Greetings!

In a few years, you will gain new experiences in life that you may have never dreamed
of. Such experiences may excite or challenge you, while some can make you rethink
your life and decisions.
At your age, you may have already asked yourself important questions about your life
that cannot be directly answered through research or education, such as “What do I
want?” or “What will make me happy?”
If you have already asked yourself those big questions, then you have already engaged
in philosophy.

• What is Philosophy?
• Is it a way of life? Why or why not?
• How do you apply it in everyday life?

The Meaning of Philosophy and Philosophy of the Human Person

Philosophy, meaning "love of wisdom," is a science where reason and logic are used
to understand reality and answer questions of knowledge, morality, and human nature.
It can be described as either a body of knowledge or intellectual activity.
Philosophy as a body of knowledge provides methodologies and insights on how
societal questions, such as moral dilemmas of euthanasia or same-sex marriage, can
be answered.
On the other hand, philosophy as an intellectual activity is an analytic procedure of
addressing individual thought processes such as resolving conflict and confusion,
testing positions, and analyzing beliefs. In all instances, doing philosophy is prescribed
by logic, reason, and ethics leading to wisdom.
Philosophy applied to human experience or everyday life denotes the use of philosophy
as an intellectual activity. Also known as philosophy in life, this concept is important
because it serves as the guiding principle on how one ought to live life.

▪ WHAT IS TO PHILOSOPHIZE?
Professor Emeritus Alfredo P. Co, Ph.D.

Early attempts to write a universal definition of philosophy failed

because mankind never shared a common idea of what it is.
Is it valid to define philosophy as the science of beings, of their
ultimate causes or principles as known by the light of natural reason?
Perhaps so, but then, what would happen to Existentialism or Indian
philosophy? Existentialism is not interested in the problem of the ultimate
principles; neither is Indian philosophy concerned with the truth arrived at by
the light of natural reason. Shall we then define philosophy as the individual’s
quest for authentic existence, or as the search for the Ultimate Being by the
use of one’s intuitive faculty? But what would happen to Chinese philosophy
whose main interest is to know how man can live in harmony, unity, peace,
prosperity, if indeed, perpetuity! Should philosophy then be defined as a way
of life? But then it could easily be rejected by those who believe that it is a
way of thought!
It seems that behind the many definitions, whatever degree of
validity each one has, rests a more fundamental question: What is to
philosophize?
Man is a universal phenomenon. He cogitates, contemplates, and
interprets the same world and yet he comes up with varied opinions regarding
it. History has indeed shown us that the diversity of human experiences has
created diversified cultures which have brought about distinct interpretations
of the world.
The complex enterprise of philosophizing has been a monopoly of
man ab initio. God, being omniscient, has no need for either reason or
intuition in order to know. He is the Repository of truth and the Fountainhead
of wisdom. The angels possess a natural knowledge of God and know other
things by merely contemplating their angelic essence. The brutes do not
philosophize for their sentient level simply cannot allow them to do so. Only
man can and needs to philosophize because of his uncertainties, which
manifests themselves as doubts. Therefore, we may say that philosophy
begins and ends with man. We see in the history of ideas, how a man tried to
construct philosophical ideas, and how others tried to destroy them. One
system of thought is raised and another system refutes it.
Generally, to philosophize means to theoretically consider all things in
a study or reflection. But philosophizing is a complex process of thought. The
history of humanity has shown how man struggled to come up with a genuine,
indigenous worldview. Through the different periods of history, he has used
his natural powers to pursue various philosophical ends. I see generally three
ends, namely: the Knowledge of the Absolute Truth; the Knowledge of the
Reasoned Truth; and the Knowledge of Practical Truth or what is also known
as the Knowledge of the Art of Living.
These different ends were curiously pursued by three great
civilizations: the Indian, the Greek, and the Chinese. The Indians asked the
question “Who am I?” The Greeks inquired “Where am I?” Lastly, the Chinese
posited the question “What am I?” The Jews also asked such significant
questions as “Where did I come from?” and “Where am I going?” but since
man’s knowledge of his origin and destiny cannot be verified, we shall not
classify these questions as philosophical. In all these questions, there is the
encompassing ‘I’, which only proves the reflective nature of philosophizing.
The Indian philosophical tradition is deeply rooted in the question,
“Who am I?” for the Indian forest sages, the Absolute Truth consisted in
man’s discovery of the Self. The famous dialogue from the Twelfth Khanda of
the Chandogya Upanishad between Udalaka Aruni and his son Svetaketu
depicts quite vividly this intuitive search for the Absolute.
Aruni said: Fetch me from thence a fruit of the nyagrodha tree
Svetaketu replied: “Here is one, Sir.”
“Break it.”
“It is broken, Sir.”
“What do you see there?”
“These seeds, almost infinitesimal.”
“Break one of them.”
“It is broken, Sir.”
“What do you see there?”
“Not anything, Sir.”
The father said: “My son, that subtle essence which you do not
perceive there, of that very essence this great nyagrodha tree exists.”
“Believe it, my son. That which is the subtle essence, in it all that
exists has its self. It is the True. It is the Self, and thou, o Svetaketu, art it.”
In the same text, the Absolute Truth is revealed as the discovery of the Self
which is identical with the spirit of the universe.
The Atman and Brahman are one. It is through this realization that man
achieves emancipation from all forms of illusion or Maya. “By the old age of
the body, the ether does not age; by the death of the body, the ether is not
killed. That is the true Brahman-city. In it, all desires are contained. It is the
