The Kandyan Devi was arrested by the Kandyans in the battle
kingdom was able to keep that responsibility by and afterwards king Vimaladharmasooriya I
facing various challenges from the Portuguese, wedded her. As a result of this marriage, a new
133
dynasty started in Kandy. The attempts, which The Battle of Randeniwala
the Portuguese made to establish a ruling which
was loyal to them, were unsuccessful with a As the Portuguese Captain General Constantinu
great debacle. Military manoeuvres of king De Sa invaded Kandy via Uva area, the Battle
Vimaladharmasooriya I, support of the Kandyans of Randeniwala started. Constantinu De Sa led
to the king, and rejoining the army, which went this invasion with about 600 Portuguese soldiers
from low country to assist the Portuguese, to and another battalion of about 4500 mercenary
the king in Kandy caused the victory of king army in the month of July 1630. The Portuguese
Vimaladharmasooriya I. captured the city of Badulla and destroyed it. The
Kandyan king Senarath had come to Badulla with
his army and started attacking the Portuguese.
The Battle of Balana Prince Maha Asthana (later he became the king
After the death of Pero Lopes De Susa, Don of Kandy in the name of Rajasinghe II), who was
Geranimo De Asavedu was sent here by making a son of king Senarath, provided the leadership
him the Captain General by the Portuguese. to the Kandyan army. When the Kandyan army
With the defeat of the Portuguese in Danthure, besieged the Portuguese, the Mudalis who
a rebellion sprang in the areas in the low country had gone from the low country to support the
under the leadership of Edirille Rala. King Portuguese, rejoined the king. As a result of
Vimaladharmasooriya I supported this rebellion. this, the Kandyan army became stronger and
Therefore, the Portuguese defeated the rebels by the Portuguese was helpless due to the attacks
killing the leaders of the rebellion and setting fire of the Kandyans. Therefore they withdrew to
to the villages and property. Afterwards Asavedu Randeniwala which was close to Wellawaya. In
prepared for a battle with Kandy. In 1602 Asavedu, this the Kandyans encircled the Portuguese and
who brought an additional army from Gowa, attacked them resulting in killing about 350
invaded Kandy with a battalion of thousand Portuguese soldiers. Another group of soldiers
soldiers. But the Portuguese army reached only were arrested. Even Captain General Constantinu
the Balana pass. In this place, the Kandyans, De Sa was killed in the battle. This invasion was
who besieged the Portuguese in accordance with not done suddenly by the Portuguese. They had
a manoeuvre of king Vimaladharmasooriya I, planned it for about two years. But all the plans
launched a horrendous attack on the Portuguese. of the Portuguese went awry in the face of the
The people from the low-country who had manoeuvres of the Kandyans.
gone to support the Portuguese, joined the
king’s party at this time too. A considerable
number of Portuguese soldiers were killed due The Battle of Gannoruwa
to the attack of the Kandyans and their weapons
were arrested by the Kandyans. With this In the month of March in 1638, Kandy was once
defeat Asavedu withdrew to Colombo through again invaded by the then Captain General Diago
Malwana. After the unsuccessful invasion of De Melo in Sri Lanka. The Portuguese, who went
Asavedu, the Portuguese followed a policy of with about one thousand of the Portuguese
attacking the Kandyans and their villages from soldiers and other thousands of mercenary
time to time instead of invading Kandy using soldiers, entered the city of Kandy without any
a big army. Therefore, king Senarath, who difficulty. King Rajasinghe, who had come to
became the Kandyan ruler after the death of the throne after king Senarath, abandoned the
king Vimaladharmasooriya, entered into a peace city tactically. Afterwards, the Kandyan army
agreement with the Portuguese in 1617. But it encircled the Portuguese at the right time.
did not work properly. There was a horrendous battle between the two
parties in Gannoruwa. However, the Portuguese
134
Map 10.1 The distribution of the Dutch Fortresses in Sri Lanka.
135
suffered a debacle in this battle too due the usual to Sri Lanka, which had trade items such as,
attacks of the Kandyans. Even Diago De Melo, cinnamon and pepper of good standard. As the
who led the battle, was killed. There are records kings of Kandy, who were suffering from the
about the number of the Portuguese soldiers left. struggles from the Portuguese, wished to build
Everyone of them mentions that only less than relations with the Dutch, they could know more
one hundred Portuguese soldiers were left. And information about Sri Lanka by coming to this
also, it was the last invasion of the Portuguese led country.
to capture the Kandyan kingdom.
There are reasons which affected the failure of In 1602, Jorris Van Spilbergeon, a representative
the invasions of the Portuguese and protection of the Dutch came to Sri Lanka and met king
of the Kandyan kingdom further. Wimaladharmasooriya I. Afterwards another
representative named Sibil De Vert came. But
• The frequent support of the Kandyan people these missions did not give any successful
to the king. results. The successful relationships were
started between the Dutch and the Kandyan
• The people from low - country, who went rulers during the time of king Rajasinghe II.
to support the Portuguese in the invasions, The purpose of king Rajasinghe II was to expel
rejoined the king. the Portuguese from this country because they
• The warfare of the Kandyan people and the always fought with Kandy. Since he did not have
strategies of the kings. enough naval power to do that, he thought of
• The natural location of the Kandyan getting assistance of the Dutch.
kingdom.
As a result of the letters which exchanged
between king Rajasinghe II and the Dutch and
10.3 Sri Lanka and the Dutch
the missions, the Dutch agreed to assist to expel
Holland is the motherland of the Dutch. After the Portuguese from the country. According to an
about a century of the Portuguese arrival to Asia, agreement between the Lankan representatives
the Dutch started to come to Asia by finding the and the Dutch naval commanding officer
sea routes of the Portuguese. In early period, Westworld, both sides got together and attacked
various trade companies in Holland had come to the Portuguese fort in Batticaloa in 1638. But,
Asia and since there was a competition among the Portuguese in the fort surrendered before
the Holland trade companies, the Dutch could it turned to be a disastrous battle. Therefore,
not establish a strong power in Asia. Therefore, king Rajasinghe II, who was overjoyed with this,
entered into a bond with the Dutch.
in 1602 several Holland companies got together
and established East Holland Trade Company
alias VOC Company. From then on the political The Fundamental Facts of the 1638 Kandy-
and commercial affairs in Asia for the Dutch Dutch Agreement
were conducted by the VOC Company. As the 1. The Dutch agreed to assist the Kandyan king
prime purpose of a trade company is to make to expel the Portuguese from this country.
profits, it is clear that the main objective of the
Dutch to come to Asia was to gain economic 2. The king agreed to pay the money
benefits. which was spent by the Dutch by the
trade items. (cinnamon, pepper, etc.)
The Dutch, who came to Asia, made their centre 3. The Dutch had the right of monopoly of the
in Batavia on the Island of Java and started their Kandyan trade items except for the tuskers.
power in the east. Before long after the arrival 4. Occupation of the Dutch army in the forts
of the Dutch to Asia, they paid their attention retrieved from the Portuguese if the king agreed.
136
Fig: 10.2 The meeting between the Kandyan leaders and the Dutch.
Though the king was able to achieve the first

