4/11/2022

Ballast and Formation of railway

Lecture: 06 S.A GHAFAR

Ballast
• Ballast is an important constituent of the
conventional track system.

• It importance has grown with increasing

axle loads and train speeds.

• Ballast is a layer of crushed stone or other

material, which is placed between/ under
the sleepers and the formation for holding
a track to line and surface.
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Ballast
• Ballast has a strong influence on the
relative smoothness of riding.
• Experience has shown that the railways
constructed with the track laid directly on
the earth surface, indicated that some
selective materials should be placed
between sleepers and formation for
economical maintenance.
• If the ballast is not provided the weight of
the traffic pushes the track into the yielding
soil.
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Functions of Ballast

• It distributes the load over wider area of

formation
• It protects the top surface of the formation
from erosion
• Its characteristics facilitates drainage
• It impedes the growth of vegetation
• It act as an elastic bed to absorb the load
and shock of the moving train
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Functions of Ballast

• It provides a suitable foundation to the

sleepers
• It holds the sleepers in their correct
position
• It provides an easy means such that
sleepers may be corrected to true grade
line. (level of track)
• Provides longitudinal and lateral stability to
track
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Requirements of a good Ballast

• It should be hard, strong and durable.

• It should be angular
• It should have good drainage properties
• It should be non porous
• It should be stable under traffic loads
• It should provide high frictional resistance to the
movement of sleepers
• It should be suitable for packing
• It should be economical in cost.

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Size of Ballast
• The size of the ballast used varies from ¾” to
2-1/2”.
• Stones of larger sizes are not desirable and 2”
as the maximum size is preferred as
interlocking of stones of this size is better than
the other.
• The best proportion is that varies from ¾” to
2” with reasonable proportion of intermediate
sizes.

Size of Ballast
• For BG Track with wooden sleepers = 2”

• For BG Track with cast iron sleepers = 1-1/2”

• Ballast under switches and crossing = 1”

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Factor Influencing Selection of

Ballast
• Wheel loads
• Traffic density
• Speed of train
• Durability under impact with least
possible disintegration both from
exposure to weather and mechanical wear
of packing tool
• Stability of material

Width of Ballast
• The width of the ballast layer is also important, as
the lateral strength of the track depend partly on the
quantity of ballast at the ends of sleepers.

• The lateral strength increases with increase in the

width of ballast layer but there is a limit beyond
which the ballast layer does not serve any useful
purpose.

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Width of Ballast
• The limit is from 15” to 17” from the end of the
sleeper.

• The distance from shoulder to shoulder is

BG ----- 11’-0”, MG --- 7’-6”, NG ------------- 6’-0”

• Experiments have shown that lateral strength of

track chiefly depends upon the sleeper spacing and
the value of grip they have in the ballast.

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Depth of Ballast
• The depth of the ballast under the sleepers is an
important factor in the load bearing capacity of
the track.

• The thickness of the ballast under the sleeper

bottom depends upon the traffic density, quality
of ballast and the formation soil.

• On new tracks ballast is usually laid in two layers

– The bottom ballast or the sub ballast
– Top ballast
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•Experiment has shown that the load carrying

capacity of the track with 9” depth of ballast
under the sleeper is 30% more than a track with
6” depth.
•In Pakistan, the minimum depth of ballast
required below sleeper is
For Main Line 12”-13”, Branch Line 8”-10”

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Quantity of Ballast
• Quantity of Ballast required for every foot
length of BG track is 12 c.ft

• Quantity of Ballast required for every foot

length of MG track is 8.25 c.ft

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Packing of Ballast
• Ballast is not packed throughout the length of the
sleeper because load is concentrated under the rails.
• The sleeper is packed from each rail seat to the end of
the sleeper and an equal distance in the inter-rail
space.
• The packing under the rail seats should be done first
and care should be taken not to strike the sleeper with
the beater, while packing.
• The sleepers should be sufficiently far apart so that
the sweep of beater is not hindered by the adjoining
sleeper.
• On curves, the inner or lower rail should be levelled
first and then the outer rail gives the correct super- 15
elevation.

