CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of Study

“Fuel driver injection is a quick, responsive, reliable way to meter the right
amount of fuel and spark for a given volume of air to an engine” [4]. Early
automotive engines found on 1983-84 Celica‟s use an analog system. For a given
volume of air, an appropriate amount of fuel is metered into the engine by the
injectors. This signal is amplified by input from other sensors, but for analog system,
resistance is used to control its operation.

Direct fuel injectors are just simple solenoid devices that allow pressurized
fuel to be squirted into the engine in a fine spray for a predetermined period of time
[4]. An injector's size is measured in how much volume of fuel it can flow in a given
period of time. United States domestic injectors are usually measured in pounds per
hour (lbs/hr), while injectors for import engines are usually measured in cubic
centimeters per minute (cc/min) [4]. Injectors come in two types which are low
impedance (typically less than 3 ohms) and high impedance (typically more than 12
ohms) known respectively as “peak-and-hold” and “saturated” injector.

The National Semiconductor LM1949 injector controller chip gives great

control on fuel injector drive circuitry in modern automotive systems [1]. The chip is
designed to control an external power NPN Darlington transistor that drives the high
current through the injector solenoid.

1
1.2 Problem Statement

Peak-and-hold injectors typically have between 1 to 3 ohms of resistance in

their coil windings. This would mean quite a lot of current for an injector winding to
handle for long periods of time. When the injector reaches peak current, the driver
switches to a hold state. This state reduces the current flow in the injector to 1 ampere
(the amount of holding current is dependent on the driver configuration of the
particular application). Since it takes less current to hold something open, after it has
been opened, the current is then reduced. This lower current will reduce the heat
buildup. It also allows for a quicker closing time, because the lower current has
resulted in a weaker magnetic field to overcome when closing [2].

The current required to open a solenoid is several times greater than the
current necessary merely to hold it open, therefore the injector driver by directly
sensing the actual solenoid current, initially saturates the driver until the „peak‟
injector current is 4 times that of the idle or „hold‟ current. This guarantees opening of
the injector [3].

1.3 Objective and Scope of Study

The objective of this project is to design and test suitable peak-and-hold

circuit to meet the required current control. The circuit also will be used for
comparison with another injector driver available at UTP laboratory. It includes
analysis on driver circuit itself and the fabrication of the circuit using PCB. In order
to achieve this objective, a few research and circuit design process need to be carried
out by collecting all technical details and perform certain test using circuit simulator.
The best circuit will be implemented on PCB and test will be performed on actual
automotive direct injector.

2
 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Type of Fuel Injector

Injector impedance is the electrical resistance exists in the solenoid windings.

These are usually grouped in two categories which are low impedance and high
impedance. There also have different length of fuel injector as shown in Figure 1.

2.1.1 Peak-and-Hold Injector (Low impedance: 1.7-3.0 ohm)

Peak and hold injectors may also be called current sensing or current limiting
driver. These types of injectors are more expensive and complex than saturated circuit
drivers, and are not generally used with domestic production ECUs. Besides, these
injectors primarily used in aftermarket high performance systems. It was shown that
“most high flow injectors are low resistance (2-5 ohms) and use a peak and hold
driver to activate them” [8]. The “peak” current is the amount required to quickly
open the injector, and then the lower “hold” current rating is used to keep it open for
as long as the input signal. These require the extra kick from the higher current to
keep the opening and closing time of the injector stable at the higher fuel flow rate.
With this type of driver, 12 volts is still delivered to the injector, but due to its low
resistance, the current in the driver circuit is high. This is substantial current flow and
a high impedance injector cannot handle it. The drivers usually come in two values
which are 4 amp peak/1 amp hold, and 2 amp peak/0.5 amp hold. Even though 6
amps may be available to operate the injector, the maximum it is allowed to reach is 2
or 4 amps, depending on the driver‟s current limit.

