Commensalism

Commensalism is a type of symbiosis, specifically, a biological relationship in which one species benefits from an interaction, while the host species is neither positively or negatively affected to any tangible degree. For example, epiphytic plants (which grow on other plants but are not parasitic) gain an enormous ecological benefit from living on larger plants, because they gain access to a substrate upon which to grow relatively high in the canopy. The host trees, however, are not affected in any significant way by this relationship, even in cases when they are supporting what appears to be a large population of epiphytes. Some plants are specialized as epiphytes, for example, many species of airplants or bromeliads (family Bromeliaceae), orchids (Orchidaceae), and ferns(Pterophyta). Many lichens, mosses, and liverworts are also epiphytes on trees. There are also animal analogues of this relationship. Sometimes sea anemones (order Actiniaria) will gain a benefit in terms of food availability by growing on the upper carapace of a hermit crab (crustacean infraorder Anomura) which is apparently unaffected by the presence of the epiphyte. Another commensal relationship, known as phoresy, is a type of biological hitch-hiking in which one organism benefits through access to a mode of transportation while the animal providing this service is not significantly affected by its role. For example, many plants produce fruitsthat adhere to fur and are thereby dispersed by the movement of mammals. Some North American examples of such animal-dispersed plants are the burdock (Arctium lappa), beggar-tick or stick-tight (Bidens frondosa), and tick-trefoil (Desmodium canadense). The fruits of these plants have special anatomical adaptations for adhering to fur-in fact, those of the burdock are the botanical model from which the idea for the very useful fastening material known as velcro was developed. In a few cases, individual animals may become heavily loaded with these sorts of sticky fruits causing their fur to mat excessively, perhaps resulting in a significant detriment. This is not common, however, and usually this biological relationship is truly commensal.

Mutualism symbiosis
A symbiotic relationship between individuals of different species in which both individuals benefit from the association. Supplement In this type of symbiosis, both organisms of different species rely on one another fornutrients, protection and other life functions, hence, they are usually found living in closeproximity. It can be thought of as a form of "biological barter" since the species trade resources (for example carbohydrates or inorganic compounds), or services such as gamete or offspring dispersal, or protection from predators.

Parasitism
Parasitism is a type of symbiotic relationship between organisms of different species where one organism, the parasite, benefits at the expense of the other, the host. Traditionally parasitereferred to organisms with lifestages that went beyond one host (e.g. Taenia solium), which are now called macroparasites (typically protozoa and helminths). Parasites can now also refer tomicroparasites, which are typically smaller, such as viruses and bacteria and can be directly transmitted between hosts of one species. Unlike predators, parasites are generally much smaller than their host, although both are special cases of consumer-resource interactions.[1] Parasite show a high degree of specialization for their mode of life, and reproduce at a faster rate than their hosts. Classic examples of parasitism include interactions between vertebrate hosts and diverse animals such as tapeworms, flukes, thePlasmodium species, and fleas. Parasitism is differentiated from the parasitoid relationship, though not sharply, by the fact that parasitoids generally kill or sterilise their hosts. Parasitoidy occurs in about as many classes of organism as parasitism does. The harm and benefit in parasitic interactions concern the biological fitness of the organisms involved. Parasites reduce host fitness in many ways, ranging from general or specialized pathology (such as parasitic castration), impairment of secondary sex characteristics, to the modification of host behaviour. Parasites increase their fitness by exploiting hosts for resources necessary for the parasite's survival: (i.e. food, water, heat, habitat, and dispersal). Although the concept of parasitism applies unambiguously to many cases in nature, it is best considered part of a continuum of types ofinteractions between species, rather than an exclusive category. Particular interactions between species may satisfy some but not all parts of the definition. In many cases, it is difficult to demonstrate that the host is harmed. In others, there may be no apparent specialization on the part of the parasite, or the interaction between the organisms may be short-lived. In medicine, only eukaryotic organisms are considered parasites, with the exclusion of bacteria and viruses. Some branches of biology, however, regard members of these groups as parasitic.[citation needed]

Predation
For alternative meanings of predator and prey, see Predator (disambiguation) and Prey (disambiguation). In ecology, predation des cribes a biological interaction where a predator (an organism that is hunting) feeds on its prey (the organism that is attacked).[1] Predators may or may not kill their prey prior to feeding on them, but the act of predation always results in the death of its prey and the eventual absorption of the prey's tissue through consumption.[2] Other categories ofconsumption are herbivory (eating parts of plants) and detritivory, the consumption of dead organic material (detritus). All these consumption categories fall under the rubric of consumer-resource systems.[3] It can often be difficult to separate our various types of feeding behaviors.[1] For example, parasitic species prey on a host organism and then lay their eggs on it for their offspring to feed on it while it continues to live or on its decaying corpse after it has died. The key characteristic of predation however is the predator's direct impact on the prey population. On the other hand, detritivores simply eat dead organic material arising from the decay of dead individuals and have no direct impact on the "donor" organism(s). Selective pressures imposed on one another has led to an evolutionary arms race between prey and predator, resulting in various antipredator adaptations. The unifying theme in all classifications of predation is the predator lowering the fitness of its prey, or put another way, it reduces its prey's chances of survival, reproduction, or both. Ways of classifying predation surveyed here include grouping by trophic level or diet, by specialization, and by the nature of the predator's interaction with prey.