Self, free from sin, free from old age, from death and grief, from hunger and
thirst, which desires nothing but what it ought to desire, and imagines nothing
but what it ought to imagine.
Those who depart from hence without having discovered the Self and
those true desires, for them there is no freedom in all the worlds. But those
who depart from hence, after having discovered the Self and those true
desires, for them is freedom in all the worlds.”
The highest truth in Brahman can only be known if a man is to
consciously withdraw from the world of the sense, and methodically suspend
the activity of his reasoning intellect in order to give way to the inner faculty of
intuition. The Absolute Truth can only be attained by the use of one’s intuitive
faculty. Philosophy for the Indians is the science of Absolute Truth as known
by the use of one’s intuitive power.
In this subtle and mystical search for the “depth ego,” the Indian sage probes
into the ageless, deathless, spiritual identity of man. This psychocentrism is
the distinguishing mark of Indian philosophy. But the Indians were great
psychologists. Patanjali of Nyaya philosophy, Mahavira and Gautama—were
they not in fact great psychologists and spiritual leaders?
Early Greek philosophical inquiry started with the question “Where am
I?” Amazed by the phenomenon of change, the pre-Socratic cosmologists
commenced their philosophical speculation with a search for the unifying
principle of the universe. For the truth consisted in man’s understanding of
the principles behind the workings of Spatio-temporal world and his
relationship with it. Thus we have Thales claiming that Water was the ultimate
World-Stuff; Anaximander, declaring it was the Boundless, and formulating
his pseudo-scientific theory of evolution; Anaximenes, Air; Heraclitus, Fire;
Parmenides, the One; Pythagoras, the Limited and the Unlimited;
Empedocles, Earth, Air, Water, and Fire; and Anaxagoras, Infinitely-Various
Seeds. They were great cosmologists.
The Greek attachments to the Spatio-temporal world prompted them
to develop a pe4culiar science reflective of such a spirit of inquiry. This, the
Greeks invented the science of Logic and Epistemology, where truth is
attained by the successful use of syllogistic demonstrations. The clarity of
truth rests in the philosopher’s ability to define a concept and one’s security
rests in his ability to insulate himself in these clearly and neatly demonstrated
discourses of reason. For the Greeks, philosophy is the science of the logico-
epstemic truth attained by the use of man’s natural reason.
The Chinese philosophical enterprise was based on the question,
“What am I?” the Chinese were interested in the discovery of what it meant to
be human—what man’s potentialities were and how a man could live in self-
determination, harmony, and cohesiveness with others, in righteousness and
propriety, sincerity and wisdom, peace and prosperity, so that he might be
able to live in perpetuity. The ancient Chinese masters focused their attention
on the problem of making man humane. The question “What am I” is indeed
socio-politico-moral. The anthropocentric slant of the Chinese thinkers made
them great social thinkers, political thinkers, and moral thinkers. No other
civilization has invested so much of its philosophizing on the problem of
attaining the highest moral good within the reach of men than the Chinese.
They have thought out, preached, and lived their answers to the problem of
practical life which is the birthmark of their “princely sages.”
Chinese philosophy attempts to come up with explanations for
knowledge of practical wisdom. Drawn out of man’s moral growth in life’s
 experience. The richness of this Truth on the Art of Living is measured on the
basis of how that practical wisdom is able to enrich man as an individual and
as an integral part of society.
Philosophy then for the Chinese is the science of practical truth
attained by the use of practical reason. Were not the first Chinese masters
moral, social, and political philosophers? We have Kong Zi, Lao Zi, Zhuang
Zi, Meng Zi, Shang Yang, Xun Zi to name a few.
Thus, we have seen that philosophizing, traditionally speaking, could
mean a methodic exercise of the faculty of intuition (with the use of mantra,
concentration, or meditation) for the transcendental grasp of the Absolute; a
methodic exercise of the faculty of reason (with the use of logical paradigm)
for the attainment on ontological or epistemic truths; or the methodic exercise
of practical reason (based on life’s experience) for the practical ability of man
to live in dignity as a moral person.
The nobility of traditional philosophizing rests in the thinkers’ sincerity,
exhaustiveness, and originality in their approach to their philosophical end.
Philosophers following these three ancient traditions are nothing but
footnotes as far as their end and the use of their faculty are concerned.
The 18th and 19th centuries saw cross-cultural contact among these
three ageless traditions. Philosophical works of various cultures were
translated and people started to see things from different lights. The initial
experience was shattering and even abhorrent. It was not surprising that
G.W.F. Hegel failed to see philosophy in the East and with sardonic pride,
declared flatly that philosophy was a monopoly of the west! It was
Schopenhauer who saw the wisdom in Indian thought and Leibniz who
perceived the superiority of the Chinese moral wisdom. Regrettably,
Schopenhauer saw the wisdom of the Indian thought but failed to experience
the light; while Leibniz appreciated the moral Truth of the Art of Living but
failed to experience its beauty, righteousness, humanity, and decorum.
We have said enough on the distinctions of the three philosophical
currents in ancient culture. We herein proceed to investigate the three
philosophical traditions that have greatly influenced the thinking of the East—
Chinese and Indian philosophical traditions, and the West—the Greek
philosophical tradition. Quite unexpectedly going into the study of the
philosophy of the ancient culture is likened to opening a new vista of thought
that will require enormous patience, attention, and open-mindedness. As we
embark on the study of the different minds that helped shape the whole world,
we may yet find the secret that made it endure the tests of time