3
 2.1.2 Saturated Circuit Injector (High impedance: 10-16 ohm)

Saturated circuit injectors mostly used in domestic production of Electronic

Fuel Injection (EFI) system. These injectors are very inexpensive, simple, and
reliable. This type of driver works by supplying 12 volts to the injectors and the ECU
turns it on and off to establish a fuel injector pulse. Generally, if an injector has a high
resistance specification (12-16 ohms) the ECU uses a 12 volt saturated circuit driver
to control it. This means that “the current flow in the driver and injector circuit stays
low keeping the components nice and cool for long life” [8]. The disadvantage of a
saturated circuit driver is that it has a slower response time (and closing time)
compared to peak and hold type. This slower time can decrease the usable operating
range of the injector energized by this driver. An injector operating on a saturated
circuit driver typically has a reaction time of 2 milliseconds while a peak and hold
driver typically responds in 1.5ms.

Figure 1: Different length of fuel injector [7]

2.1.3 Purpose and Function

The purpose and function of fuel injectors is to “perform the accurate

metering and atomization of fuel” [7]. These electro-mechanical valves react in milli-
seconds to open and close which gives the ECU optimal control over fuel flow to the
engine.
4
 2.1.4 Method of Measurement

Fuel flow specifications are given in grams per minute (g/min), as this is an
internationally accepted standard at vehicle manufacturing level. As vehicle
development engineer deal with the weight or mass of air inducted by an engine not
its expected power rating, the weight of fuel that an injector can provide is the pivotal
measurement.

2.1.5 Power Rating of Fuel Injector

It has become an aftermarket performance industry practice to “rate fuel

injectors in relation to expected engine power outputs, mainly horsepower” [7]. As
this method of measurement has many issues in relation to various calculation
methods, accuracy, individual interpretation and overall relevance, supplier of fuel
injectors does not subscribe to this specification method. There are many design
requirements taken into account when undertaking the design and manufacture of a
fuel injector to suit a particular application.

2.2 Peak-and-Hold Injector Driver

Figure 2: Typical application and test circuit [1]

5
 Figure 2 shows the design of full connection using LM1949 injector drive
controller chip. This circuit is one of many different variations of peak and hold
circuit but still have the same function. From the start of an injector pulse, the circuit
works about the same. The analog circuit relays the logic 'high' signal to the base of
the transistor, which fully saturates it, causing the collector too short to the emitter.
One difference in this circuit is the 0.1 ohm resistor in series with the emitter. This
voltage is proportional to the current through the injector and is monitored by the
analog circuit. From this point on, a much smaller amount of current is needed to hold
the injector open.

The injector controller chip was designed to be used in conjunction with an

external controller. The LM1949 can get the input from PC-based controller or
function generator. This input signal, in the form of square wave with a variable duty
cycle or frequency is applied to pin 1 [1].

2.2.1 Injectors (L1)

Injector in Figure 2 can usually be modeled by a simple RL circuit. In actual

operation, the inductance of the injector depends on whether it is open or closed. This
characteristic can be used to determine the current required to open a certain type of
fuel injector [1]. For the value of sense input voltage at 130 mV, the current necessary
to open that particular injector is approximately 1.3A.

2.2.2 Timer (RT and CT)

RT and CT connected between pin 7 and 8 is used to limit the power dissipated
by the injector under certain condition. Value of resistor and capacitor will set the
timer period to just less than 5ms. This timer is used during periods where the current
through the injector doesn‟t reach 386mV peak threshold voltage. This can happen
during cranking periods where the battery voltage is too low to get 3.86A through the
injector coil. When one time cycle is reach (4.6ms) the controller drops into hold
mode. The timer is reset at the end of each input pulses. If the timer function is not
used, it can be disabled by grounding the TIMER pin (Pin 8).

6
 2.2.3 Compensation (CC)

A 0.01uF compensation capacitor was installed between pin 2 and 3 as

recommended to reduce the oscillation and maintain stability during hold state. In
designing process, the value or type of compensation capacitor is not critical. Circuit
on Figure 2 can have value from 100pF to 0.1uF for the compensation capacitor.

2.2.4 Zener Diode (Z1)

The 33V/5W zener diode was used to clamp the maximum positive voltage
excursions to 33V or rated zener voltage. This diode gives the energy stored in the
injector coil a current path for inductive kickback. If it wasn‟t for stray leakage, this
kickback voltage would go to infinity and destroying as much component as it could.
In Figure 2, the zener diode is connected before Q1 to make sure the system peak
current less than the guaranteed minimum breakdown of Q1. The second purpose of
Z1 is to provide system transient protection. Automotive systems are susceptible to
voltage transients on the power supply. Although the duration is short, Q 1 could have
permanent damage unless absorbed by the injector and Z1. Figure 3 below shows the
zener current is conducting majority of injector current during peak-to-hold transition.