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Mechanical Packing of Ballast

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Mechanical Packing of Ballast

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Packing of Ballast (cont’d)

• The ballast round the sleepers is pulled aside with
ballast forks or shovels; ballast is then removed to a
depth little below the bottom of sleeper. Ballast is
then packed under the sleepers with picked axes,
having one heavy blunt end and known as Beater
until the level of the rail is raised to the required
height.
• One man can pack a sleeper but when this is done, the
sleeper is likely to have an uneven bearing. A better
method is to position two men, back to back on the
same sleeper, one man in the inter rail space and the
other on the shoulder, and to make them pack
diagonally under the rail seat. This is sometimes known
as Scissors Packing.
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Boxing of Ballast
• Process of filling the ballast between the two
rails and forming the shoulders at each end of
the sleeper is called boxing of the ballast.
• On completion of packing, the ballast which is
scattered during packing, is gathered and put
back inorder to restore the profile of the ballast
layer.
• It is done by means of ballast forks not with
shovels which result in earth and weeds from
the formation being pulled up with the ballast
and fouling the ballast.

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Centre Bound Sleepers

• Under the rolling load, the ballast is pressed down under
the rail seats more than at the centre of the sleepers due to
the loads being greater under the rail seats.
• If slight lifts are not given under the rail seat periodically
to make up for the depressions, the sleeper instead of
being supported firmly at the rail seats are found to be
better supported at the centre.
• This causes rocking of the train and the sleeper is said to
be centre bound.
• Centre binding can be easily removed by loosening the
consolidated ballast at the centre of the sleeper. Centre
binding doesnot occur where a shallow central depression
is left in the ballast section.

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Renewal of Ballast
• The frequency of ballasting depend mainly on
the condition of the ballast but other factors
such as the riding quality of the track, traffic
density, prevailing train speed, sleeper and rail
renewal, and the condition of sub grade also
influence the selection of operation to be
followed. The quantity of the ballast get
decreased due to
– By crushing of ballast due to abrasion action of the
moving loads
– By sinking of the ballast in the formation

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Renewal of Ballast
• Fresh ballast has therefore to be added periodically so
that the layer of ballast retains the correct depth and
width.
Renewal of ballast follows the following procedure
• Take out ballast from the track using the ballast fork
• Screening of the existing ballast
• Estimate the additional amount of ballast to be added
• Additional is brought to the site through the material
trains
• Addition of the new ballast
• Packing and Boxing of ballast again

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Physical properties of Ballast

Ballast material should satisfy the following
physical properties
• Aggregate Abrasion value 30% max for BG
and MG and 35% max for NG.
• Aggregate impact value 20% max for BG and
NG and 30% max for NG.
• The water absorption should not be more than
5%.

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Size and Gradation of Ballast

Ballast should conform to following size and
gradation.
• Retained on 65 mm sq. mesh sieve -----------
NIL
• Retained on 40 mm sq. mesh sieve -----------
40-60%
• Retained on 20 mm sq. mesh sieve -----------
Not less than 98% for machine crushed and
not less than 95% for hand broken.
• Oversize and undersize ballast should only be
used after careful study of all the
characteristics of the quality of ballast. 25

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Tests for Ballast

• LOS Angles Abrasion Test
• Impact test
• Angularity Test
• Flakiness and Elongation Index test.

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Blanket/ Sub-Ballast
It is a layer of specified coarse grained material
interposed between the ballast and the
formation. It serves the following objectives
– To distribute the load on formation reducing the
subgrade stresses within the subgrade strength.

– To eliminate mud pumping

– To control the seasonal moisture content variation

in the subgrade.

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Cost of Ballast

Cost of ballast depends upon the following factors

• Initial cost as it comes to the road

• The distance from the source of supply to place

where used
• The method of handling

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Types of Ballast

Mud Ballast
• No ballast except the natural soil.

• Some times, the natural soil is sandy and

gravelly and it makes fairly good ballast .

• It is used for temporary track where cost

consideration necessitates its use.

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Types of Ballast
Mud Ballast

• It is used in initial stages of a new line till

the settling of the formation due to heavy
loads is stabilized.
• Stone ballast is subsequently placed over
consolidated and hardened earth.

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MUD BALLAST

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Cinder/ Coal Ash

• It is the residue of the burnt coal.
• These are available in large quantities
where coal used in locomotives.
• It has good drainage properties as it is
very porous.

• Due to its low cost, it is largely used in

yards.
• It cannot be used for main lines as it is
very soft, get easily reduced to powder
by packing and vibration.
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Cinder/ Coal Ash

• It is excellent for yards where it is used
as ballast under the track and it forms
excellent path between tracks for
shunting staff particularly in the rainy
weather as it does not retain water and is
not slippery.
• It is also used for blanketing the
formation for improving poor soil
conditions.

