Geo and Enviro

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GEOGRAPHY AND ENVIRONMENT
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From
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
GEOGRAPHY AND COP 26 43
ENVIRONMENT NET-ZERO 45
COP 27 47
GEOGRAPHICAL FEATURES CARBON SINK 48
ICEBERG 01 NATIONAL HYDROGEN MISSION 50
ARCTIC REGION 02 ARCTIC COUNCIL 53
GLACIERS 04 LIGHTNING IN ARCTIC 55
AVALANCHE 05
CONSERVATION- FLORA AND
VOLCANO 07
FAUNA
VOLCANO DISTRIBUTION MAP 09
IUCN 55
EARTHQUAKE 09
CITES 56
CYCLONES 12
CONVENTION ON BIOLOGICAL 57
TIDAL WAVES 14
DIVERSITY
HIMALAYAS 15
INDIA STATE OF FOREST REPORT 59
ARRAVALIS 18 (ISFR) 2021
MONSOON 18 ANIMAL DISCOVERIES 2020 61
WESTERN DISTURBANCE 22 PROJECT TIGER 62
CLIMATE PROTECTION NTCA 64

SIMILIPAL TIGER RESERVE 65
CLIMATE CHANGE 23
SARISKA TIGER RESERVE 66
IPCC 25
SATKOSIA TIGER RESERVE 66
GREEN HOUSE EFFECT AND GREEN 26
HOUSE GASES TIGER COUNT IN KARNATAKA 67
CARBON CREDIT 27 BANDIPUR NATIONAL PARK 67
METHANE 28 NAGARHOLE TIGER RESERVE 67
CO2 BUDGET 29 RAIMONA NATIONAL PARK 68
CARBON CAPTURE AND STORAGE 30 DIHING PATKAI NATIONAL PARK 69

TECHNOLOGY PAKKE TIGER RESERVE 69
UNFCCC 32 MANAS NATIONAL PARK 70
REDD and REDD+ 33 OPERATION OLIVIA 70
OZONE LAYER 33 KAZIRANGA NATIONAL PARK 71
CLIMATE FINANCE 35 WORLD RHINO DAY 72
GRADED RESPONSE ACTION PLAN 38 WORLD ELEPHANT DAY 73
(GRAP) PROJECT ELEPHANT 73
GREEN ENERGY 39 MIKE: GLOBAL EFFORTS 74
OCEAN RENEWABLE ENERGY 41 ELEPHANT CORRIDORS 74
SDG GOAL 7: AFFORDABLE AND 43 AMUR FALCON 76
CLEAN ENERGY
BEHLER AWARD 76
SHIELD IAS RAPID REVISION BOOK -5

(GEOGRAPHY AND ENVIRONMENT) SPECIAL EDITION FOR PRELIMS 2022
RED-CROWNED ROOFED TURTLE 76 MAWMLUH CAVE 98
(BATAGUR KACHUGA) MAWBLEI OR GOD’S ROCK 98
NORTHERN RIVER TERRAPIN 77 THERRIAGHAT 98
(BATAGUR BASKA)
UMANANDA 99
BLACK SOFTSHELL TURTLE 77
MAJULI 99
(NILSSONIA NIGRICANS)
CHABIMURA 99
MANDA BUFFALO 78
UNAKOTI 99
GECKO 78
SANGETSAR TSO 100
CRIMSON ROSE 79
REIEK TLANG 100
BLACK PERCHER 79
NAGA HILL OPHIOLITE 100
PYROSTRIA LALLJI 80
STROMATOLITE PARK 101
POKEWOOD SPECIES 80
LOKTAK LAKE 101
WHITEFLIES 80
GIANT AFRICAN SNAIL 81
ACUTE BLADDER SNAIL 82 TRADITIONAL RAINWATER
RISE IN BUTTERFLY SPECIES 83 HARVESTING
INDIAN DESERT CAT 83 JHALARA 101
PANNA TIGER RESERVE 84 TALAB /BANDHI 101
GHARIAL 84 BAWARI 101
INDIAN PANGOLIN 85 TAANKA 101
HORNBILL FESTIVAL 86 AHAR PYNES 101
LESSER FLORICAN 86 JOHADS 102
CHILIKA LAKE 87 PANAM KENI 102
SPOT-BILLED PELICAN 87 KHADIN 102
SEPTEMERANTHUS PARASITIC PLANT 88 KUND 102
DENISON BARB 89 BAOLI 102
EASTERN SWAMP DEER 89 NADI 103
ROOT BRIDGES 90 BHANDARA PHAD 103
NEW PLANT SPECIES 91 ZING 103
BHUNGLOTI CREEPER 91 KUHLS 103
TEMPLE TURTLE 92 ZABO 103
BIRD ATLAS OF KERALA 93 BAMBOO DRIP IRRIGATION 104
RAMGARH VISHDHARI SANCTUARY 93 JACKWELL 104
SIKKIM: FLORA CAPITAL 94 RAMTEK MODEL 104
DEEPER BEEL 94 PAT SYSTEM 104
SUNDERBANS 95 ERI 104
CORALS 96 BIO-DECOMPOSER 105
THINGS TO KNOW CIRCULAR ECONOMY 105

INDIA PLASTIC PACT 107
GEO-TOURISM SITES 98
SRISAILAM DAM 107

MEKEDATU PROJECT 108
IMPORTANT MAPS
UNCLOS 109
CORAL MAP OF INDIA 118
ETHANOL 110
MOUNTAINS MAP OF INDIA 119
OIL PALM 112
RIVERS MAP OF INDIA 120
INDIAN ENVIRONMENT SERVICE 113
CLIMATE MAP OF INDIA 121
ZERO BUDGET NATURAL FARMING 115
SOIL MAP OF INDIA 122
HOGENAKKAL WATER PROJECT 116
MAJOR MOUNTAIN PASSES 123
MICROPLASTICS 116
TOP TEN NATIONAL PARKS 123
BRAHMANI RIVER 117
WESTERN GHATS MAP 124
TIGER RESERVES MAP 125
BIOSPHERE RESERVES MAP 126

GEOGRAPHY AND ENVIRONMENT
(SPECIAL EDITION FOR PRELIMS 2022)
GEOGRAPHICAL FEATURES
ICEBERG
o Icebergs are pieces of ice that formed on land and float in an ocean or lake. Icebergs come in all
shapes and sizes, from ice-cube-sized chunks to ice islands the size of a small country.
o The term "iceberg" refers to chunks of ice larger than 5 meters (16 feet) across.
o Smaller icebergs, known as bergy bits and growlers, can be especially dangerous for ships
because they are harder to spot.
o The North Atlantic and the cold waters surrounding Antarctica are home to most of the icebergs on
Earth.
How do icebergs form, and where do they go?

o Icebergs form when chunks of ice calve, or break off, from glaciers, ice shelves, or a larger iceberg.
o Icebergs travel with
ocean currents,
sometimes smashing
up against the shore
or getting caught in
shallow waters.
o When an iceberg
reaches warm waters,
the new climate
attacks it from all
sides.
o On the iceberg
surface, warm air
melts snow and ice
into pools called
melt ponds that can
trickle through the
iceberg and widen
cracks. At the same
time, warm water
laps at the iceberg
edges, melting the ice
and causing chunks
of ice to break off. On
the underside, warmer waters melt the iceberg from the bottom up.
WHATSAPP – 7303692587 SHIELD IAS RAPID REVISION BOOK-5 FOR PRELIMS 2022 1
GEOGRAPHY AND ENVIRONMENT (SPECIAL EDITION)
Why are icebergs important?