Figure 3: Zener current waveform [1]

7
2.3 Peak-and-Hold Injector Waveforms

Figure 4: Typical circuit waveforms [1]

Figure 4 shows the typical waveform under normal battery voltage and low
battery voltage. The injector peak and hold current can be determined by the value of
sense resistor, Rs. With the sense resistor set to 0.1Ω, it makes thing simple to
calculate. 100mV voltage drops across Rs equals 1A through the injector. The
LM1949 trips into hold mode when the voltage across the sense resistor reaches
386mV and gives 3.86A through injector. During hold mode, the controller acts like
an op-amp holding the voltage across Rs to 94mV. The injector current will remain at
hold level for the duration of the input signal at pin 1 [1].

The purpose to have peak current 4 times than the hold current is to overcome
kinetic and constriction forces when working with solenoids. Power dissipated in
solenoids and transistor also can be reduced by holding injector current at ¼ of the
peak current. 4A peak current was chosen to make sure the injector operation over the
life and temperature range of the system [1]. By choosing 0.1Ω of Rs value, it will
give 3.86A peak and 0.94A hold current which is closed to the recommended value.
8
 Figure 5: Closed up peak and hold waveform
(Source image: Orbital documentation)

Figure 5 shows the closed up view of peak and hold current for direct injector
(reproduced from Orbital). This type of injector requires 3A to open the solenoid and
1A to keep the solenoid open while minimizing power dissipated. The waveform
show corresponding time taken for rise, peak, decay and hold state. Time cycle is the
time taken for one input pulse to set and reset. This time can be adjusted depend on
the input signal generated at pin 1 of the LM1949. Peak time is fixed and cannot be
changed unless there are modifications were made to the circuit. Hold time is always
depending on the input signal come from PC-based controller or function generator.

There have some oscillation during the hold state due to the Darlington power
device used. That‟s why there has compensation part connected at pin 2 and 3 of the
circuit to reduce the oscillation and provides stability.

9
 CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY

3.1 Procedure Identification

1. Study required circuit design 2. Design and draw the circuit

and components Construct the circuit on
Apply basic knowledge of breadboard to test the
analog circuit analysis functionality
Get the required
components to construct
the circuit

4. Fabricate the best circuit on 3. Change the parameters of

PCB components (Tuning)
The best injector driver To get different value of
circuit will be fabricated on peak and hold current
PCB Observe the effect on the
circuit by changing the
parameters

5. Test the circuit on actual 6. Compare the performance of

automotive direct injector injector driver
This is to obtain data for Comparison between
the designed injector driver designed injector driver
and use it for comparison with one that is available at
UTP lab (from Orbital
Engine Corporation)

10
3.2 Tools and Equipments Required

Software

3.2.1 Eagle Layout Editor 5.1.0

This software was used to draw the schematic diagram and the layout for the
PCB board before it will be fabricated on the PCB. Eagle Layout Editor 5.0.1 was
chosen instead of other software because only this software was compatible with PCB
workstation at the PCB lab.

3.2.2 LabVIEW 7.1

LabVIEW (Laboratory Virtual Instrumentation Engineering Workbench) is a
platform and development environment for a visual programming language.
LabVIEW is commonly used for data acquisition, instrument control and industrial
automation [6]. For this project, LabVIEW was used to acquire data after the reading
was obtained by using transducer.

Hardware

3.2.3 Power Supply Unit

The injector driver circuit requires two (2) power supplies. One is for the
injector (solenoid) which needs 12V/14V supply and another one is for the LM1949
IC. The IC requires 3V-5.5V of voltage supply to operate normally.

3.2.4 Function Generator

A function generator is a piece of electronic test equipment or software used
to generate electrical waveforms. These waveforms can be either repetitive, or single-
shot in which case some kind of triggering source is required (internal or external).
The function generator is required to generate input pulses for the injector driver.