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Cinder/ Coal Ash

• It also provides in valuable help in repairing
formation or as ballast for packing track in an
emergency such as caused by heavy floods.

• Its greatest disadvantage is its corrosive

quality and it must not be used with steel
sleepers.

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Sand
• It is reasonably good material for the ballast.

• It is good material from the point of view of

drainage provided it is free of earth and
vegetation.

• It is also comparatively cheap. Coarse sand

should be preferred instead of fine sand.

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Sand
• It is suitable for C.I pot sleepers or where
intensity of traffic is low. It is used on branch
line or for feeder railways.

• Sand ballast is sometimes covered with

stones to prevent it blowing. The best sand
for ballast is that which contain a quantity of
fine gravel varying in size from 1/8” upwards.

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Sand
• A covering of sand ballast is
sometimes given on the tracks in yards
as it soaks up water and makes easier
walking for men working in the yards.

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Sand
The major disadvantages of using sand
as ballast are
• It can be easily blown or washed away

• It is easily disturbed by vibration

making the maintenance rather difficult.

• It causes heavy wear in vehicles as the

sand gets into the moving part and
causes friction.

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Gravels
• It is easily handled, provides almost perfect
drainage and is available from rivers beds.

• It disadvantage is the smoothness of gravel,

which rolls down easily due to vibration and
the packing under the sleeper get loose.

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Gravels
• If the gravel contains very fine stones, it
must be screened to ensure proper drainage
of track.

• Larger pieces are broken to smaller sizes.

• To increase interlocking of stones rounded

pieces are broken. On soft formation gravel
ballast give better results.

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Brick Ballast
• When no stone or substitute is available for
use as ballast, over-burnt bricks are broken
to small pieces and used as ballast.
• It powders easily and produces a dusty
track.
• It is very porous and has good drainage.
• It is economical in cost.

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Stone Ballast
• This is the best type of ballast available and is
almost provided in all the important tracks.

• The best stone for ballast is a non-porous, hard,

angular stone, which does not flake when
broken.

• It is easily shovelled with forks with the

advantage that fine chips and dirt are screened
out and provides excellent drainage.

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Stone Ballast
• It can withstand vibrations well and hold the
sleepers more firmly.

• Igneous rock such as quartz and granite make

excellent ballast. Sandstone and limestone,
which are soft, but make fairly good ballast.

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Stone Ballast

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Blast Furnace Ballast

• Blast furnace slag is the by-product of the
steel industry. It can be used as a ballast
material if available easily.

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Types of Formation
• Formation on Fill/ Embankment
– Formation in the shape of raised bank
constructed above the surface of natural
ground is embankment

• Formation in Cutting
– Formation below the level of natural ground

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Formation on Fill

Single Line BG Track

Double Line BG Track

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Formation in Cutting

Single Line BG Track

Double Line BG Track

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Type of soil for formation

• No skip grading is allowed
• If fines in the proposed formation material
are plastic these shall not exceed 5%
• If fines are non-plastic can be allowed upto
12%
• Uniformity coefficient in no case less than
4 preferably more than 7
• Co-efficient of curvature between 1-3

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PART ICLE SIZE DISTRIBUT ION CURVE

100

90
Gravel =2%
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Percent f iner by weight, %

70 Sand = 89%
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Silt & Clay = 9%
Curve A
40 .
Gravel = 2%
30 Sand= 95%
Silt & Clay = 5%
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0
10 1 0.1 0.01 0.001
Particle size, mm
GRAVEL SILT & CLAY
SAND

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• Sand
– Passing # 4 and Retained # 200

• Gravel
– Retained # 4

• Silt & Clay

– Passing # 200

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Which Soil to select

• Curve A • Curve B
– No gap grading – gap grading
– Fines = 9% – Fines = 5%
– LL = - – LL = -
– PL= - – PL= -
– PI = NP – PI = NP
– Cu = 3.3 – Cu = 1.5
– Cc = 1.2 – Cc = 0.98

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Earthwork For Formation

• To keep the permitted gradient and to avoid too
frequent changes of gradient it is usually necessary
for the level of formation to be below or above the
natural ground level in different places.

• The natural level must therefore be lowered by

cutting where it is high or raised by an embankment
where it is low.