o Icebergs pose a danger to ships traversing the North Atlantic and the waters around Antarctica. After
the Titanic sank near Newfoundland in 1912, the United States and twelve other countries formed
the International Ice Patrol to warn ships of icebergs in the North Atlantic.
o The International Ice Patrol uses airplanes and radars to track icebergs that float into major shipping
lanes. The U.S. National Ice Center uses satellite data to monitor icebergs near Antarctica.
However, it only tracks icebergs larger than 500 square meters (5,400 square feet).
o Icebergs can also serve as tools for scientists, who study them to learn more about climate and ocean
processes.
Why do scientists study icebergs?

o Climate scientists study icebergs as they break up for clues to the processes that cause ice shelf
collapse. Scientists have noticed that the way icebergs break up when they reach warmer waters
mirrors the disintegration of Antarctic ice shelves. By studying the factors that cause icebergs to
break up, researchers hope to better understand the influences that lead to ice shelf breakup, and to
better predict how ice shelves will respond to a warming climate.
o Oceanographers follow icebergs because the cold freshwater they contribute to the sea can influence
currents and ocean circulation far away from their origins.
o Biologists study icebergs to find out how they influence ocean life. As icebergs melt, they leak
nutrients into the ocean around them. Recent studies have shown that the water surrounding
icebergs teems with plankton, fish, and other sea life.
ARCTIC REGION
o The Arctic region, or the Arctic, is a geographic region spreading around the North Pole. There is no
single correct definition of the region as the southern boundary varies.
Key ways to define the Arctic:
o The Arctic Circle (66 ° 33'N) delimits the Arctic in terms of solar radiation.
o In theory, areas north of the Arctic Circle have at least one day without daylight in the winter and at
least one nightless night in the summer. In practice, this does not happen everywhere because the
surface of the earth is uneven, and the light refracts in the atmosphere.
o Based on temperature, the monthly average temperature in the Arctic is below + 10 ° C
throughout the year, even in summer.
o The forest line follows a temperature-defined area. The forest line is not a narrow line but a zone
tens of kilometres wide between the northern coniferous forest and the tundra. In this demarcation,
the Arctic is predominantly wooded tundra and glaciers.
o Permafrost increases the area of Russian Arctic compared to the other delimitations.
Permafrost is soil that stays frozen for at least two consecutive years.
o The ice cover determines the Arctic nature of marine areas.
o Sea ice is highest in February-March and lowest in September. The surface of the Arctic ice
is monitored almost in real time by satellites.
o Culturally defined, the Arctic covers the homelands of northern indigenous peoples.
o Political delimitations vary according to how they serve, for example, the interests of states or
international cooperation.
o As the climate warms, the Arctic shrinks if defined by temperature, forest line, permafrost, or ice
cover. Cultural and political boundaries also vary. The Arctic Circle is the most permanent of the
delimitations, although also the polar circle moves very slowly due to the variation of the Earth's
axial tilt.
Interesting facts and figures about the Arctic
1. The Arctic is regarded as containing some of the last physically undisturbed marine spaces on
earth.
2. Shipping (unique ships) within the Arctic Polar Code area has increased by 25% over 6 years from
2013-2019. A majority of these vessels are fishing vessels.
3. The central feature of the Arctic is the Arctic Ocean. The Arctic Ocean has the widest
continental shelf of all the oceans.
4. The Arctic sea ice has diminished from 6,1 million sq.km. in 1999 to 4,3 million sq.km.
in 2019.
5. Boreal forests of the Arctic cover
about 17% of the global land area,
representing the largest natural
forests in the world.
6. Together with the Antarctic, the
Arctic contains the largest
freshwater resource on Earth.
7. Seven of the world’s ten
largest wilderness areas are
located in the Arctic region.
8. The total catch of wild fish in the
Arctic mounted to 10% of the world
catch .
9. The Arctic as an area is essentially
an ocean surrounded by the land
north of the Arctic circle (66032' N)
that covers a region of 33 million
Km2 , larger than Africa or Asia.
10. The United States Geological
Survey (USGS) estimates that 30
per cent of the world’s
undiscovered natural gas is in the
Arctic, mostly on the continental
shelves beneath the Arctic Ocean.
11. More than 70 per cent of the undiscovered oil resources are estimated to occur in northern Alaska,
the Amerasian Basin, the eastern side of Greenland, the eastern Barents Sea region, and the Davis
Strait of Greenland and Canada.
12. An estimated 84 per cent of the undiscovered oil and gas in the Arctic occurs offshore.
13. The Arctic region is characterized by some of the largest continuous intact ecosystems on the
planet, but is facing increasingly larger threat.
GLACIERS
o Ice acts like a protective cover over the Earth and our oceans. These bright white spots reflect
excess heat back into space and keep the planet cooler. In theory, the Arctic remains colder
than the equator because more of the heat from the sun is reflected off the ice, back into space.
o Glaciers around the world can range from ice that is several hundred to several thousand years old
and provide a scientific record of how climate has changed over time.
o Through their study, we gain valuable information about the extent to which the planet is rapidly
warming. They provide scientists a record of how climate has changed over time.
o Today, about 10% of land area on Earth is covered with glacial ice. Almost 90% is in
Antarctica, while the remaining 10% is in the Greenland ice cap.
o Rapid glacial melt in Antarctica and Greenland also influences ocean currents, as
massive amounts of very cold glacial-melt water entering warmer ocean waters is slowing ocean
currents. And as ice on land melts, sea levels will continue to rise.
Difference between sea ice and glaciers

o Sea ice forms and melts strictly in the ocean whereas glaciers are formed on land. Icebergs are
chunks of glacial ice that break off glaciers and fall into the ocean.
o When glaciers melt, because that water is stored on land, the runoff significantly increases the
amount of water in the ocean, contributing to global sea level rise.
o Sea ice, on the other hand, is often compared to ice cubes in a glass of water: when it melts, it
does not directly change the level of water in the glass. Instead, depleting Arctic sea ice
triggers a host of other devastating consequences—from depleting available ice on which walrus can
haul out or polar bears hunt to changing weather systems around the world by altering the pattern of
the Jet stream.
Glacier in Antarctica Sea ice in Finland
Why are glaciers melting?

o Since the early 1900s, many glaciers around the world have been rapidly melting. Human activities
are at the root of this phenomenon. Specifically, since the industrial revolution, carbon dioxide and
other greenhouse gas emissions have raised temperatures, even higher in the poles, and as a result,
glaciers are rapidly melting, calving off into the sea and retreating on land.
o Even if we significantly curb emissions in the coming decades, more than a third of the world’s
remaining glaciers will melt before the year 2100. When it comes to sea ice, 95% of the oldest and
thickest ice in the Arctic is already gone.
o Scientists project that if emissions continue to rise unchecked, the Arctic could be ice free in the
summer as soon as the year 2040 as ocean and air temperatures continue to rise rapidly.
Effects of melting glaciers on sea level rise

o Melting glaciers add to rising sea levels, which in turn increases coastal erosion and
elevates storm surge as warming air and ocean temperatures create more frequent and intense
coastal storms like hurricanes and typhoons. Specifically, the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets are
the largest contributors of global sea level rise. Right now, the Greenland ice sheet is disappearing
four times faster than in 2003 and already contributes 20% of current sea level rise.
o How much and how quickly these Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets melt in the future will largely
determine how much ocean levels rise in the future. If emissions continue to rise, the current rate of
melting on the Greenland ice sheet is expected to double by the end of the century. Alarmingly, if all
the ice on Greenland melted, it would raise global sea levels by 20 feet.
How do melting sea ice and glaciers affect weather patterns?