11
 3.2.5 Orbital Low Impedance Direct Injector

This type of injector driver was used because the resistance is less than 3 ohm
(1.4Ω, 3mH). For the injector driver circuit to operate, it need low impedance injector
driver so it can control the peak and hold current of the fuel injector (refer to
Appendix A).

3.2.6 Orbital Low Side Injector Driver

This is the injector driver set come with the low impedance direct injector.
The driver give 3.4A peak and 1.2A hold current. Orbital injector driver is available
at UTP lab and is used for benchmarking to make comparison with the designed
injector driver.

3.2.7 Injector Driver (LM1949 IC)

The LM1949 linear IC serves as an excellent control of fuel injector drive

circuitry in modern automotive systems. The IC is designed to control an external
power NPN Darlington transistor that drives the high current injector solenoid [1]

12
3.3 Research Methodology

3.3.1 Software and Hardware Manual

This is more on understanding of the system and device itself with closer
view. The manuals given during the installation of the software and hardware are not
enough for giving more understanding on the device itself. The manuals give the
basic concept and steps on how to handle the devices. The component datasheet give
some useful information such as the parameter value needed to construct the circuit.

3.3.2 Books

To enquire more knowledge and understanding of the component and circuit

used, research on books is very useful. Much information such as the typical values
and specification can be identified by using this research method. The verification
and understanding of certain criteria can be made assists by the books and past
journals.

3.3.3 Internet

Internet is one of the easiest methods to find information, knowledge and do

researches. Much information obtained from this research method. Internet can help
us access into the unlimited condition of requiring knowledge.

13
 3.4 Project Milestone

No. Detail/ Week 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

1 Project work continues

2 Submission of Progress Report 2

3 Seminar (compulsory)

4 Project work continue

5 Poster Exhibition

6 Submission of Dissertation (Soft bound)

7 Oral Presentation

8 Submission of Project Dissertation (Hard

Bound)
Suggested milestone
Process

Figure 6: Project Gantt chart

14
 CHAPTER 4

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 System Design

Figure 7: Equipments setup

Figure 7 shows the setup of the injector with connection of other peripheral or
component such as fuse and controller. 8A fuse was chosen and connected in series
with Darlington transistor to protect it from blow due to the overrated of current flow.
The input of the LM1949 IC is come from external controller which is the function
generator. This controller is used to generate required input pulses to the IC. By using
function generator, variations of inputs pulses can be generated by manipulate the
frequency. In this case the square wave pulse was used.

15
 Figure 8: Circuit connection

The circuit on Figure 8 shows the initial design of the injector driver circuit
connection on breadboard. During this stage, the circuit cannot be tested with the
direct injector because that injector is high impedance type. This circuit is design for
use with low impedance injector only. If using a high impedance fuel injector, this
circuit cannot perform its peak and hold current control function. Thus this project is
stuck until suitable low impedance fuel injector is found.

Eventually there have one set of low impedance direct injector and injector
driver kit available at UTP laboratory, so the test to obtain data for benchmarking has
been done. The result is use for comparison between these two injector drivers.

16
4.2 Fabrication and Testing

This project also involving comparison between the designed injector driver
circuits with another one that available in UTP laboratory. So the circuit has been
fabricated on PCB to make the component setup easier. Unfortunately the circuit
didn‟t work while doing the testing. Due to limited time left, this project only reach
this stage and the comparison cannot be done. The only data obtained is for the
injector driver that is available at UTP laboratory.

Figure 9: PCB schematic

Figure 10: PCB layout

17
 Figure 11: Complete circuit

Figure 9 and Figure 10 show the PCB schematic diagram and layout of the
injector driver circuit. The schematic was draw using Eagle software. By using this
schematic diagram, the PCB layout can be drawn using the same software. Figure 11
show the complete connection of component and wiring on PCB.

Figure 12: Test on actual direct injector

18
 Figure 12 shows the setup for testing the designed circuit on actual
automotive direct injector. This circuit is connected with external peripheral such as
power supply, oscilloscope and PC-based controller for data acquisition and
generating input.

Figure 13: Test using Orbital Injector Driver

Figure 13 shows the “Orbital Low Side Injector Driver” was used to get the
benchmark for comparison with the designed injector driver. Both test using same
type of fuel injector which is the “Orbital Direct Injector”. The specification for the
direct injector is attached in Appendix A.