It took 20 more years to expel the Portuguese objective out of these two, he could not achieve
from the country since the seizure of the the second one as the Dutch had spread their
Batticaloa fort in 1638. During this time the power in many areas which were saved from the
the Portuguese forts in Trincomalee, Negambo, Portuguese. Therefore, the king implemented a
Galle, Kalutara, Colombo, Mannar and Jaffna strategy by attacking the Dutch and minimizing
were captured by the Dutch and the Sri Lankan the number of areas that they could take. Due to
army. Thus, this combination was able to expel the this strategy of the king, by 1658 the Dutch was
Portuguese from Sri Lanka by 1658. According able to gain only a lesser quantity of land than
to the bond signed between the king and the the Portuguese had possessed.
Dutch, occupying the Dutch army in the forts
captured from the Portuguese should have been King Rajasinghe II was one who gave a new
done according to the king’s agreement. But, the significance to the Kandyan kingdom after king
Dutch, who forgot that sentence in the bond, Vimaladharmasooriya I. The king claimed that
avoided handing over the forts which located in he was the emperor of Sri Lanka in exchanging
the areas advantageous for them. Therefore, this letters with the Dutch. The Dutch too had
damaged the goodwill between the king and the accepted the king as “Thrisinhaladeeshvara”
Dutch. even nominally in such exchange of letters.
When the king wrote letters to the Dutch he
King Rajasinghe II brought the Dutch to this used the phrases such as “ Mata Hithawath
country in order to achieve two objectives. Landesi Jathiya (Dear Dutch who serve me)”
and the Dutch too used the phrases such as “
1. Expelling the Portuguese from Sri Lanka with Oba Vahanseta Suvacha Keekaru Sevaka (the
the support of the Dutch. most obedient servant to you, Lord)” when
2. Making Sri Lanka an independent and free they wrote to the king. The Dutch launched a
country by annexing the areas which were series of attacks and seized several areas that
under the Portuguese. belonged to the Kandyan kingdom during the
time between 1665 and 1668. But due to a series
137
of attacks launched by king Rajasinghe II during V. The Dutch took steps to grow sugar cane,
the period between 1670 and 1675, the Dutch coffee and cotton etc, which brought them
lost a number of areas that they had possessed. profits.
Therefore, the Dutch, who realized that fighting
with the Kandyans would cause their destruction, The Conflicts between the Kandyan Kingdom
attempted to avoid fighting with the Kandyans and the Dutch
for about a hundred of years after 1670.
The low-country people, who had been
■ Prominent features of the Dutch oppressed until then by the time of King Keerthi
Policy regarding the Kandyan Kingdom Sri Rajasinghe, requested the Kandyan king to
I. The Dutch tried to avoid the conflicts that intervene for them. In latter part of 1760 the
could bring losses to the Dutch Trading rebellions arose against the Dutch in Negambo
Company and acted peacefully with the and Matara. The king sent an army to the low
Kandyan Kingdom. country area and the army made several instant
attacks and captured several places including
II. Giving gifts to the king to win his goodwill,
Katuwana fort and Matara fort. Later, the Dutch
sending representatives to meet the king,
recaptured these places.
exchanging letters with the king. The
Dutch expected to obtain the cinnamon In 1764 the Dutch invaded Kandy using 6
grown in Kandy by winning the goodwill brigades led by the Dutch governor Barron
of the king through all these activities. Van Ek. But none of these brigades could reach
III. Providing the ships for the king’s religious Kandy. The Kandyans defeated these brigades
activities such as bringing the higher order. launching their usual attacks.
The Dutch provided the ships to king In 1765 the Dutch invaded Kandy once again.
Vimaladharamasooriya I, King Vijaya Rajasinghe, The Dutch managed to enter the city of Kandy
king Keerthi Sri Rajasinghe for such activities. by facing the attacks of the Kandyans. As king
■ The Dutch’s policy of getting maximum Keerthi Sri Rajasinghe agreed to have a peaceful
economic benefits condition, the Dutch presented a series of
conditions advantageous for them. But the
I. The Dutch impeded the king’s relations with king did not like to accept the unreasonable
the other foreigners as much as possible. conditions of the Dutch. As a result, the Dutch,
who robbed the city, stayed there more than one
II. Closing the city boundaries between up month. But, they abandoned Kandy and went
country and low country when disputes started back to Colombo because of the lack of food,
with the king. diseases, and rainy season.
Due to the invasion, threats of the Dutch and