o Today, the Arctic is warming twice as fast as anywhere on earth, and the sea ice there is
declining by more than 10% every 10 years. As this ice melts, darker patches of ocean start to emerge,
eliminating the effect that previously cooled the poles, creating warmer air temperatures and in turn
disrupting normal patterns of ocean circulation. Research shows the polar vortex is appearing
outside of the Arctic more frequently because of changes to the jet stream, caused by a combination
of warming air and ocean temperatures in the Arctic and the tropics.
o The glacial melt we are witnessing today in Antarctic and Greenland is changing the circulation
of the Atlantic Ocean and has been linked to collapse of fisheries in the Gulf of Maine and
more destructive storms and hurricanes around the planet.
Effects of melting glaciers and sea ice loss on humans and wildlife
o What happens in these places has consequences across the entire globe. As sea ice and glaciers melt
and oceans warm, ocean currents will continue to disrupt weather patterns worldwide.
o Industries that thrive on vibrant fisheries will be affected as warmer waters change where and when
fish spawn. Coastal communities will continue to face billion-dollar disaster recovery bills as
flooding becomes more frequent and storms become more intense.
o People are not the only ones impacted. In the Arctic, as sea ice melts, wildlife like walrus are losing
their home and polar bears are spending more time on land, causing higher rates of conflict between
people and bears.
AVALANCHE
o An avalanche is a mass of snow that slides rapidly down an inclined slope, such as a
mountainside or the roof of a building. Avalanches are triggered by either natural forces (e.g.
precipitation, wind drifting snow, rapid temperature changes) or human activity. In mountainous
terrain, they are among the most serious hazards to human life and property. Avalanches are
sometimes called snowslides.
o An avalanche occurs when stress from the pull of gravity and/or applied load (such as a
skier) exceeds the strength of the snow cover.
o Strength is derived from bonds between snow grains. A slab (a cohesive layer within the
snowpack) avalanche can occur when the following three conditions are present: – A snow-
covered slope – A slab of snow resting on top of a weak layer of snow – A triggering
mechanism.
o About 90% of all avalanches begin on slopes of 30-45 degrees, and about 98% occur on slopes of
25-50 degrees. Avalanches strike most often on slopes above timberline that face away from
prevailing winds (leeward slopes tend to collect snow blowing from the windward sides of ridges).
However, it is possible for avalanches to run on small slopes well below timberline, such as in gullies,
road cuts, and small openings in the trees.
o Very dense trees can help anchor the snow to steep slopes and prevent avalanches from starting;
however, avalanches can release and travel through a moderately dense forest.
Loose Snow Avalanche: They are

common on steep slopes and are seen after a
fresh snowfall. Since the snow does not have
time to settle down fully or has been made
loose by sunlight, the snow-pack is not very
solid. Such avalanches have a single point of
origin, from where they widen as they travel
down the slope.
Slab Avalanche: Loose Snow Avalanches

in turn could cause a Slab Avalanche, which
are characterized by a the fall of a large
block of ice down the slopes. Thin slabs
cause fairly small amounts of damage, while
the thick ones are responsible for MANY
FATALITIES.
Powder Snow Avalanche: A mix of the

other forms, Loose Snow and Slab. The
bottom half of this avalanche consists of a
slab or a dense concentration of snow, ice
and air. Above this is a cloud of powdered
snow, which can snowball into a larger
avalanche as it progresses down the slope.
The speed attained by this avalanche can
cross 190 miles per hour and they can cross
large distances.
Wet Snow Avalanche: These are quite

dangerous as they travel slowly due to
friction, which collects debris from the path
fairly easily. The avalanche comprises of
water and snow at the beginning, but
understanding of avalanches has showed us
that it can pick up speed with ease.
VOLCANO
o Volcanoes are openings, or vents where lava, tephra (small rocks), and steam erupt on to the
Earth's surface. Many mountains form by
folding, faulting, uplift, and erosion of
the Earth's crust.
o Volcanic terrain, however, is built
by the slow accumulation of
erupted lava.
o The vent may be visible as a small bowl
shaped depression at the summit of a
cone or shield-shaped mountain.
Through a series of cracks within and
beneath the volcano, the vent connects to
one or more linked storage areas of
molten or partially molten rock (magma).
This connection to fresh magma allows
the volcano to erupt over and over again
in the same location. In this way, the
volcano grows ever larger, until it is no
longer stable. Pieces of the volcano
collapse as rock falls or as landslides.
How do volcanoes erupt?
o Molten rock below the surface of the Earth that rises in volcanic vents is known as magma, but after
it erupts from a volcano it is called lava.
o Magma is made of molten rock, crystals, and dissolved gas. The molten rock is made of the chemicals
oxygen, silicon, aluminum, iron, magnesium, calcium, sodium, potassium, titanium, and manganese.
After cooling, liquid magma may form crystals of various minerals until it becomes completely solid
and forms an igneous or magmatic rock.
o Originating many tens of miles beneath the ground, magma is lighter than surrounding solid rock. It
is driven towards Earth's surface by buoyancy, it is lighter than the surrounding rock, and by
pressure from gas within it. Magma forces its way upward and may ultimately break though weak
areas in the Earth's crust. If so, an eruption begins.
o Magma can be erupted in a variety of ways. Sometimes molten rock simply pours from the vent as
fluid lava flows. It can also shoot violently into the air as dense clouds of rock shards (tephra) and
gas. Larger fragments fall back around the vent, and clouds of tephra may move down the slope of
the volcano under the force of gravity. Ash, tiny pieces of tephra the thickness of a strand of hair,
may be carried by the wind only to fall to the ground many miles away. The smallest ash particles
may be erupted miles into the sky and carried many times around the world by winds high in the
atmosphere before they fall to the ground.
What are the main types of volcanoes?

o Cinder cones are the simplest type of volcano. They are made of small pieces of solid lava,
called cinder, that are erupted from a vent.
o The ground shakes as magma rises from within the Earth. Then, a powerful blast throws molten
rocks, ash, and gas into the air. The rocks cool quickly in the air and fall to the earth to break into
small pieces of bubbly cinder that pile up around the vent.
o They accumulate as a small cinder cone that can be as high as a thousand feet above the surrounding
ground. If the wind is blowing during the eruption, cinder is carried downwind before its deposited
into an oval shape. Eruptions that form cinder cones also feed lava flows that spread outward from
the eruptive vent. When you climb a cinder cone you can usually find the bowl-shaped crater
marking the location of the vent.
o If eruptions of cinder and lava flows happen repeatedly from the same vent, the overlapping layers
can form a composite volcano (stratovolcano).
o Thousands of cinder cones exist in western North America and in other volcanic areas of the world.
Composite Volcano (Stratovolcano)

o Some of the Earth's grandest mountains are composite volcanoes—sometimes called
stratovolcanoes.
o They are usually tall with steep even sides and are made out of repeating layers of lava flows, volcanic
ash, cinders, blocks, and volcanic bombs. Some composite volcanoes rise over 8,000 feet above their
surroundings, but they reach much higher elevations when compared to the level of the sea (called
above sea level).
o Ojos del Salado in Chile is the tallest composite volcano on Earth with a summit elevation (height
above sea level) of 22,615 feet; the tallest in the U.S. is Mount Rainier in Washington State with a
summit elevation of 14,410 feet. Some of the most famous and beautiful mountains in the world are
composite volcanoes, including Mount Fuji in Japan, Mount Cotopaxi in Ecuador, Mount Shasta in
California, Mount Hood in Oregon, and Mount St. Helens in Washington.
o Stratovolcanoes can erupt with great violence. Stratovolcanoes are considered the most
violent.
Other volcanic landforms