▪ KEY TAKEAWAYS
Thus to philosophize means:
 A methodic exercise of the faculty of intuition for the transcendental grasp of
the Absolute Truth.
A methodic exercise of the faculty of reason with the use of a logical
paradigm for the attainment of ontological or epistemic truths.
A methodic exercise of practical reason based on man’s experience for the
practical ability of man to live in dignity as a moral person.

▪ WHAT IS TO PHILOSOPHIZE?
Professor Emeritus Alfredo P. Co, Ph.D.

Early attempts to write a universal definition of philosophy failed

because mankind never shared a common idea of what it is.
Is it valid to define philosophy as the science of beings, of their
ultimate causes or principles as known by the light of natural reason?
Perhaps so, but then, what would happen to Existentialism or Indian
philosophy? Existentialism is not interested in the problem of the ultimate
principles; neither is Indian philosophy concerned with the truth arrived at by
the light of natural reason. Shall we then define philosophy as the individual’s
quest for authentic existence, or as the search for the Ultimate Being by the
use of one’s intuitive faculty? But what would happen to Chinese philosophy
whose main interest is to know how man can live in harmony, unity, peace,
prosperity, if indeed, perpetuity! Should philosophy then be defined as a way
of life? But then it could easily be rejected by those who believe that it is a
way of thought!
It seems that behind the many definitions, whatever degree of
validity each one has, rests a more fundamental question: What is to
philosophize?
Man is a universal phenomenon. He cogitates, contemplates, and
interprets the same world and yet he comes up with varied opinions regarding
it. History has indeed shown us that the diversity of human experiences has
created diversified cultures which have brought about distinct interpretations
of the world.
The complex enterprise of philosophizing has been a monopoly of
man ab initio. God, being omniscient, has no need for either reason or
intuition in order to know. He is the Repository of truth and the Fountainhead
of wisdom. The angels possess a natural knowledge of God and know other
things by merely contemplating their angelic essence. The brutes do not
philosophize for their sentient level simply cannot allow them to do so. Only
man can and needs to philosophize because of his uncertainties, which
manifests themselves as doubts. Therefore, we may say that philosophy
begins and ends with man. We see in the history of ideas, how a man tried to
construct philosophical ideas, and how others tried to destroy them. One
system of thought is raised and another system refutes it.
Generally, to philosophize means to theoretically consider all things in
a study or reflection. But philosophizing is a complex process of thought. The
history of humanity has shown how man struggled to come up with a genuine,
indigenous worldview. Through the different periods of history, he has used
his natural powers to pursue various philosophical ends. I see generally three
ends, namely: the Knowledge of the Absolute Truth; the Knowledge of the
Reasoned Truth; and the Knowledge of Practical Truth or what is also known
as the Knowledge of the Art of Living.
These different ends were curiously pursued by three great
civilizations: the Indian, the Greek, and the Chinese. The Indians asked the
question “Who am I?” The Greeks inquired “Where am I?” Lastly, the Chinese
posited the question “What am I?” The Jews also asked such significant
questions as “Where did I come from?” and “Where am I going?” but since
man’s knowledge of his origin and destiny cannot be verified, we shall not
classify these questions as philosophical. In all these questions, there is the
encompassing ‘I’, which only proves the reflective nature of philosophizing.
The Indian philosophical tradition is deeply rooted in the question,
“Who am I?” for the Indian forest sages, the Absolute Truth consisted in
man’s discovery of the Self. The famous dialogue from the Twelfth Khanda of
the Chandogya Upanishad between Udalaka Aruni and his son Svetaketu
depicts quite vividly this intuitive search for the Absolute.
Aruni said: Fetch me from thence a fruit of the nyagrodha tree
Svetaketu replied: “Here is one, Sir.”
“Break it.”
“It is broken, Sir.”
“What do you see there?”
“These seeds, almost infinitesimal.”
“Break one of them.”
“It is broken, Sir.”
“What do you see there?”
“Not anything, Sir.”
The father said: “My son, that subtle essence which you do not
perceive there, of that very essence this great nyagrodha tree exists.”
 “Believe it, my son. That which is the subtle essence, in it all that
exists has its self. It is the True. It is the Self, and thou, o Svetaketu, art it.”
In the same text, the Absolute Truth is revealed as the discovery of the Self
which is identical with the spirit of the universe.
The Atman and Brahman are one. It is through this realization that man
achieves emancipation from all forms of illusion or Maya. “By the old age of
the body, the ether does not age; by the death of the body, the ether is not
killed. That is the true Brahman-city. In it, all desires are contained. It is the
Self, free from sin, free from old age, from death and grief, from hunger and
thirst, which desires nothing but what it ought to desire, and imagines nothing
but what it ought to imagine.
Those who depart from hence without having discovered the Self and
those true desires, for them there is no freedom in all the worlds. But those
who depart from hence, after having discovered the Self and those true
desires, for them is freedom in all the worlds.”
The highest truth in Brahman can only be known if a man is to
consciously withdraw from the world of the sense, and methodically suspend
the activity of his reasoning intellect in order to give way to the inner faculty of
intuition. The Absolute Truth can only be attained by the use of one’s intuitive
faculty. Philosophy for the Indians is the science of Absolute Truth as known
by the use of one’s intuitive power.
In this subtle and mystical search for the “depth ego,” the Indian sage probes
into the ageless, deathless, spiritual identity of man. This psychocentrism is
the distinguishing mark of Indian philosophy. But the Indians were great
psychologists. Patanjali of Nyaya philosophy, Mahavira and Gautama—were
they not in fact great psychologists and spiritual leaders?
Early Greek philosophical inquiry started with the question “Where am
I?” Amazed by the phenomenon of change, the pre-Socratic cosmologists
commenced their philosophical speculation with a search for the unifying
principle of the universe. For the truth consisted in man’s understanding of
the principles behind the workings of Spatio-temporal world and his
relationship with it. Thus we have Thales claiming that Water was the ultimate
World-Stuff; Anaximander, declaring it was the Boundless, and formulating
his pseudo-scientific theory of evolution; Anaximenes, Air; Heraclitus, Fire;
Parmenides, the One; Pythagoras, the Limited and the Unlimited;
Empedocles, Earth, Air, Water, and Fire; and Anaxagoras, Infinitely-Various
Seeds. They were great cosmologists.
The Greek attachments to the Spatio-temporal world prompted them
to develop a pe4culiar science reflective of such a spirit of inquiry. This, the
Greeks invented the science of Logic and Epistemology, where truth is
attained by the successful use of syllogistic demonstrations. The clarity of
truth rests in the philosopher’s ability to define a concept and one’s security
rests in his ability to insulate himself in these clearly and neatly demonstrated
discourses of reason. For the Greeks, philosophy is the science of the logico-
epstemic truth attained by the use of man’s natural reason.
The Chinese philosophical enterprise was based on the question,
“What am I?” the Chinese were interested in the discovery of what it meant to
be human—what man’s potentialities were and how a man could live in self-
determination, harmony, and cohesiveness with others, in righteousness and
propriety, sincerity and wisdom, peace and prosperity, so that he might be
able to live in perpetuity. The ancient Chinese masters focused their attention
on the problem of making man humane. The question “What am I” is indeed
socio-politico-moral. The anthropocentric slant of the Chinese thinkers made
them great social thinkers, political thinkers, and moral thinkers. No other
civilization has invested so much of its philosophizing on the problem of
attaining the highest moral good within the reach of men than the Chinese.
They have thought out, preached, and lived their answers to the problem of
practical life which is the birthmark of their “princely sages.”
Chinese philosophy attempts to come up with explanations for
knowledge of practical wisdom. Drawn out of man’s moral growth in life’s
experience. The richness of this Truth on the Art of Living is measured on the
basis of how that practical wisdom is able to enrich man as an individual and
as an integral part of society.
Philosophy then for the Chinese is the science of practical truth
attained by the use of practical reason. Were not the first Chinese masters
moral, social, and political philosophers? We have Kong Zi, Lao Zi, Zhuang
Zi, Meng Zi, Shang Yang, Xun Zi to name a few.
Thus, we have seen that philosophizing, traditionally speaking, could
mean a methodic exercise of the faculty of intuition (with the use of mantra,
concentration, or meditation) for the transcendental grasp of the Absolute; a
methodic exercise of the faculty of reason (with the use of logical paradigm)
for the attainment on ontological or epistemic truths; or the methodic exercise
of practical reason (based on life’s experience) for the practical ability of man
to live in dignity as a moral person.
The nobility of traditional philosophizing rests in the thinkers’ sincerity,
exhaustiveness, and originality in their approach to their philosophical end.
Philosophers following these three ancient traditions are nothing but
footnotes as far as their end and the use of their faculty are concerned.
The 18th and 19th centuries saw cross-cultural contact among these
three ageless traditions. Philosophical works of various cultures were
translated and people started to see things from different lights. The initial
experience was shattering and even abhorrent. It was not surprising that
G.W.F. Hegel failed to see philosophy in the East and with sardonic pride,
declared flatly that philosophy was a monopoly of the west! It was
Schopenhauer who saw the wisdom in Indian thought and Leibniz who
 perceived the superiority of the Chinese moral wisdom. Regrettably,
Schopenhauer saw the wisdom of the Indian thought but failed to experience
the light; while Leibniz appreciated the moral Truth of the Art of Living but
failed to experience its beauty, righteousness, humanity, and decorum.
We have said enough on the distinctions of the three philosophical
currents in ancient culture. We herein proceed to investigate the three
philosophical traditions that have greatly influenced the thinking of the East—
Chinese and Indian philosophical traditions, and the West—the Greek
philosophical tradition. Quite unexpectedly going into the study of the
philosophy of the ancient culture is likened to opening a new vista of thought
that will require enormous patience, attention, and open-mindedness. As we
embark on the study of the different minds that helped shape the whole world,
we may yet find the secret that made it endure the tests of time