19
4.3 Data Analysis

Test was done using Orbital direct injector and low impedance injector driver
kit. The result and analysis is shown in following graph.

Figure 14: Injector current for 50ms pulse duration

Figure 14 shows the injector peak and hold current for input signal pulse
duration is set to 50ms. This value of peak and hold current is fixed for this injector
driver. Even if the pulse duration is changed, it will give the same value of 3.4A peak
and 1.05A hold current.

20
Figure 15: Injector current for 30ms pulse duration

Figure 16: Injector current for 10ms pulse duration

21
 Figure 15 and Figure 16 show the injector current for 30ms and 10ms. It can
be seen that the value of peak and hold current not changing for different values of
pulse duration. This time cycle can be adjusted depending on the input signal pulses
from the PC-based controller.

Figure 17: Close up for 10ms pulse duration

Figure 17 shows the close up view for 10ms pulse duration. This is to show
that the peak time is fixed at 2.8ms. Although the pulse duration is reduced, the value
of peak time is not changing. Thus, although the hold time changes with the pulse
duration, the 2.8ms peak time remains the same. Besides, the peak and hold value for
current are maintained at 3.4A and 1.05A respectively, regardless of the pulse
duration.

22
 CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Conclusions

At the end of this project, the injector driver circuit has been designed and
fabricated on PCB. But the testing on actual automotive direct injector is failed
because the circuit did not function properly. The data for Orbital direct injector and
low impedance injector driver has been obtained and analyzed. The comparison
cannot be done because there are no data on designed injector driver. Thus the project
only reaches this stage and no result was obtained for the designed injector driver.

5.2 Recommendations

It is recommended that for future work of the project, some modification will
be made to obtain different result. First is to make an adjustable peak and hold current
control injector driver. This mean the respective current can be adjust as required by
the user. Second recommendation is to modify the parameter value so that the peak
time can be changed to give longer hold current state. Another recommendation is to
make the circuit also work with high impedance fuel injector.

23
 REFERENCES

[1] National Semiconductor. (2008). LM1949 Injector Drive Controller.

Datasheet for LM1949 IC, page 1-12.

[2] Injectors. (1999). In Tomco Techtips Issue 38. Retrieved March 13, 2009,
from http://www.tomco-inc.com/Tech_Tips/ttt38.pdf

[3] Peak and Hold Injector Patterns. (2001). In Tomco Techtips Issue 40.
Retrieved March 15, 2009, from http://www.tomco-
inc.com/Tech_Tips/ttt40.pdf

[4] Part I: Basics Components of 22R-TE fuel injection system. (2005).

In Electronic Fuel Injection and the 22R-TE engine. Retrieved April 1, 2009,
from http://www.well.com/user/mosk/EFI1.htm

[5] Overview. (2007). In Peak&Hold Injector Driver Board. Retrieved February

12, 2009, from http://jbperf.com/p&h_board/index.html

[6] LabVIEW article. In Wikipedia. Retrieved August 19, 2009, from

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LabVIEW

[7] Bosch Motorsport Components. (2003). Fuel injectors, page B8.

[8] Fuel Injector Spotters Guide and Information. (2000). In RTR performance.
Retrieved August 10, 2009, from http://www./fuelinjectorguide.htm

24
APPENDICES

25
 APPENDIX A

DIRECT INJECTOR SPECIFICATION

26
 ABSTRACT

The objective of this project is to design and test a suitable driver circuit to
meet current control objectives. Injector drivers for automotive engines require peak-
and-hold current control for operation. For this project, the designed circuits need to
be tested and compared to an injector driver that is available in the market.
Implementation of the driver circuit will be done on PCB using an injector driver
chip, PCB maker and schematic capture software. At the end of this project, the
fabricated circuit will be tested with an actual automotive injector. Analog electronics
and microelectronics knowledge will be applied for designing the circuit and to
analyze the acquired data. As a conclusion, this project is to design, fabricate and test
an injector driver that can meet current control objectives: peak-and-hold current.