Besides well-known symmetrical volcanoes such as Mount Fuji in Japan and Kilimanjaro in
Tanzania, volcanic activity is responsible for several other distinctive landforms.
o Calderas: A caldera is a bowl-shaped depression formed when a volcano collapses into the
void left when its magma chamber is emptied. There are three types:
 The first type is a crater lake caldera. This is the result of a stratovolcano collapsing into its
magma chamber during a violent eruption.
 Basaltic calderas have a concentric ring pattern resulting from a series of gradual collapses rather
than a single event. They are often found at the summit of shield volcanoes such as the craters at the
tops of Mauna Loa and Kilauea.
 Resurgent calderas are the largest volcanic structures on Earth. They are the result of
catastrophic eruptions that dwarf any eruptions ever recorded. Yellowstone caldera, sometimes
called a "super volcano," is one example.
o Volcanic plugs: When magma solidifies in the fissure of a volcano the hard dense rock may form a
"neck" that remains when softer surrounding rock has been eroded away.
o Tuff cones: also known as maars, tuff cones are shallow, flat-floored craters that scientists think
formed as a result of a violent expansion of magmatic gas or steam. Maars occur geologically young
volcanic regions of the world such as the western United States and the Eifel region of Germany.
o Lava plateaus: Shield volcanoes may erupt along lines of fissures rather than a central vent spilling
liquid lava in successive layers. Over time, these layers form broad plateaus such as the Columbia
Plateau. These plateaus are often cut by deep canyons that expose the layers of rock.
VOLCANO DISTRIBUTION MAP
EARTHQUAKE
o An earthquake happens when two blocks of the earth suddenly slip past one another.
o The surface where they slip is called the fault or fault plane.
o The location below the earth’s surface where the earthquake starts is called the hypocenter, and
the location directly above it on the surface of the earth is called the epicenter.
o Sometimes an earthquake has foreshocks.

These are smaller earthquakes that happen
in the same place as the larger earthquake
that follows. Scientists can’t tell that an
earthquake is a foreshock until the larger
earthquake happens. The largest, main
earthquake is called the mainshock.
o Mainshocks always have aftershocks that
follow. These are smaller earthquakes that
occur afterwards in the same place as the
mainshock. Depending on the size of the
mainshock, aftershocks can continue for
weeks, months, and even years after the
mainshock.
What causes earthquakes and where

do they happen?
o The earth has four major layers: the inner core, outer core, mantle and crust. The crust
and the top of the mantle make up a thin skin on the surface of our planet.
o But this skin is not all in one piece – it is made up of many pieces like a puzzle covering the surface of
the earth. Not only that, but these puzzle pieces keep slowly moving around, sliding past one another
and bumping into each other.
o These pieces are called tectonic plates, and the edges of the plates are called the plate
boundaries.
o The plate boundaries are made up of many faults, and most of the earthquakes around the world
occur on these faults.
o Since the edges of the plates are rough, they get stuck while the rest of the plate keeps moving.
Finally, when the plate has moved far enough, the edges unstick on one of the faults and there is an
earthquake.
Why does the earth shake when there is an
earthquake?
o While the edges of faults are stuck together, and the
rest of the block is moving, the energy that would
normally cause the blocks to slide past one another is
being stored up. When the force of the moving blocks
finally overcomes the friction of the jagged edges of
the fault and it unsticks, all that stored up energy is
released.
o The energy radiates outward from the fault in
all directions in the form of seismic waves like
ripples on a pond. The seismic waves shake the earth
as they move through it, and when the waves reach
the earth’s surface, they shake the ground and
anything on it, like our houses and us!
How are earthquakes recorded?

o Earthquakes are recorded by instruments called seismographs.
o The recording they make is called a seismogram. The seismograph has a base that sets firmly in
the ground, and a heavy weight that hangs free. When an earthquake causes the ground to shake, the
base of the seismograph shakes too, but the hanging weight does not. Instead the spring or string
that it is hanging from absorbs all the movement.
o The difference in position between the shaking part of the
seismograph and the motionless part is what is recorded.
How can scientists tell where the earthquake

happened?
o Seismograms come in handy for locating earthquakes too,
and being able to see the P wave and the S wave is
important.
o P waves are also faster than S waves, and this fact is what
allows us to tell where an earthquake was. To understand how
this works, let’s compare P and S waves to lightning and
thunder. Light travels faster than sound, so during a
thunderstorm you will first see the lightning and then you will
hear the thunder. If you are close to the lightning, the thunder
will boom right after the lightning, but if you are far away
from the lightning, you can count several seconds before you hear the thunder. The further you are
from the storm, the longer it will take between the lightning and the thunder.
o P waves are like the lightning, and S waves are like the thunder. The P waves travel faster
and shake the ground where you are first. Then the S waves follow and shake the ground also. If you
are close to the earthquake, the P and S wave will come one right after the other, but if you are far
away, there will be more time between the two.
o P Waves alternately compress and stretch the crustal material parallel to the direction
they are propagating.
o S Waves cause the crustal material to move back and forth perpendicular to the
direction they are travelling.
o By looking at the amount of time between the P and S wave on a seismogram recorded on a
seismograph, scientists can tell how far away the earthquake was from that location. However, they
can’t tell in what direction from the seismograph the earthquake was, only how far away it was. If
they draw a circle on a map around the station where the radius of the circle is the determined
distance to the earthquake, they know the earthquake lies somewhere on the circle.
But where?
o Scientists then use a method called triangulation to determine exactly where the earthquake was.
o It is called triangulation because a triangle has three sides, and it takes three seismographs to
locate an earthquake. If you draw a circle on a map around three different seismographs where
the radius of each is the distance from that station to the earthquake, the intersection of those three
circles is the epicenter.
CYCLONES
About Tropical Cyclone
o Tropical cyclones are one of the biggest threats to life and property even in the formative stages of
their development.
o They include a number of different hazards that can individually cause significant impacts on
life and property, such as storm surge, flooding, extreme winds, tornadoes and lighting.
Combined, these hazards interact with one another and substantially increase the potential for loss
of life and material damage.
Characteristics of tropical cyclones

o A tropical cyclone is a rapid rotating storm originating over tropical oceans from where it
draws the energy to develop.
o It has a low pressure centre and clouds spiraling towards the eyewall surrounding the
"eye", the central part of the system where the weather is normally calm and free of clouds. Its
diameter is typically around 200 to 500 km, but can reach 1000 km.
o A tropical cyclone brings very violent winds, torrential rain, high waves and, in some cases,
very destructive storm surges and coastal flooding.
o The winds blow counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the
Southern Hemisphere. Tropical cyclones above a certain strength are given names in the
interests of public safety.
o About 85 tropical storms form annually over the warm tropical oceans of the globe. Among these, a
little more than half (45) become tropical cyclone/hurricane/typhoon.
o Out of the 85 tropical storms, 72% form in the northern hemisphere, and 28% in the southern
hemisphere.
The different terminologies

o In the Caribbean Sea, the Gulf of Mexico, the North Atlantic Ocean and the eastern and central
North Pacific Ocean, it is called "hurricane"
o In the western North Pacific, it is called "typhoon"
o In the Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea, it is called "cyclone"
o In western South Pacific and southeast Indian Ocean, it is called “severe tropical cyclone”
o In the southwest Indian Ocean, it is called “tropical cyclone”
Classification of tropical cyclones