▪ KEY TAKEAWAYS
Thus to philosophize means:
A methodic exercise of the faculty of intuition for the transcendental grasp of
the Absolute Truth.
A methodic exercise of the faculty of reason with the use of a logical
paradigm for the attainment of ontological or epistemic truths.
A methodic exercise of practical reason based on man’s experience for the
practical ability of man to live in dignity as a moral person.

▪ Meaning and Process of Doing Philosophy

Doing philosophy means engaging oneself in “matters of utility” and
methodologies to eliminate any practical problem or abstract idea.
In the process of doing philosophy, it is critical to have a holistic point of
view—the perception of looking at all aspects of a situation first before
making a conclusion. Some other skills involved in doing philosophy are
critical, logical, and analytical thinking, observation, and communicative skills.

Holistic and Partial Points of View

Before engaging in philosophical inquiry, one must be able to distinguish
between a holistic and partial point of view. This is critical for anyone doing
philosophy because it sets a limit in coming up with conclusions about a given
situation.
It is important to remember the following:
Looking at the characteristics of holistic and partial points of view, it can be
concluded that using a holistic perspective is more desirable in doing
philosophy than using a partial perspective. Partial points of view only
promote limited knowledge on the situation. This leads to wrong conclusions.
Learning philosophy requires learning to look into all available perspectives
and work on their relationship to come up with sound, logical, and valid
conclusions. In the process, doing philosophy helps one to develop the skill of
broadly looking at the situation first before concluding anything.

Importance of Philosophical Reflection

Philosophical reflection is the process by which a person undergoes a
reflective state or evaluates his or her experiences first before making any
related action. The use of philosophical reflection is important as it enables
thought to be looked into using a deeper, holistic perspective. In effect,
actions are directed towards greater sources of wisdom and truth.

Human Activities Emanated from Deliberate

Reflection
In the process, one can learn more about himself or herself, including
personal beliefs, ideals, or values. Previous experiences may be seen as
important aspects of making reflections because they facilitate deeper
 thinking and understanding of the self. Aside from knowing the self, many
other activities also emanate from reflection.
Examples:

▪ learning from your previous mistakes and not repeating them again
▪ evaluating and knowing the best choice from a set of options
▪ gaining a holistic point of view first before making any conclusion

▪ KEY TAKEAWAYS
Philosophical reflection is like "pagtanaw" in every aspect of life. This is a
general way of our ordinary thinking.
Philosophical reflection is engaging with yourself in deep thinking.
Philosophical reflection is engaging with yourself in deep thinking.

▪ Importance of Doing Philosophy

Doing philosophy can be applied in day-to-day activities and life perspectives.
Because it involves an evaluative process, doing philosophy allows a person
to make better decisions and act accordingly to situations with the help of
various philosophical skills.
Furthermore, on life perspectives, philosophy enables reflective thinking
which greatly influences a person’s view of life, challenges, and relationships.
Doing philosophy directs how a person will perceive these factors in life and
how they will be faced.
In any setting, wisdom is always gained when philosophy is applied to
formulate a conclusion about a certain concern.

▪ KEY TAKEAWAYS
Philosophy is nothing but to serve the purpose of life.
Philosophy is a tool in understanding the world better. It contributes to our
capacity to organize ideas, deal with questions, and extract what is essential
from large quantities of information.
▪ Fact vs. Opinion

Fact is a statement that can be proven true or false, while an opinion is an

expression of a person’s feelings that cannot be proven. Opinions can be
based on facts or emotions and sometimes they are meant to mislead others.

What is Truth?
How do we know that what we know is true?
Truth is drawn from a belief inconstancy within the universe for guidance. If it
is reliable, we give it the appellation of truth.

Theories of Truth
1. Correspondence Theory – when there is an agreement and conformity
between what the mind claims and what it is actually in reality, it is said to
be true.
o The correspondence must be concrete and not opinion-based.
o Thomas Aquinas: “Veritas est adaequatio rei et intellectus” (Truth is
the equation of thing and intellect)

Meaning: “A judgment is said to be true when it confronts the external reality.”

Examples:

o “This ball pen is red.”

o “The Philippines is a predominantly Catholic country.”
o “You are a student.”
o “Andrew is a bachelor.”
o “I am wrong.”

2. Coherence Theory - A belief that when we are able to incorporate it in

an orderly and logical manner into a larger and complex system of belief,
it is true.