III. The Dutch tried to develop the paddy the suffering of people from the prolonged war
cultivation in some of the areas in the low for years king Keerthi Sri Rajasinghe signed a
country. By doing this, the Dutch expected to peace pact with the Dutch in 1766. The Kandyan
minimize their expenses to import rice from kingdom lost one coastal area due to the peace
foreign countries. pact. This was a blow to the traditional trading
in Kandy. The pact acknowledged the Dutch’s
IV. Getting people to grow cinnamon and taking righ to the areas which they had possessed in Sri
action to preserve cinnamon cultivation. The Lanka. A number of sentences in the peace pact
Dutch implemented this policy because they gave more advantages to the Dutch. Therefore,
could make a huge profit from selling cinnamon.
138
though the Kandyans held some discussions to Given below are several sources among various documents
that were used to extract the facts consisting in this text book.
make the pact lenient, the Dutch did not agree Mainly it is for the convenience of the teachers and assisting
with it. Finally, the Kandyans tended not to make the student more and if necessary, it can be used as a guide by
it work practically. the parents or other adults. However, this does not mean that
these sources should definitely be referred by the student. This
includes only the resources published so far.
Important Facts
Bandaranayake S., 1992. 'The Settlement Patterns of the
 Though the Europeans came to Asia on various Proto historic and Early historic interface in Sri Lanka'.
purposes such as getting economic benefits and South Asian Archaeology 1989 Papers from the Tenth
promulgating the religion, their purposes changed International Conference of South Asian Archaeologists
with the transformations that took place in Europe. in Western Europe, Musee National Des Arts Asiatiques
Guimet, Paris, France, 3-7 July 1989. Monograph in
World Archaeology No 14.
 Since there was no political unity in Sri Lanka
when the Portuguese arrived, it helped them to Bandaranayake S., 2012 (reprint). 'Feudalism revisited:
expand their power. problems in the characterization of historical societies
in Asia - the Sri Lankan configuration'. Continuities and
Transformations. Studies in Sri Lankan Archaeology
As king Dharmapala, who was the ruler of Kotte, and History. Colombo: Social Scientists Association.
was loyal to the Portuguese, first the Portuguese
power was spread in the Kotte kingdom. Deraniyagala S., 1988. Prehistory of Sri Lanka. an
ecological perspective. Cambridge: Harvard University
Ellepola C., 1990. 'Conjectured Hydraulics of Sigiriya'.
 During the 16th century the rulers in the Kandyan Ancient Ceylon No.11, 169-228pp.
kingdom were engaged in a strong fight against the
Portuguese. Gunawardhana R.A.L.H., 1982. 'Prelude to the State:
An Early phase in the Evolution in Ancient Sri Lanka'.
The Sri Lanka Journal of the Humanities Vol. VIII.
 Several battles started between the Portuguese and 1&2, 1-30pp.
the Kandyans as the Portuguese attempted to spread
their power in the Kandyan kingdom. Gunawardhana R.A.L.H., 1983. 'Cistern Sluice and
Piston Sluice' (Some observation on Types of Sluices
and Method of Water distribution in Pre-Colonial Sri
 The rulers in the Kandyan kingdom obtained the Lanka). The Sri Lanka Journal of the Humanities IX
support of the Dutch to expel the Portuguese from (1&2), 87-104pp.
the country.
Lakdusnghe S., 1994. 'Oil Lamp'. Sacred Images of Sri
Lanka. Sydney: The Art Gallery of New South Wales
 There were various types of conflicts between the
Dutch and the Kandyan kings. Paranavitana S., 1970. Inscriptions of Ceylon.
Brahmi Inscriptions, Part I. Colombo: Department of
Archaeological Survey
Paranavitana S., 1983. Inscriptions of Ceylon. Later
Activity Brahmi Inscriptions. Colombo: Department of
Archaeological Survey.
1. One reason that assisted the Portuguese Premathilake R., 2003. Late quaternary Palaeoecological
to capture the kingdoms of Kotte and Jaffna event Stratigraphy in the Horton Plains, Central Sri
was the internal conflicts that existed in those Lanka with contribution to the recent pollen flora.
Stockholm: Department of Physical Geology
kingdoms. Referring to this explain how the
disunity of a country leads to its destruction. Somadeva R., 2010. Archaeology of the Uda Walave
Basin. Colombo: Postgraduate Institute of Archaeology
2. Describe the then existed political Solangaarachchi R.,1997. History of Metallurgy.
Vidurawa Vol. XIX, No 1, National Knowledge Vol.
situation in Sri Lanka during the period of the
Portuguese arrival.
139
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HISTORY