• In extreme cases, where depth of cutting would be

excessive, tunnels are made through the ground.

• Where an embankment is not possible, the track is

supported on bridges.

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Earthwork For Formation (cont’d)

Soil exploration and feasibility study include
the following
• Permanent Land
• Temporary Land
• Formation
• Slopes of cutting/ embankment
• Side drains

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Permanent Land
• When a new railway line is planned a tentative
decision in respect of the proposed construction
is made based on preliminary studies.
• A certain strip of land on either side of the centre
line of the proposed track is acquired by the
railway department.
• The strip or land thus transferred to Railway by
the other department or acquired by the
personal possession is termed as the permanent
land.

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Permanent Land
The width of the permanent land depends upon
• Gauge of the track,
• Single line track or double line track
• Formation width
• Side slopes of the formations
• Side drains
• Side slopes of cutting or embankment
• Possibilities of further extension of track.

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Temporary Land
• In every rail project, the preparation of formation
is the first stage of the execution work.
• An ideal condition is that the amount of material
excavated from cutting is sufficient for
embankment.

• However, when excavation and embankment do

not balance it is better to temporarily acquire a
strip of land adjoining the permanent land from
where earth may be borrowed.

• It may be utilized as the spoil bank for the

excavated earth.

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Permanent Land in Embankment

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Permanent Land in Cutting

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Guide lines for Execution of Earth

Work
Control of Water along with the type of sub-grade
plays an important role in the construction of
formation
• Non cohesive soils – Gravels and Sands
• Cohesive soils – Silt/ Clay
• Organic Soils- Peat/ organic clay/ silt
• Cemented sedimentary rocks- sand stone,
limestone
• Metamorphic rocks-slate
• Igneous rocks- granite, basalt

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Soil Exploration and Surveys

• Geotechnical investigations are carried out for
identification and classification of soil.

• Boring and soil sampling is carried out from

the areas where borrow pits are to be located,
at intervals of about 0.5 km or where change of
strata occurs.

• In case sub soil problems are likely to be

encountered, the spacing of bore holes should
be reduced

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Soil Exploration and Surveys

• On doubling sampling should be done at
locations known to be trouble-some in the
existing track.

• Organic clays, silts and peat shall not be used

for making of embankment. Cutting in these
types of soils should be avoided.

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Design of Rail Formation

• Design should be such that the track is able to sustain track
geometry under anticipated traffic densities and axle loads
during service under most adverse conditions of weather. It
necessitates that

• Bank/ cutting is structurally stable

• Settlement in the sub-grade supporting soil masses are within

permissible limits

• There is no bearing capacity failure.

• Embankment soil shall attain moisture density equilibrium

during weather cycles.

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Compaction of Earth Work

• The method of compaction should satisfy
the conditions of economy and efficiency
of earthwork.

• Compaction cannot guarantee the stability

of formation particularly in the following
cases

• Excessive creep or slipping of slopes,

because long term shear strength and
water contents are not governed by the
compaction at the time of construction.

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Compaction of Earth Work

• Swelling and shrinkage of soils during wet
and dry seasons respectively, because
physiochemical properties of soil do not
get altered by compaction

• Mud pumping at ballast soil interface

• Settlement due to consolidation of bank

and sub-soil which can occur even for a
few years after construction of bank.

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Methods of Compaction
• Sandy silty soils with moderate cohesion
• Cohesive soils
• Cohesionless soils

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Compaction of sandy Silty soils with

moderate cohesion
• For such soils compaction in layers by rollers is
most effective.
• Vibratory rollers have been found more effective
than the static rollers
• Greater thickness of layers is allowed.

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Compaction of cohesive soils

• The main objective of compacting clayey soils is
to achieve a uniform mass of soil with no voids
between the chunks of clay which are placed
during the earth work.

• Rollers will sink into the soil at high moisture

content while chunks will not yield to rolling by
rollers if moisture content is low.
• Sheep foot rollers are most effective in breaking
the chunks and filling the large spaces.

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Compaction of cohesionless soils

• An effective method to compact cohesionless
soils is to use vibratory rollers.

• Moisture content control is not necessary.

• Poorly graded sands and gravels with uniformity

co-efficient less than 2 should not be used in
earth work for banks, to safeguard against
liquefaction under moving loads or due to an
earthquake.