Or it if fits in with a set of all our beliefs without creating a contradiction.

Examples:

o “Islam is a Monotheistic religion because it only has Allah as its God.”

 o “Philippines belongs to continent Asia.”
o “Everything that is blue is colored.”

3. Pragmatic Theory - Once you examine your choices or alternatives, you

would take into consideration the good and practical consequences
before making a decision.

“The truth of an idea is not a stagnant property inherent in it. Truth happens to
an idea. ”
Whatever works must be true.
Anything that is workable and feasible must be true.

Examples:

o Santa Claus is true as long as you receive a gift “from him.”

o The concept of love is true as long as you are being loved and it makes
you feel good.

Based on: Can be verified by/through:

Correspondence Reality, facts Empirical Knowledge

Consistency
Coherence Validity of Logical Reasoning
of statements

“what is it for
Pragmatic Practicality of Knowledge
me?”

▪ KEY TAKEAWAYS
Truth is the convergence of reality with understanding.
Opinions are mere interpretations of the truth.
Fact is the main point or key message to be learned or understood.
▪ Methods of Philosophizing
A. Continental
1. Phenomenology

▪ in phenomenology, truth is based on the person’s consciousness.

▪ It is the systematic study of the phenomena, or of what appears
within experience.
▪ EDMUND HUSSERL founded Phenomenology

How things appear to us?

Consciousness is intentional.

▪ Every act of consciousness is always directed at some object or

another.
▪ There must be a shift from natural standpoint to phenomenological
standpoint.
▪ This will only happen through a series of phenomenological
reductions.

The phenomenological process begins with the consciousness (the human

person who thinks) as it looks at an object (a thing). The moment you look at
something, you always have preconceived notions about it. The first reduction
is what we call epoche or the bracketing of biases. What happens during
the epoche is you set aside all these preconceived notions about the thing
and try to look at it without them. After the first reduction, you will have the
object without any presuppositions. Then the second reduction which is the
eidetic reduction shall take place. In eidetic reduction, we are after the
essence of the thing, and we can only do that after we eliminate all empirical
data. After the second reduction, we will now have the essence of the thing
which will then give us the truth, and the truth will now go back to the
consciousness which thought about it.
2 Existentialism

▪ It is the study of existence and essence.

▪ It endeavors to analyze the basic structures of human existence
and to call individuals to an awareness of their existence.
▪ Existentialism has two kinds: theistic and atheistic
▪ Theistic existentialism posits the idea of God as the source of the
essence, while atheistic existentialism gives emphasis on human
freedom as the source of essence.
Themes in Existentialism

11. The human condition – pertains to the situation that one is in.
12. Human response to this condition – pertains to the way how we
handle the situation or the life that we are given.
13. Being – pertaining to our existence per se. The moment that we
are born into this world, is the very core of existentialism.
14. Human freedom – is a necessary concept in the study of
existentialism in the sense that it is the tool by which we are able to
choose our actions which will then determine if we will attain our
authenticity.
15. Significance of choice and decision in the absence of
certainty – as mentioned above, our choices lead us to the
realization of our essences. As human people, we always make
decisions even if we are not certain of the results. But we still need
to choose for us to be able to move forward and make meaning out
of our existence.
16. Concreteness and subjectivity of life as lived, against
abstractionism and false objectification.

B. Analytic Φ
In analytic Φ, the methods included here are focused on the idea of
reasoning.
Four Types of Reasoning

17. Inductive Reasoning – a method of reasoning that moves from

specific instances to a general conclusion.
o One collects a number of instances and forms a generalization that
is meant to apply to all instances.

Examples:

o My father is loud when he is angry. Same with Nico’s father.

Therefore, all fathers are loud when they are angry.
o The cashier at the store in Germany is scary. The German baker is
scary. Therefore, all Germans are scary.

2. Deductive Reasoning – a method of reasoning which starts out

with a general statement or hypothesis, and examines the
possibilities to reach a specific logical conclusion.
 Syllogism is composed of a major premise (derived from a universally
accepted principle), a minor premise (a particular instance to be examined),
and a conclusion.
Examples:

o All men are mortal.

Harold is a man.
Therefore, Harold is mortal.

o Marie is in Ms. Jones’ class.

Ms. Jones’ class is in the library.

Therefore, Marie is in the library.

3. Abductive Reasoning – is a method that usually starts with an

incomplete set of observations and proceeds to the likeliest
possible explanation.

Examples:

o The road is wet. The most probable reason is that it is wet because
it rained.

4. Dialectic Reasoning – a method of reasoning which uses the

notion of perpetual negation.

▪ KEY TAKEAWAYS
Philosophy starts with questions.
Questioning is the birthmark of philosophizing.
Philosophizing is a way to reveal the truth associated with it.

▪ Fallacies of Reasoning
▪ Fallacy is an erroneous reasoning that has the appearance of soundness.

There are two types of fallacy: formal and informal fallacy. On the one hand,
formal fallacy is identified through discrepancies in syllogistic patterns and
terms. On the other hand, informal fallacy is identified by further analysis and
Fallacy Definition Examples

1. I know we don't love each other. But, if

A specific kind of appeal to emotion in which
Appeal to Pity someone tries to win support for an argument or
we don't get married it will crush my mother. You know she
has a weak heart. Do you really want to do that to her?
(Ad Misericordiam) idea by exploiting his or her opponent’s feelings of
pity or guilt. 2. If we don't adopt that puppy today, they might put him
down. Do you want to be responsible for that?

The fallacy that a proposition is true simply on the 1. That face cream can't be good. Kim Kardashian is selling it.
Appeal to Ignorance (Ad
basis that it has not been proven false or that it is 2. Don't listen to Dave's argument on gun control. He's not the
Ignorantiam)
false simply because it has not been proven true. brightest bulb in the chandelier.

1. Richard Dawkins, an evolutionary biologist and perhaps the

foremost expert in the field, says that evolution is true.
An appeal to the testimony of an authority outside Therefore, it's true.
Appeal to Inappropriate Authority
the authority’s field of expertise
2. Someone argues that drinking is morally wrong and cites a
sermon from her pastor at church.