Educational Publications Department

All Rights Reserved

ISBN - 978 - 955 - 25 - 0663 - 5

Published by Educational Publications Department

Sri Lanka Matha

The Educational Publications Department which is entrusted with the responsibility of

These supplementary reading materials can be an excellent source of knowledge for

Direction - W. A. Nirmala Piyaseeli

Co-ordination - Ranjith Iluppitiya

1. Prof. Raj Somadewa - Postgraduate Institute of Archaeology

2. Prof. Rev. Hanguranketha Deerananda - Department of History

3. Prof. Padmasiri Kannangara - Department of History

4. Dr. Anusha Senadhiraja - Department of History

5. W. S. Shiromala Gunawardhana - Lecturer

1. K. S. Ranjani - In-Service - Adviser

2. M.D. Thilakalatha - Teacher

3. Sister Mary Doneta - Retired Deputy Principal

4. W.A. Piyasili - Teacher

National School, Allawwa

5. U.L.S. Marikkar - In-Service - Adviser

Zonal Education Office, Wattegama

6. U.L.M. Baseer - Retired In-Service - Adviser

Translation - A.B.S. Aloka Bandara

Language Editing - W. Indumini Darshika

Illustrations - Chandrika Neelamani Jayasingha

Cover Page, Page Layout, Map Design - Charani Nishamini Alahakoon

The Panel of Editors

1. Sources of Studying History 1

1.1 Classification of Sources 1

2.1 Settlements in the Pre-historic Era 10

3. Evolution of Political Power in Sri Lanka 31

3.1 Pre-state Era 31

4. The Ancient Society of Sri Lanka 44

4.1 The Nature of Ruling 44

5. The Ancient Science and Technology in Sri Lanka 63

6.1 Social Organization in the Historical Era 77

7.1 Background of the Urban Life 91

8. Kandyan Kingdom 106

8.1 Beginning and Expansion 106

9.1 Reasons for the Renaissance 118

10. Sri Lanka and the Western World 127

Access for knowledge www.e-thaksalawa.moe.gov.lk

Books and documents written at different

About four centuries after the writing of

These ruins, which are called archaeological

Media of Epigraphy Examples

Inscriptions (Stone) King Nisshankamalla’s Galpotha inscription

Walls The graffiti in Sigiriya

Copper Plates Panakaduwa Copper Plate of King Vijayabahu I

Golden Plates Vallipuram golden plate

Wood Writings on the wooden posts of the Ambekke Devalaya

Clay Slabs Scripts written on tiles and bricks

Urns Scripts written on clay pots and begging bowls

Drawings, Sculpture and Antiquities can be considered credible. In constructing

The objects which are remaining now, after

You may see that there are diverse sources which

 The things that help learn history are called sources.