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Cuttings
• If the subgrade soil is not fit to absorb
stresses of traffic, the cutting will be
made deeper to take a layer of blanket
or sub-ballast of adequate thickness.

• In cutting of slope, softening of the soil

occurs with the passage of time,
therefore, long term stability is vital for
designing of cutting.

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Unstable Formations
• Variation in the track level particularly
during extreme hot or wet season, causing
the need for speed restriction or increased
maintenance.
• Loss of ballast which sinks into the
formation
• Instability of bank slopes resulting in slips
and consequent disruption of traffic.

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Causes of Formation Troubles

• If any formation is suspected of giving any
trouble, the first step should be to identify the
cause of the trouble.

• To do so, the data regarding the ballast

penetration profiles along with the history of the
section and the trouble should be obtained and
analyzed.

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Causes of Formation Troubles

• Following are the most common causes
– Instability problems due to railway cutting or
embankment not being stable, resulting in excessive
deformation.

– Excessive swelling and shrinking of bank soil causing

large volumetric changes and thus unequal
settlement and heaving of the formation, disrupting
the track levels and alignment

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Causes of Formation Troubles

• Bearing capacity failure due to
– Inadequate formation width or bank slopes

– Inadequate thickness of the ballast and the blanket

• Other causes such as loss of formation soil

caused by porcupines, ants, rats, seepage

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Formation Failures

The failure of the formation is due to

• Failure of the natural ground under the
formation

• Failure of the fill material in the formation

• Failure of the top of formation

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Toe Failure
Slope Failure

Balancing Base Failure

Embankment

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Failure of Natural Ground (causes)

• The failure of the natural ground takes place due

to excessive settlement or the shear failure.

• The failure due to excessive settlement is

generally associated with the upheaval of the
ground beyond the toe of embankment.

• The shear failure normally takes place during

the construction or immediately after the
construction.

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Failure of Natural Ground

b) Remedial Measures

– Use of sand piles by the wooden logs

– Counter weight at the toe

– By providing sand drains which help in

quicker consolidation

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Failure of Fill Material (causes)

– Excessive loading which produces

excessive shear stresses in soil

– Steepness of the slopes

– Percolation of rain water

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Failure of Fill Material (Remedial )

– By flattening the slopes

– By providing steps in the foundations

– By providing stone pitching on the sides

– Providing proper surface and sub-

surface drainage.
– Height of the embankment may be
reduced

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Failure of Top of Formation

Causes

• Low bearing capacity of the soil

• Pumping action

• Weather effects

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Failure of Top of Formation

b) Remedial Measures

• Use good blanket material or sub-ballast at the

top of formation

• Use of geotextile fabrics.

– It will act as a separator between the top layer and
the ballast. Secondly, it will act as reinforcement to
the soil and will help better drainage.

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Formation treatment methods

Various methods are used to stabilize soil
embankments

• Stabilization by driving piles, poles or scrap rails

into the embankment of medium height
• By driving sand piles in the embankment
• Stabilization by pressure grouting
• Stabilization of the embankment soil by
chemicals
• Stabilization by use of geo-textiles
• Providing an inverted filter

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CONING OF WHEEL AND CANTING OF RAILS

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Coning of Wheels and SE of Rails

• The wheels of the railway vehicle are not made
flat but sloped like a cone inorder to facilitate the
wheel to move smoothly over the curve and also
on the straight path.
• On straight track coning of the wheels keeps
them central, thereby reducing the wear of
flanges
• If the wheels goes out of their central position
they have to cover unequal distances, thus one
wheel start sliding and they retreat to the central
position
• This helps in smooth riding

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CONING OF WHEEL AND CANTING OF RAILS

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Curves and Coning of Wheels

• On curves outer wheel has to cover more
distance as compared to inner wheel.
• Due to centrifugal force the vehicle tends
to move outwards
• To avoid this circumference of the outer
wheel is made great with respect to the
inner wheel by providing coning.
• Coning of the wheels causes wear and
tear due to slipping action

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Coning
• Coning is useful
– Helps the vehicle to negotiate curve smoothly
– It provides smooth rides
– Reduces wear and tear of wheel flanges

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Super Elevation of rail

• If the rails are laid flat, due to coning of
wheel they will be subjected to eccentric
loading.
• This would create problem both in rail
design and maintenance
• This will also cause unequal loading of
sleepers
• To avoid wear and tear, slope of 1 in 20 is
provided.

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