The fallacy of attempting to win popular assent to 1. Gold is valuable because many people pay for it.
Appeal to Popular Belief (Ad
a conclusion by arousing the feeling and 2. Most people would agree that it is improper to talk in the
Populum)
enthusiasm of the multitude cinema during a movie, so don't do it

1. Our soccer team was losing until I bought new shoes. We

This is the fallacy of arguing that one event was have not lost a game since I got my lucky shoes!
False Cause (Post Hoc) caused by another event merely because it
occurred after that event. 2. I sneezed at the same time the power went off. My sneeze
did something to make the power go off.

1. Three out of four school teachers prefer Bright Marks

This fallacy is committed when a person draws a Markers, but I only asked four teachers total.
Hasty Generalization conclusion about a population based on a sample
that is not large enough 2. Christine has a terrible experience with a boyfriend. She
decides that all boys are mean.

1. You are for us, or you are against us.

Since that event followed this one, that event must
False Dilemma (False alternatives) 2. I thought you cared about other people, but I didn't see you
have been caused by this one.
at the fundraiser for the Harris Family.

1. Everyone wants the new iPhone because it is the hottest

A fallacy in which the premises include the claim new gadget on the market!
Begging the Question (Petitio
that the conclusion is true or (directly or indirectly)
Principi) 2. God is real because the Bible says so, and the Bible is from
assume that the conclusion is true
God.
 1. If we allow the principal to change the date of the
homecoming dance, what's next? He's going to want to cancel
A fallacy in which a person asserts that some event the dance altogether!
Slippery Slope must inevitably follow from another without any
argument of inevitability or the event on question 2. If we vote that it's okay for them to raise the tuition at state
universities, then they will raise it by thousands of dollars
every single year and professors will double their salaries

1. A mother says that she does not trust her pediatrician

This fallacy attempts to link the validity of a because he has never been a mother.
Argumentum Ad Hominem premise to the characteristic or belief of the person
advocating the premise. 2. A commercial for cat food shows a cat lovingly rubbing her
owners face after eating a specific brand of food.

An argument where force, coercion, or the threat 1. If you don’t accept that the Sun orbits the Earth, rather than
Argumentum Ad Baculum the other way around, then you’ll be excommunicated from the
of force, is given as a justification for a conclusion. Church.

1. Biology teacher begins teaching evolution by stating that all

Is committed when a person simply ignores a things evolve. The student says she just can't accept that
person’s actual position and substitutes a distorted, humans came from bugs.
Strawman fallacy
exaggerated, or misrepresented version of that 2. Student tells his professor that he thinks some of Donald
position Trump's positions have merit. Professor says he can't believe
that the student believes in supports racism.

1. Political candidate lays out his plan for economic stimulus,

and his opponent begins to talk about his tax records and how
Is committed when a person introduces another he has misled the public.
Red Herring topic or argument just to escape or distract from
what is being discussed 2. A man who has cheated on his spouse is confronted by a
friend who tells him that it is wrong. The man begins to talk
about right versus wrong and who decides.

delving deeper into the flesh of the arguments in order to see the illogical
patterns.

▪ KEY TAKEAWAYS

Fallacies are the foundation for evaluating and

critiquing other arguments.
There are two types of fallacies: Formal and
Informal.
▪ Covid-19 Pandemic Incident has been one of the most challenging events to
us in this era. On a personal scale, many of us experienced difficulties. Just like
us who experienced days of lockdown, we have experienced physical
constraints, emotional turmoil, and longings that often visited us. Continuing
the enumeration, when we started to go to the streets and have a walk, some
of us started to see that the world around us is in struggle and in relief—
beggars everywhere, weary elderlies, and the innocent laughter of youngsters.

All the enumeration above posts a point to ponder on. We may

come to a point that we could physically feel and affirm our limitations, our
numbered hours of being inside our homes, our “here and now” or our
situatedness, and feelings of dread that roots from our own situation.
Discovering this in our recollections one may come to the point that indeed
we are physicality and spirituality in our earthly existence. Physicality is
because there is a body that is locked up in space and time and situated in a
given fact. Spirituality because there is this aspect of yours experiencing
dread, anxiety, fear, joy, contentedness, frustrations, and the like. It is safe to
say then that there is the simultaneous body and a spiritual experience of the
human person.
Human existence is an embodied existence. Many things that
are related to our existence as a person are related to our bodies. A large part
of who we are and how we define ourselves is determined and delineated by
our bodies. (Corpuz et. al., 2016)
Our limitations then may include our situatedness that is confined within the
walls of our “here and now”, our numbered days and hours, our being inside a
given space, and the feeling of dread and anxiety that stems from our very
being.
Yet these limitations are not permanent impenetrable walls.
These are actually our doors towards the discovery of our own possibilities;
possibilities that may be realized or actualized. And when actualized, one may
have a higher state of experience of being—a transcendental experience.
Transcendence is a way of life in which our ideals and values
are lived. It is a way of going beyond our current state of limitedness and
realization of our full potentials or possibilities. Etymologically, It came from
the Latin word “trans” meaning “beyond” and “scandare” meaning “to climb”.
This word in our lesson may mean now of going beyond our limitations by
making our possibilities into actualities that may result in a life well-lived.

▪ KEY TAKEAWAYS
Embodied spirit enables us to know our potentialities and limitations.
 Transcendence brings us to our peak experience and sees it from a higher
perspective.

▪ Knowing then that there is a reality of an embodied soul. It is only but fitting
to know how it imposes limitations and what are the possibilities towards
transcendence.