o Tropical depression is when the maximum sustained wind speed is less than 63 km/h.
o Tropical storm is when the maximum sustained wind speed is more than 63 km/h. It is then also
given a name.
o Hurricane, typhoon, tropical cyclone, very severe cyclonic storm - depending on the basin -
when the maximum sustained wind speed exceeds 116 km/h or 63 knots.
Naming of cyclones
The WMO/ Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP) Panel on
Tropical Cyclones at its twenty-seventh Session held in 2000 in Muscat, agreed in principal to assign
names to the tropical cyclones in the Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea. The naming of the tropical
cyclones over north Indian Ocean
commenced from September
2004, with names provided by
eight Members. Since then, five
countries have joined the Panel.
o The Panel Member’s names
are listed alphabetically
country wise.
o The names will be used
sequentially column wise.
o The first name will start
from the first row of
column one and continue
sequentially to the last row in
the column thirteen.
o The names of tropical
cyclones over the north
Indian Ocean will not be
repeated, once used it will cease to be used again. The name should be new. It should not be there
in the already existing list of any of the RSMCs worldwide including RSMC New Delhi.
o The name of a tropical cyclone from south China Sea which crosses Thailand and emerge into the
Bay of Bengal as a Tropical cyclone will not be changed.
The RSMC New Delhi Tropical Cyclone Center is responsible to name the tropical cyclones
that have formed over the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea when they have reached the relevant
intensity.
TIDAL WAVES
o Tides are the daily rise and fall of sea level at any given place. The pull of the Moon’s gravity on
Earth is the primarily cause of tides and the pull of the Sun’s gravity on Earth is the secondary
cause.
o The Moon has a greater effect because, although it is much smaller than the Sun, it is much closer.
The Moon’s pull is about twice that of the Sun’s.
Daily Tide Patterns

o To understand the tides it is easiest to start with the effect of the Moon on Earth. As the Moon
revolves around our planet, its gravity pulls Earth toward it. The lithosphere is unable to move much
but the water above it is pulled by the gravity and a bulge is created. This bulge is the high tide
beneath the Moon.
o The Moon’s gravity then pulls the Earth toward it, leaving the water on the opposite side of the
planet behind. This creates a second high tide bulge on the opposite side of Earth from the Moon.
These two water bulges on opposite sides of the Earth aligned with the Moon are the high tides.
o Since so much water is pulled into the two high tides, low tides form between the two high
tides. As the Earth rotates beneath the Moon, a single spot will experience two high tides and two
low tides every day.
o The tidal range is the difference between the ocean level at high tide and the ocean at low tide. The
tidal range in a location depends on a number of factors, including the slope of the seafloor. Water
appears to move a greater distance on a gentle slope than on a steep slope.
Monthly Tidal Patterns

o Waves are additive so when the gravitational pull of the Sun and Moon are in the same direction, the
high tides add and the low tides add.
o Highs are higher and lows are lower than at other times through the month. These more extreme
tides, with a greater tidal range, are called spring tides.
o Spring tides don’t just occur in the spring; they occur whenever the Moon is in a new-moon or
full-moon phase, about every 14 days.
o Neap tides are tides that have the smallest tidal range, and they occur when the Earth, the Moon,
and the Sun form a 90 degree angle. They occur exactly halfway between the spring tides, when the
Moon is at first or last quarter.
o How do the tides add up to create neap tides? The Moon’s high tide occurs in the same place
as the Sun’s low tide and the Moon’s low tide in the same place as the Sun’s high tide. At neap tides,
the tidal range relatively small.
o High tides occur about twice a day, about every 12 hours and 25 minutes. The reason is that the
Moon takes 24 hours and 50 minutes to rotate once around the Earth so the Moon is over the same
location 24 hours and 50 minutes later. Since high tides occur twice a day, one arrives each 12 hours
and 25 minutes.
Note: Some coastal areas do not follow this pattern at all. These coastal areas may have one high
and one low tide per day or a different amount of time between two high tides. These differences are
often because of local conditions, such as the shape of the coastline that the tide is entering.
HIMALAYAS
Geography
o The Himalayas stretch across
the north-eastern portion of
India. They cover approximately
1,500 mi (2,400 km) and pass
through the nations of India,
Pakistan, Afghanistan, China,
Bhutan and Nepal.
o The Himalayan range is made
up of three parallel ranges often
referred to as the Greater
Himalayas, the Lesser
Himalayas, and the Outer
Himalayas.
Ecology
o While intimidating mountains like Everest and K2 tend to dominate our perceptions of the region,
the Himalayas are rich in biodiversity. Climates range from tropical at the base of the mountains to
perennial snow and ice at the highest elevations.
o These complex and diverse eco-regions are interconnected: an ecological threat to one is ultimately a
threat to many. Here are just a few examples of Himalayan ecology:
Montane Grasslands and Shrublands:

 Western alpine shrubs and meadows can be found between 9,850 and 16,400 ft.
 These areas tend to have cold winters and mild summers that allow for plant growth.
 Rhododendron plants cover the lower shrublands, while the alpine meadows, directly above, host a
range of flora in the warmer months.
 Animals found in this region include the snow leopard, Himalayan tahr, musk deer, and pikas.
Temperate Coniferous Forest:

 In the northeast, temperate sub-alpine conifer forests are found at elevations of 8,200 to 13,800 ft.
 Located in the inner valley area, these forests are protected from harsh monsoon conditions by
surrounding mountain ranges.
 The dominant tree types are pine, hemlock, spruce, and fir. Animals found in this region include red
pandas, takins, and musk deer.
Temperate Broadleaf and Mixed Forests:

 Found in middle elevations of 6,600 to 9,800 ft. in the eastern region are broadleaf and coniferous
forests.
 These forests receive almost 80 inches of annual rainfall, mostly during the monsoon season.
 In addition to indigenous oaks and maples, plants like orchids, lichen, and ferns also grow in the
area.
 A huge range of wildlife, including over 500 species of birds, are found here during the cooler
seasons before they migrate to higher elevations to escape the hot summers. This is also the primary
home for golden langur monkeys.
Tropical and Sub-tropical Broadleaf Forests:

 Located at 1,650 to 3,300 ft. along a narrow strip of the outer Himalayan range are the Himalayan
sub-tropical broadleaf forests.
 Here there is a wide range of plant life thanks to the areas varied topography, soil types, and rainfall
levels.
 Forest types include subtropical dry evergreen, northern dry mixed deciduous forests, moist mixed
deciduous forests, subtropical broadleaf forests, northern tropical semi-evergreen forests, and
northern tropical wet evergreen forests. Wildlife includes many threatened species including tigers
and Asian elephants. More than 340 different species of birds can be found in this region.
Important peaks:
 Mount Everest at 29,029 ft (8,848 m) is not only the highest peak in the Himalayas, but the highest
peak on the entire planet.
 Other famous peaks include Karakora (K2), Kailash, Kanchenjunga, Nanga Parbat, Annapurna, and
Manasklu.
Rivers:
 The Himalayas are the source for the Indus, the Yangtze and the Ganga-Brahmaputra. All three are
major river systems for the continent of Asia.
 The main rivers sourced in Himalayas are the Ganges, Indus, Yarlung, Yangtze, Yellow, Mekong, and
Nujiang.
Glaciers:
 The Himalayas are the third largest deposit of ice and snow in the world, after Antarctica and the
Arctic. There are approximately 15,000 glaciers located throughout the range.
 At 48 miles (72 km) in length, the Himalayan Siachen glacier is the largest glacier outside the poles.
 Other notable glaciers located in the Himalayas include the Baltoro, Biafo, Nubra, and Hispur.
Additional Facts:
o The Himalayas are the result of tectonic plate motions that collided India into Tibet.
o Because of the great amount of tectonic motion still occurring at the site, the Himalayas have a
proportionally high number of earthquakes and tremors.
o The Himalayas are one of the youngest mountain ranges on the planet.
o The range affects air and water circulation systems, impacting the weather conditions in the
region.
o The Himalayas cover approximately 75% of Nepal.
o Serving as a natural barrier for tens of thousands of years, the range prevented early interactions
between the people of India and the people of China and Mongolia.
o Mt. Everest was named after Colonel Sir George Everest, a British surveyor who was based in India
during the early-to-mid-nineteenth century.
o The Nepalese call Mt. Everest “Samgarmatha” which can be translated as “Goddess of the Universe”
or “Forehead of the Sky.”
o Despite its name, the Snow Leopard – a Himalayan local – is actually most closely related to the
Tiger.
ARRAVALIS
Large chunks of forests and the Aravalis in Gurugram and Faridabad could lose protection from
construction under the National Conservation Zone as defined in the Regional Plan-2021, if the
provisions in the Draft Regional Plan-2041 are implemented, fear environmentalists, urban planners
and analysts.
o According to the DRP- 2041, the
‘Natural Zone’ (NZ) “is a zone
comprising any natural features such as
mountains, hills, rivers, water bodies
created by the action of nature.”
o In the previous Plan, this was defined as the
Natural Conservation Zone (NCZ). In
the new draft, the definition of the natural
features has been tweaked and restricted to
only those that are notified under certain
acts and recognised in land records.
o Environmentalists are worried that this new definition would expel large sections of the forest land
in Gurugram and Faridabad out of the ambit of protected zonefor not meeting the criteria proposed
in DRP.
About Arravalis
o Aravalli Range, also spelled Aravali Range is a hill system of northern India.
o The Aravalli Range is a mountain range in Northern-Western India, running approximately 670 km
in a south-west direction, starting near Delhi, passing through southern Haryana and
Rajasthan, and ending in Gujarat.
o The highest peak is Guru Shikhar at 1,722 metres.
o The series of peaks and ridges, with breadths varying from 6 to 60 miles (10 to 100 km), are
generally between 1,000 and 3,000 feet (300 and 900 metres) in elevation.
o The system is divided into two sections: The Sambhar-Sirohi ranges, taller and including Guru Peak
on Mount Abu, the highest peak in the Aravalli Range (5,650 feet [1,722 metres]); and the Sambhar-
Khetri ranges, consisting of three ridges that are discontinuous.
o The Aravalli Range is rich in natural resources (including minerals) and serves as a check to the
growth of the western desert.
o It gives rise to several rivers, including the Banas, Luni, Sakhi, and Sabarmati. Though heavily
forested in the south, it is generally bare and thinly populated, consisting of large areas of sand and
stone and of masses of rose-coloured quartzite.
MONSOON
o Indian monsoon is the most prominent of the world’s monsoon systems, which primarily affects
India and its surrounding water bodies.
o It blows from the northeast during cooler months and reverses direction to blow from
the southwest during the warmest months of the year. This process brings large amounts of
rainfall to the region during June and July.
o At the Equator the area near India is unique in that dominant or frequent westerly winds occur at the
surface almost constantly throughout the year; the surface easterlies reach only to latitudes near 20°
N in February, and even then they have a very strong northerly component. They soon retreat
northward, and drastic changes take place in the upper-air circulation (see climate: Jet streams).
This is a time of transition between the end of one monsoon and the beginning of the next.
o Late in March the high-sun season reaches the Equator and moves farther north. With it go
atmospheric instability, convectional (that is, rising and turbulent) clouds, and rain. The westerly
subtropical jet stream still controls the flow of air across northern India, and the surface winds are
northeasterlies.
Monsoon onset and early developments