iv
 ACKNOWLEDGMENT

First of all, thank God for this opportunity and seeing me through some truly
difficult times especially through the period of this FYP 1 and FYP 2. My highest
gratitude goes to all those who helped me towards the completion of this Final Year
Project either directly or indirectly. First up to my supervisor, Mr. Saiful Azrin, an
Electrical and Electronics lecturer, thanks for all the never-ending support and trust
given to me in order to carry out the project given. Besides, I appreciate all your
comments and remarks given to me with regards to my project as this is crucial for
me to take note when doing my FYP in the future. My further gratitude is to all the
lecturers, technicians and related staff who have assisted me in completing this
project. Last but not least, not to forget my family and friends who gave me the
supports towards the completion this course and project. Thank you very much for the
fully hearted support.

v
 TABLE OF CONTENT

ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................. iv
ACKNOWLEDGMENT ...............................................................................................v
LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................... viii

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................1

1.1 Background of Study ...................................................................................1
1.2 Problem Statement ......................................................................................2
1.3 Objective and Scope of Study ......................................................................2

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW .......................................................................3

2.1 Type of Fuel Injector ...................................................................................3
2.1.1 Peak-and-Hold Injector (Low impedance: 1.7-3.0 ohm) ......................3
2.1.2 Saturated Circuit Injector (High impedance: 10-16 ohm)....................4
2.1.3 Purpose and Function .........................................................................4
2.1.4 Method of Measurement .....................................................................5
2.1.5 Power Rating of Fuel Injector .............................................................5
2.2 Peak-and-Hold Injector Driver ....................................................................5
2.2.1 Injectors (L1) ......................................................................................6
2.2.2 Timer (RT and CT) ...............................................................................6
2.2.3 Compensation (CC) .............................................................................7
2.2.4 Zener Diode (Z1) .................................................................................7
2.3 Peak-and-Hold Injector Waveforms .............................................................8

vi
CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY ................................................................................ 10
3.1 Procedure Identification ............................................................................ 10
3.2 Tools and Equipments Required ................................................................ 11
3.2.1 Eagle Layout Editor 5.1.0 ................................................................. 11
3.2.2 LabVIEW 7.1 .................................................................................... 11
3.2.3 Power Supply Unit ............................................................................ 11
3.2.4 Function Generator .......................................................................... 11
3.2.5 Orbital Low Impedance Direct Injector ............................................ 12
3.2.6 Orbital Low Side Injector Driver ...................................................... 12
3.2.7 Injector Driver (LM1949 IC) ............................................................ 12
3.3 Research Methodology .............................................................................. 13
3.3.1 Software and Hardware Manual ....................................................... 13
3.3.2 Books ................................................................................................ 13
3.3.3 Internet ............................................................................................. 13
3.4 Project Milestone ...................................................................................... 14

CHAPTER 4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ............................................................ 15

4.1 System Design........................................................................................... 15
4.2 Fabrication and Testing ............................................................................. 17
4.3 Data Analysis ............................................................................................ 20

CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ................................ 23

5.1 Conclusions ............................................................................................... 23
5.2 Recommendations ..................................................................................... 23

REFERENCES ............................................................................................................ 24

APPENDICES ............................................................................................................. 25
APPENDIX A: DIRECT INJECTOR SPECIFICATION.................................... 26

vii
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Different length of fuel injector .................................................................. 4

Figure 2: Typical application and test circuit .............................................................. 5
Figure 3: Zener current waveform.............................................................................. 7
Figure 4: Typical circuit waveforms .......................................................................... 8
Figure 5: Closed up peak and hold waveform ............................................................ 9
Figure 6: Project Gantt chart .................................................................................... 14
Figure 7: Equipments setup...................................................................................... 15
Figure 8: Circuit connection .................................................................................... 16
Figure 9: PCB schematic ......................................................................................... 17
Figure 10: PCB layout ............................................................................................. 17
Figure 11: Complete circuit ..................................................................................... 18
Figure 12: Test on actual direct injector ................................................................... 18
Figure 13: Test using Orbital Injector Driver ........................................................... 19
Figure 14: Injector current for 50ms pulse duration .................................................. 20
Figure 15: Injector current for 30ms pulse duration .................................................. 21
Figure 16: Injector current for 10ms pulse duration.................................................. 21
Figure 17: Close up for 10ms pulse duration ............................................................ 22

viii