The Concept of Dread

In the philosophic parlance, dread is not simply defined as the fear of
something but rather it is what a human person has when he is thrown into
this world to exist. Thrown in this world left alone to face what he can do
because he had not willed for it. Jean-Paul Sartre even pointed out that dread
is related to our intrinsic freedom and the necessity of choice. Coming to an
awareness of ourselves, we come to decide the ultimate meaning of our lives
alone. We are limited in the sense that we ought to make our own choices yet
what comforts us in this dread is that we have a possibility of decision making
in the freest sense.
The Concept of Being with Others
Men as the embodied spirit are not confined only to themselves. He needs to
relate to others in this world. Man is always ‘together with others. During the
Covid-19 pandemic, many of us were cage in our homes. We started to
rediscover what family relations are and long for reconnection with our
friends who were far away. This phenomenon makes us limited to always
make relations to others but this very same limitation is our possible way to
develop an authentic co-existence with others.
The Concept of Concern
A human person’s relatedness to entities is basically things that he encounters
in the world. As mentioned, man is always existing in a togetherness. This
opens the self to be indisposed to others. One is limited to such kind of
situation of always being with others and yet it is a possibility of a well-lived
life with others especially when one disposes himself freely towards the other.
The Concept of Guilt- feeling
In philosophy, guilt feeling does not root from sin as Christianity would point
out. It is something that man lacks of or something that is missing in a person.
We experience philosophic guilt when we come face to face our own
limitedness- that we are always lacking off or there is always an unrealized
possibility. Condemned as a guilty creature, the human person will seek
always to realize and acquire possibilities that are before him e.g. a person
who lacks loved may have a limitation but this very same lack allows him to be
capable of loving and being loved—creating in him a new meaning.
The Concept of Conscience
Conscience here is not defined as a moral compass but rather it is our capacity
of recovery from being fallen or absorbed by the crowd. Conscience plays a
primary role in disturbing the human person from the comfort of being lost in
this world. It allows us to assert and free ourselves from being a slave of
others' dictates and control.
The Concept of Resoluteness
Man’s thrownness in this world is not just marked by dread, concern, etc.,
there is this situatedness of man to be in solitude, and in that solitude stems
his readiness to be called by conscience. In the limits of solitude lies the very
possibility of an encounter of consciousness. St. John of the Cross described
in his dark night of the soul that in his solitude he came to say yes to a more
meaningful existence.
The concept of Temporality
Man’s bodily existence is within the boundaries of time. We are born in a
specific moment and exist in a fleeting present; that each of us has a
recollection of past that is no longer, a projection of a future that is not yet,
and a present that is so transitory. But this temporality challenges us to
confront a possibility to live each moment as if it is first and our last. First,
because we have in us the possibility of enthusiasm and discovery. Last,
because we have the possibility of doing the ordinary in the most
extraordinary way. Regret is to be forgotten because the past has no power
over us only if we come to peace with it. The future is not yet therefore there
is this possibility of creation. The present though it is fleeting allows us to fully
be.
The consequence of being in the fulcrum of time is very important in practice
to life. An example of this is our inability to accept the past—our discomfiture
with our personal history and worse is the rejection of it. These do not augur
well for a wholeness or wholesomeness (our transcendental way of being) of
life instead it becomes a limitation so great that it could build a prison for the
self. One must be able to swim on the tides of time; riding with its crests of
good times and its troughs of trying times. The overcoming of the limitations
that are imposed by time just like our past allows us to enjoy the possibility of
enjoying our here and now.
The Concept of Death
Man’s temporality will eventually find its way to a definite possibility of an
end. Like a river mightily flowing—whatever the shape of the land is—will
surely find its ocean so as also the life of man. Yet this may seem a limitation
but within it constitute a possibility of grand narrativity, the very narrative
which we identify ourselves, the narrative that consists of the chapters
 already written (realized possibilities) and the chapters we must and still need
to pen (possibilities)…with the finality coming only when the very last line is
writ. The reality of death gives us the opportunity of transcendence making
our mundane life into one that is meaningful.

▪ KEY TAKEAWAYS
The concepts of transcendence pertain to self: beyond ego, beyond the self:
the other, and beyond space and time.

▪ Gabriel Marcel’s Primary and Secondary Reflection

Gabriel Marcel is a philosopher known to be one of the theistic
Philosophers of his time. Among his note-worthy works are The Mystery of
Being, Creative Fidelity, On the Ontological Mystery, and the Homo Viator.
He proposed two ways of introspection that may be shared among men
during their meditative and contemplative processes. In his philosophic line, he
proposed that primary and secondary reflections that one may be able to look
deeper into his own experience in an attempt to draw something more
meaningful and helpful to him. Through this way, one may be able to
understand the true essence of his existence.
Primary and secondary reflections serve as windows towards the
discovery of meaning embedded in the manifold bodily and spiritual
experience of man. And out of this, it serves as a means for man’s discovery of
himself through the experiences that other people may share with him. These
reflections or introspection helps the individual answer the question “who am
I?”.
Primary Reflection:
In this reflection, “I place myself outside of the thing that I
am inquiring on; an ob-jectum (“thrown in front”). It has nothing to do with
myself nor do I have anything with.” (Gabriel Marcel)
As the body is thrown outside the thing that we are
inquiring of, one may be able to discover that this is the body being talked
about in anatomy, physiology, and other sciences. Because this has become
the object of reflection it takes the guise of a universal idea, this can be the
body of anybody else, and consequently of nobody. Thus, this body is simply
the immediate consciousness of what happens. Thus, a human person may
come to eureka experience or an insight that ‘I have a body.’
Secondary Reflection:
 Continuing the line of reflection, “I recognize that I am a
part of the thing I am investigating, and therefore, my discussion is subjective
(“thrown beneath”). I have something to do with it and it has something to do
with me. Because I participate in the thing, I cannot tear it apart into clear and
fixed ideas; I have to describe and bring its unique wholeness in my concrete
experience.”( Gabriel Marcel)
Such is the case that man is a subject, man becomes a
fountain of initiatives—like thoughts, intentions, wishes, and desires. These
parts of man his very own subjectivity must be expressed by him through the
body. Essentially, man can only experience the world—through existing in the
world, thinking about the world, and relating to the world—through the body.
He is incarnate and there is no other way but to appear as such. There is this
union of these two realities (body and soul) of man; unified in a special way
that allows no gap between each other. “It is through the body that I become
present in the world and others. The awareness of my body becomes the
awareness of my being and other.” (Gabriel Marcel)
Following the thought of Marcel, to say then that one has a
body constitute an objectification of the body, the body is not just something
owned by the soul nor it owns the soul. Rather, the body actively participates
in the creation of meaning and in the discovery of essence. Man, then must
come to a realization that he has not had a body but rather being body. Being
a body is participation in existence.
We have just reconstructed the bodily experience that we
have. While integrating this to the insights that we have discovered requires
us a transcendence of knowledge through reflection on this experience.

▪ KEY TAKEAWAYS
Primary and Secondary Reflection are concepts from the work of Christian
Existentialist Gabriel Marcel.
Marcel's primary and secondary reflection shows its proper role in human life.