o As the high-sun season (that is, the Northern Hemisphere summer) moves northward during April,
India becomes particularly prone to rapid heating because the highlands to the north protect it from
any incursions of cold air. There are three distinct areas of relative upper tropospheric warmth—
namely, (1) above the southern Bay of Bengal, (2) above the Plateau of Tibet, and (3)
across the trunks of the various peninsulas that are relatively dry during this time. These
three areas combine to form a vast heat-source region.
o The relatively warm area above the southern Bay of Bengal occurs mostly at the 500–100-millibar
level. (This atmospheric pressure region typically occurs at elevations between 5,500 and 16,100
metres [18,000 and 53,000 feet] but may vary according to changes in heating and cooling.) It does
not appear at a lower level and is probably caused by the release of condensation heat (associated
with the change from water vapour to liquid water) at the top of towering cumulonimbus clouds
along the advancing intertropical convergence. In contrast, a heat sink appears over the southern
Indian Ocean as the relatively cloud-free air cools by emitting long-wavelength radiation. Monsoon
winds at the surface blow from heat sink to heat source. As a result, by May the southwest monsoon
is well-established over Sri Lanka, an island off the southeastern tip of the Indian peninsula.
o Also in May, the dry surface of Tibet (above 4,000 metres [13,100 feet]) absorbs and radiates heat
that is readily transmitted to the air immediately above. At about 6,000 metres (19,700 feet) an
anticyclonic cell arises, causing a strong easterly flow in the upper troposphere above northern India.
The subtropical jet stream suddenly changes its course to the north of the anticyclonic ridge and the
highlands, though it may occasionally reappear southward of them for very brief periods. This
change of the upper tropospheric circulation above northern India from westerly jet to easterly flow
coincides with a reversal of the vertical temperature and pressure gradients between 600 and 300
millibars. On many occasions the easterly wind aloft assumes jet force. It anticipates by a few days
the “burst,” or onset, of the surface southwesterly monsoon some 1,500 km (900 miles) farther
south, with a definite sequential relationship, although the exact cause is not known.
o Because of India’s inverted triangular shape, the land is heated progressively as the sun moves
northward. This accelerated spread of heating, combined with the general direction of heat being
transported by winds, results in a greater initial monsoonal activity over the Arabian Sea (at late
springtime), where a real frontal situation often occurs, than over the Bay of Bengal. The relative
humidity of coastal districts in the Indian region rises above 70 percent, and some rain occurs. Above
the heated land, the air below 1,500 metres (5,000 feet) becomes unstable, but it is held down by the
overriding easterly flow. This does not prevent frequent thunderstorms from occurring in late May.
Peak period
o During June the easterly jet becomes firmly established at 150 to 100 millibars, an
atmospheric pressure region typically occurring at elevations between 13,700 and 16,100 metres
(45,000 and 53,000 feet). It reaches its greatest speed at its normal position to the south of the
anticyclonic ridge, at about 15° N from China through India.
o In Arabia, it decelerates and descends to the middle troposphere (3,000 metres [9,800 feet]). A
stratospheric belt of very cold air, analogous to the one normally found above the intertropical
convergence near the Equator, occurs above the anticyclonic ridge, across southern Asia at 30°–40°
N and above the 500-millibar level (6,000 metres [19,700 feet]). These upper-air features that arise
so far away from the Equator are associated with the surface monsoon and are absent when there is
no monsoonal flow. The position of the easterly jet controls the location of monsoonal rains, which
occur ahead and to the left of the strongest
winds and also behind them and to the right.
o The surface flow, however, is a strong,
southwesterly, humid, and unstable wind
that brings humidity of more than 80 percent
and heavy squally showers that are the
“burst” of the monsoon. The overall pattern
of the advance follows a frontal alignment,
but local episodes may differ considerably.
The amount of rain is variable from year to
year and place to place.
o Most spectacular clouds and rain occur
against the Western Ghats in India,
where the early monsoonal airstream piles up
against the steep slopes, then recedes, and
piles up again to a greater height. Each time
it pushes thicker clouds upward until wind
and clouds roll over the barrier and, after a
few brief spells of absorption by the dry
inland air, cascade toward the interior. The
windward slopes receive 2,000 to 5,000 mm
(80 to 200 inches) of rain in the monsoon
season.
o Various factors, especially topography,
combine to make up a complex regional pattern. Oceanic air flowing toward India below 6,000
metres (19,700 feet) is deflected in accordance with the Coriolis effect. The converging moist
oncoming stream becomes unstable over the hot land and is subject to rapid convection. Towering
cumulonimbus clouds rise thousands of metres, producing violent thunderstorms and releasing
latent heat in the surrounding air. As a result, the upper tropospheric warm belt migrates
northwestward from the ocean to the land. The main body of air above 9,000 metres (29,500 feet)
maintains a strong easterly flow.
o Later, in June and July, the monsoon is strong and well-established to a height of 6,000 metres
(less in the far north), with occasional thickening to 9,000 metres. Weather conditions are cloudy,
warm, and moist all over India. Rainfall varies between 400 and 500 mm (16 and 20 inches), but
topography introduces some extraordinary differences. On the southern slopes of the Khasi Hills at
only 1,300 metres (4,300 feet), where the moist airstreams are lifted and overturned, the village of
Cherrapunji in Meghalaya state receives an average rainfall of 2,730 mm (107 inches) in July, with
record totals of 897 mm (35 inches) in 24 hours in July 1915, more than 9,000 mm (354 inches) in
July 1861, and 16,305 mm (642 inches) in the monsoon season of 1899. Over the Ganges valley the
monsoon, deflected by the Himalayan barrier, becomes a southeasterly airflow. By then the upper
tropospheric belt of warmth from condensation has moved above northern India, with an oblique
bias. The lowest pressures prevail at the surface.
o It is mainly in July and August that waves of low pressure appear in the body of monsoonal air.
Fully developed depressions appear once or twice per month. They travel from east to west more or
less concurrently with high-level easterly waves and bursts of speed from the easterly jet, causing a
local strengthening of the low-level monsoonal flow. The rainfall consequently increases and is much
more evenly distributed than it was in June. Some of the deeper depressions become tropical
cyclones before they reach the land, and these bring torrential rains and disastrous floods.
o A totally different development arises when the easterly jet moves farther north than usual. The
monsoonal wind rising over the southern slopes of the Himalayas brings heavy rains and local
floods. The weather over the central and southern districts, however, becomes suddenly drier and
remains so for as long as the abnormal shift lasts. The opposite shift is also possible, with
midlatitude upper air flowing along the south face of the Himalayas and bringing drought to the
northern districts. Such dry spells are known as “breaks” of the monsoon. Those affecting the south
of India are similar to those experienced on the Guinea Coast during extreme northward shifts of the
wind belts (see West African monsoon), whereas those affecting the north are due to an interaction
of the middle and low latitudes. The southwest monsoon over the lower Indus plain is only 500
metres (about 1,600 feet) thick and does not hold enough moisture to bring rain. On the other hand,
the upper tropospheric easterlies become stronger and constitute a true easterly jet stream. Western
Pakistan, Iran, and Arabia remain dry (probably because of the divergence in this jet) and thus
become the new source of surface heat.
Monsoon withdrawal
o By August the intensity and duration of sunshine have decreased, temperatures begin to fall, and
the surge of southwesterly air diminishes spasmodically almost to a standstill in the northwest.
Cherrapunji still receives over 2,000 mm (79 inches) of rainfall at this time, however. In September,
dry, cool, northerly air begins to circle the west side of the highlands and spread over northwestern
India. The easterly jet weakens, and the upper tropospheric easterlies move much farther south.
Because the moist southwesterlies at lower levels are much weaker and variable, they are soon
pushed back. The rainfall becomes extremely variable over most of the region, but showers are still
frequent in the southeastern areas and over the Bay of Bengal.
o By early October, variable winds are very frequent everywhere. At the end of the month, the entire
Indian region is covered by northerly air and the winter monsoon takes shape. The surface flow is
deflected by the Coriolis force and becomes a northeasterly flow. This causes an October–December
rainy season for the extreme southeast of the Deccan (including the Madras coast) and eastern Sri
Lanka, which cannot be explained by topography alone because it extends well out over the sea.
Tropical depressions and cyclones are important contributing factors.
o Most of India thus begins a sunny, dry, and dusty season. The driest period comes in November in
the Punjab; December in central India, Bengal, and Assam; January in the northern Deccan; and
February in the southern Deccan. Conversely, the western slopes of the Karakoram Range and
Himalayas are then reached by the midlatitude frontal depressions that come from the Atlantic and
the Mediterranean. The winter rains they receive, moderate as they are, place them clearly outside
the monsoonal realm.
o Because crops and water supplies depend entirely on monsoonal rains, it became imperative that
quantitative long-range weather forecasts be available. Embedded in the weather patterns of other
parts of the world are clues to the summer conditions in South Asia. These clues often appear in the
months leading up to monsoon onset. For a forecast to be released at the beginning of June, South
American pressure and Indian upper-wind data for the month of April are examined. These data,
though widely separated from one another, are positively correlated and may be used as predictors of
June conditions. Forecasts may be further refined in May by comparing rainfall patterns in both
Zimbabwe and Java with the easterly winds above the city of Kolkata (Calcutta) in West Bengal state.
In this situation the correlation between rainfall and easterly winds is negative.
WESTERN DISTURBANCE
The National Capital continued to receive showers under the influence of intense western disturbance
since the start of the new year.
About Western Disturbance

o A western disturbance is an extratropical storm originating in the Mediterranean region that
brings sudden winter rain to the north western parts of the Indian subcontinent. It is a non-
monsoonal precipitation pattern driven by the westerlies.
o The moisture in these storms usually originates over the Mediterranean Sea, the Caspian Sea
and the Black Sea.
Formation
o Western disturbances originate in the Mediterranean region.
o A high-pressure area over Ukraine and neighbourhood consolidates, causing the intrusion
of cold air from polar regions towards an area of relatively warmer air with high moisture.
o This generates favourable conditions for cyclogenesis in the upper atmosphere, which
promotes the formation of an eastward-moving extratropical depression.
o Traveling at speeds up to 12 m/s (43 km/h; 27 mph), the disturbance moves towards the Indian
subcontinent until the Himalayas inhibits its development, upon which the depression rapidly
weakens.
o The western disturbances are embedded in the mid-latitude subtropical westerly jet stream.
Impact of Western Disturbances on Indian climate

o Western disturbances are usually associated with cloudy sky, higher night temperatures and unusual
rain.
o Western disturbances, specifically the ones in winter, bring moderate to heavy rain in low-lying areas
and heavy snow to mountainous areas of the Indian Subcontinent.
o They are the cause of most winter and pre-monsoon season rainfall across northwest India.
o Precipitation during the winter season has great importance in agriculture, particularly for the rabi
crops.
o Wheat among them is one of the most important crops, which helps to meet India’s food security.
Are there any ill-effects of Western Disturbances?

