Blood
Blood
Blood
Leukocytes (WBC)
∙ Crucial in the
body’s
defense against disease
∙ These are complete cells, with a ∙ Derived from ruptured multinucleate cells
nucleus and organelles (megakaryocytes)
∙ Able to move into and out of ∙ Needed for the clotting process
blood vessels (diapedesis) ∙ Normal platelet count = 300,000/mm3
∙ Can move by ameboid motion Hematopoiesis
∙ Can respond to chemicals released ∙ Blood cell formation
by damaged tissues ∙ Occurs in red bone marrow
Leukocyte Levels in the Blood ∙ All blood cells are derived from a common
∙ Normal levels are between 4,000 and stem cell (hemocytoblast)
11,000 cells per millimeter ∙ Hemocytoblast differentiation
∙ Abnormal leukocyte levels ∙ Lymphoid stem cell produces
∙ Leukocytosis lymphocytes
∙ Above 11,000 ∙ Myeloid stem cell produces other
leukocytes/ml formed elements
∙ Generally,
indicates an Fate of Erythrocytes
infection ∙ Unable to divide, grow, or synthesize
∙ Leukopenia proteins
∙ Abnormally low ∙ Wear out in 100 to 120 days
leukocyte level ∙ When worn out, are eliminated by
∙ Commonly caused phagocytes in the spleen or liver
by certain drugs ∙ Lost cells are replaced by division of
Types of Leukocytes hemocytoblasts
∙ Granulocytes Control of Erythrocyte Production
∙ Granules in their cytoplasm can be ∙ Rate is controlled by a hormone
stained (erythropoietin)
∙ Include neutrophils, eosinophils, ∙ Kidneys produce most erythropoietin as a
and basophils response to reduced oxygen levels in the
∙ Agranulocytes blood
∙ Lack visible cytoplasmic granules ∙ Homeostasis is maintained by negative
∙ Include lymphocytes and feedback from blood oxygen levels
monocytes
Granulocytes
∙ Neutrophils
∙ Multilobed nucleus with fine
granules
∙ Act as phagocytes at active sites
of infection
∙ Eosinophils
∙ Large brick-red cytoplasmic
granules
∙ Found in repsonse to allergies and
parasitic worms
∙ Basophils
∙ Have histamine-containing
granules
∙ Initiate inflammation
Agranulocytes Hemostasis
∙ Lymphocytes ∙ Stoppage of blood flow
∙ Nucleus fills most of the cell ∙ Result of a break in a blood vessel
∙ Play an important role in the ∙ Hemostasis involves three phases
immune response ∙ Platelet plug formation
∙ Monocytes ∙ Vascular spasms
∙ Largest of the white blood cells ∙ Coagulation
∙ Function as macrophages Platelet Plug Formation
∙ Important in fighting chronic ∙ Collagen fibers are exposed by a break in a
infection blood vessel
Platelets ∙ Platelets become “sticky” and cling to fibers
∙ Anchored platelets release chemicals to Human Blood Groups
attract more platelets ∙ Blood contains genetically determined
∙ Platelets pile up to form a platelet plug proteins
Vascular Spasms ∙ A foreign protein (antigen) may be attacked
∙ Anchored platelets release serotonin by the immune system
∙ Serotonin causes blood vessel muscles to ∙ Blood is “typed” by using antibodies that
spasm will cause blood with certain proteins to
∙ Spasms narrow the blood vessel, decreasing clump (agglutination)
blood loss ∙ There are over 30 common red blood cell
Coagulation antigens
∙ Injured tissues release thromboplastin ∙ The most vigorous transfusion reactions are
∙ PF3 (a phospholipid) interacts with caused by ABO and Rh blood group
thromboplastin, blood protein clotting antigens
factors, and calcium ions to trigger a clotting ABO Blood Groups
cascade ∙ Based on the presence or absence of two
∙ Prothrombin activator converts prothrombin antigens
to thrombin (an enzyme) ∙ Type A
∙ Thrombin joins fibrinogen proteins into ∙ Type B
hair-like fibrin ∙ The lack of these antigens is called
∙ Fibrin forms a meshwork type O
(the basis for a clot) ∙ The presence of both A and B is called type
Blood Clotting AB
∙ Blood usually clots within 3 to 6 minutes ∙ The presence of either A or B is called types
∙ The clot remains as endothelium regenerates A and B, respectively
∙ The clot is broken down after tissue repair
Undesirable Clotting
∙ Thrombus
∙ A clot in an unbroken blood vessel
∙ Can be deadly in areas like the
heart
∙ Embolus
∙ A thrombus that breaks away and
floats freely in the bloodstream
∙ Can later clog vessels in critical
areas such as the brain
Bleeding Disorders Rh Blood Groups
∙ Thrombocytopenia ∙ Named because of the presence or absence
∙ Platelet deficiency of one of eight Rh antigens (agglutinogen D)
∙ Even normal movements can ∙ Most Americans are Rh+
cause bleeding from small blood ∙ Problems can occur in mixing Rh+ blood into
vessels that require platelets for a body with Rh– blood
clotting
∙ Hemophilia
∙ Hereditary bleeding disorder
∙ Normal clotting factors are
missing
Blood Groups and Transfusions
∙ Large losses of blood have serious
consequences
∙ Loss of 15 to 30 percent causes
weakness
∙ Loss of over 30 percent causes
shock, which can be fatal
∙ Transfusions are the only way to replace
blood quickly
∙ Transfused blood must be of the same blood
group