▪ Before you proceed, please take some time to ponder on the

following questions:(1) How do you classify something as a disorder
in the environment?(2) In a philosophical perspective, what is man's
relationship to his nature?(3) Is there a middle-ground between
consumption and proper care for the environment?Generally, we
 were taught how to look at our environment with care. But as our
learning goes on a higher level, our values regarding environmental
protection may eventually clash with our consumerist attitudes. How
can we seek the help of Philosophy to understand this complicated
relationship of man and nature? How can we also examine the gray
areas between caring for nature and exploiting its resources for man's
survival?
▪ What is Environmental Ethics? Environmental Ethics – the discipline in
philosophy that studies the moral relationship of human beings to, and also the
value and moral status of, the environment and its non-human contents. (Brennan
& Lo, 2020) This field concerns human beings’ ethical relationship with the natural
environment. (Cochrane, n.d) Several views under this field can be explored in
order to understand the relationship of man and his environment.
The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy looks into these common concepts
related to Environmental ethics: (Links to an external site.)
▪ 1. Anthropocentrism – this promotes the idea that human beings as the
center of moral consideration. Therefore, everything that exists in nature
is meant for their use. There are two sub-types of this view:
▪ 1.1 Prudential anthropocentrism – recognizes duties towards the environment
artaken or emanate from our duties to its human inhabitants.
▪ 1.2 Reformist anthropocentrism – argues that the root causes of
environmental crises stem from man‘s ignorance, shortsightedness and
greed
▪ 2. Panthocentrism – The realm of being morally considerable must be
extended to higher forms of animals or intelligent animals who are
sentient and therefore, have the capacity to feel pain and
suffering. Pathocentrism is based on the assumption that all life is of the same
origin and thus related. As a consequence, all living beings have the capacity
to experience pain. ( Karafyllis, n.d)
Two reasons why animals should have moral consideration:
▪ A. Animals are sentient beings and they could feel pain.
B. Animals are morally considerable because they possess inherent or
intrinsic value.
▪ 3. Bio-centrism – the view that not only humans and animals, but also plants
should be morally considerable. This also promotes the recognition of the
rights of other non-human animals on a certain level.
▪ 4. Holism/ Eco-centrism – regards ecosystems as holistic entities that should
be given moral consideration.

▪ KEY TAKEAWAYS
 Environmental ethics establishes the relationship between humans and the
environment.
This relationship changes based on how we humans see other beings in our
environment.
Environmental ethics remind us of our place in nature and how we should go
about being a part of it in context of our survival.

▪ By understanding the huge role of man in preserving and maintaining

ecological balance, it is not only important to know what perspectives affect
the practices of man that affects the environment. It is also necessary to
explore solutions that ecological philosophies can offer.

In this field, three branches are recognized to be part of what is known as

Radical Ecological Philosophies:
Theories in Radical Ecological Philosophy

1. Deep ecology – presupposes biospheric egalitarianism which assumes that

all living things possess equal value and intrinsic worth regardless of their
usefulness or utility to other beings. It is an environmental philosophy (Links to
an external site.) and social movement (Links to an external site.) based on the
belief that humans must radically change their relationship to nature (Links to
an external site.) from one that values nature solely for its usefulness
to human beings (Links to an external site.) to one that recognizes that nature
has an inherent (Links to an external site.) value. (Mandsen, 2016)

▪ 2. Social ecology – a movement against the domination of existing hierarchical

structures in society that pre-empt the development of the full nature of an
individual. It is defined as the study of the relation between the developing
human being and the settings and contexts in which the person is actively
involved. (Handbook of Diversity in Parent Education, 2001 (Links to an
external site.))

3. Eco-feminism – a reaction against male domination and the corresponding

oppression of women; they believe that the problem in our relationship with
the environment is rooted in a male-centered view of nature. Eco-feminism is
a movement that sees a connection between the exploitation and degradation
of the natural world and the subordination and oppression of women. It
emerged in the mid-1970s alongside second-wave feminism and the green
movement. Eco-feminism brings together elements of the feminist and green
movements, while at the same time offering a challenge to both. It takes from
the green movement a concern about the impact of human activities on the
non-human world and from feminism the view of humanity as gendered in
ways that subordinate, exploit and oppress women." (Mellor, 1997)
 Altogether, these ideas suggest that man should never just see nature as an
exploitable entity. These philosophies promote responsible and sustainable
interaction between man and nature. The very reason for nature's exploitation
is the absence of a mindful treatment to it and thus, such ideas must be
pondered on.

▪ KEY TAKEAWAYS
Radical ecological philosophy is a radical view of environmental problems that
can be of attitudes and values.
The theories offer us a revolutionary way of understanding the realities we
have with our environment and how have we been dealing with concerns
related to it since time immemorial.

▪ Erich Fromm was a German social psychologist and psychoanalyst who was
associated with the Frankfurt School of critical theory. He was known for
developing the concept that freedom was a fundamental part of human nature
and for challenging the theories of Sigmund Freud. He is the proponent of the
theory Ecological Messianism. Here, he maintains that society must develop a
nondestructive relationship with the environment by fostering and perfecting the
human potentiality of biophilia —a thorough love of living beings. (Gunderson,
2014).

For a better and more concise understanding of his ideas, here are its main
points:
Fromm’s proposal of virtue of prudence and frugality
1. The willingness to give up all forms of having, in order to fully be.
2. Being fully present where one is.
3. Trying to reduce greed, hate and illusions as much as one is capable.
4. Making the full growth of oneself and one‘s fellow beings as the supreme
goal of living.
5. Not deceiving others, but also not being deceived by others, one may be
called innocent but
not naive.
6. Freedom that is not arbitrariness but the possibility to be oneself, not as a
bundle of greedy
desires, but as a delicately balanced structure that at any moment is
confronted with the
alternatives of growth or decay, life or death
7. Happiness in the process of ever-growing aliveness, whatever the furthest
point is that rate
permits one to reach, for living as fully as one can is so satisfactory that the
concern for what
 one might not attain has little chance to develop.
8. Joy that comes from giving and sharing, not from hoarding and exploiting.
9. Developing one‘s capacity for love, together with one‘s capacity for critical
and
unsentimental thought
10. Shedding one‘s narcissism and accepting that tragic limitations inherent in
human existence.

▪ KEY TAKEAWAYS
Fromm's theory tells that society must develop a non-destructive relationship
with the environment - a thorough love of living beings.
Loving living beings also means that we should be reminded of our
responsibilities in making choices related to our relationship with nature