o Excessive precipitation due to western disturbances can cause crop damage, landslides, floods and
avalanches.
o Over the Indo-Gangetic plains, they occasionally bring cold wave conditions and dense fog. These
conditions remain stable until disturbed by another western disturbance.
o When western disturbances move across northwest India before the onset of monsoon, a temporary
advancement of monsoon current appears over the region.
CLIMATE PROTECTION
CLIMATE CHANGE
o The Earth's average temperature is about 15C but has been much higher and lower in the past.
o There are natural fluctuations in the climate but scientists say temperatures are now rising faster
than at many other times.
o This is linked to the greenhouse effect, which describes how the Earth's atmosphere traps some of
the Sun's energy.
o Solar energy radiating back to space from the Earth's surface is absorbed by greenhouse gases and
re-emitted in all directions.
o This heats both the lower atmosphere and the surface of the planet. Without this effect, the Earth
would be about 30C colder and hostile to life.
o Scientists believe we are adding to the natural greenhouse effect, with gases released from industry
and agriculture trapping more energy and increasing the temperature.
o This is known as climate change or global warming.
What are greenhouse gases?

o The greenhouse gas with the greatest impact on warming is water vapour. But it remains in the
atmosphere for only a few days.
o Carbon dioxide (CO2), however, persists for much longer. It would take hundreds of years for
a return to pre-industrial levels and only so much can be soaked up by natural reservoirs such as the
oceans.
o Most man-made emissions of CO2 come from burning fossil fuels. When carbon-absorbing forests
are cut down and left to rot, or burned, that stored carbon is released, contributing to global
warming.
o Since the Industrial Revolution began in about 1750, CO2 levels have risen more than 30%. The
concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere is higher than at any time in at least 800,000 years.
o Other greenhouse gases such as methane and nitrous oxide are also released through human
activities but they are less abundant than carbon dioxide.
What is the evidence for warming?

o The world is about one degree Celsius warmer than before widespread industrialisation,
according to the World
Meteorological
Organization (WMO).
o It says the past five years,
2015–2019, were the
warmest on record.
o Across the globe, the
average sea level
increased by 3.6mm
per year between 2005
and 2015.
o Most of this change was
because water increases in
volume as it heats up.
o However, melting ice is
now thought to be the
main reason for rising sea
levels. Most glaciers in
temperate regions of the
world are retreating.
o And satellite records show
a dramatic decline in Arctic sea-ice since 1979. The Greenland Ice Sheet has experienced record
melting in recent years.
o Satellite data also shows the West Antarctic Ice Sheet is losing mass. A recent study indicated
East Antarctica may also have started to lose mass.
o The effects of a changing climate can also be seen in vegetation and land animals. These include
earlier flowering and fruiting times for plants and changes in the territories of animals.
How much will temperatures rise in future?

o The change in the global surface temperature between 1850 and the end of the 21st Century is
likely to exceed 1.5C, most simulations suggest.
o The WMO says that if the current warming trend continues, temperatures could rise 3-5C by the end
of this century.
o Temperature rises of 2C had long been regarded as the gateway to dangerous warming. More
recently, scientists and policymakers have argued that limiting temperature rises to 1.5C is safer.
o An Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) report in 2018 suggested that keeping to the
1.5C target would require "rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society".
o The UN is leading a political effort to stabilise greenhouse-gas emissions. China emits more CO2
than any other country. It is followed by the US and the European Union member states, although
emissions per person are much greater there.
o But even if we now cut greenhouse-gas emissions dramatically, scientists say the effects will
continue. Large bodies of water and ice can take hundreds of years to respond to changes in
temperature. And it takes CO2 decades to be removed from the atmosphere.
How will climate change affect us?

o There is uncertainty about how great the impact of a changing climate will be.
o It could cause fresh water shortages, dramatically alter our ability to produce food, and
increase the number of deaths from floods, storms and heatwaves. This is because climate
change is expected to increase the frequency of extreme weather events - though linking any
single event to global warming is complicated.
o As the world warms, more water evaporates, leading to more moisture in the air. This means many
areas will experience more intense rainfall - and in some places snowfall. But the risk of
drought in inland areas during hot summers will increase. More flooding is expected from storms
and rising sea levels. But there are likely to be very strong regional variations in these patterns.
o Poorer countries, which are least equipped to deal with rapid change, could suffer the most.
o Plant and animal extinctions are predicted as habitats change faster than species can adapt. And the
World Health Organization (WHO) has warned that the health of millions could be threatened by
increases in malaria, water-borne disease and malnutrition.
IPCC
o The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) is the leading international body for
assessment of climate change.
o It is a key source of scientific information and technical guidance to the United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), the Kyoto Protocol and Paris Agreement. The IPCC
provides governments at all levels with scientific information they can use to develop climate
policies.
o The IPCC is an organisation of governments that are members of the United Nations or
the World Meteorological Organization (WMO). The IPCC currently has 195 members.
o The IPCC Plenary is the main body of IPCC members. Representatives of IPCC member
governments meet one or more times a year in Plenary Sessions of the Panel. They elect a Bureau
of scientists for the duration of an assessment cycle. Governments and Observer Organisations
nominate, and Bureau members select, experts to prepare IPCC reports.
IPCC’s main activities are to prepare:

o comprehensive Assessment Reports on climate change, its causes, impacts and response options.
o Methodology Reports which provide practical guidance to Parties to help them prepare national
greenhouse gas inventories.
o Special Reports on topics that inform the Assessment Reports.
o The IPCC does not undertake new research but synthesises published and peer-reviewed
literature to develop a comprehensive assessment of scientific understanding, published in IPCC
Assessment Reports.
o The IPCC’s work is guided by a set of principles and procedures that govern all the main activities of
the organisation. IPCC member governments and observer organisations nominate experts and the
IPCC Bureau selects authors and editors, with expertise in a range of scientific, technical and socio-
economic fields. IPCC reports are the product of multiple drafting and review processes to promote
an objective, comprehensive and transparent assessment of current knowledge.
o The IPCC was created in 1988 by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP).
Sixth Assessment Report

o The IPCC is now in its sixth assessment cycle, in which the IPCC is producing the Sixth Assessment
Report (AR6). It will provide an update on the scientific, technical and socio-economic aspects of
climate change, its causes, potential impacts and response strategies. It is divided into three main
topics with each prepared by a separate Working Group:
 Physical Sciences
 Impacts, Adaption and Vulnerability
 Mitigation of Climate Change
o Special Reports: The IPCC delivered three Special Reports between 2018 and 2019:
1. Global warming of 1.5°C assesses literature relevant to global warming of 1.5°C and for the
comparison between global warming of 1.5°C and 2°C above pre-industrial levels. It was requested
by the Parties to the Paris Agreement to inform key aspects of climate policy and strengthening the
global response to climate change.
2. The Ocean and the Cryosphere in a Changing Climate assesses how the ocean and
cryosphere have and are expected to change with ongoing global warming. It also assesses the risks
and opportunities these changes bring to ecosystems and people, and options for reducing future
risks.
3. Climate Change and Land provides information on the impacts of climate change on land
systems and opportunities for action. The report covers climate change and its relevance to land
degradation, sustainable land management, food security, and greenhouse gas fluxes in terrestrial
ecosystems.
GREEN HOUSE EFFECT AND GREEN HOUSE GASES

A report from the World Meteorological Organisation (WMO) said the increase in CO2 from 2019 to
2020 was slightly lower than that observed from 2018 to 2019 but higher than the average annual
growth rate over the last decade. This is despite the approximately 5.6% drop in fossil fuel CO2
emissions in 2020 due to restrictions related to the pandemic.
Concentration of carbon dioxide (CO2), the most significant greenhouse gas, reached 413.2 parts per
million in 2020 and is 149% of the pre-industrial level. Methane (CH4) is 262% and nitrous oxide
(N2O) is 123% of the levels in 1,750 when human activities started disrupting earth’s natural
equilibrium.
About GHGs
o Greenhouse gases (GHGs) are a group of gases that are able to absorb heat in the atmosphere
keeping the earth’s surface warm. This absorbed heat/thermal radiation by the greenhouse gases is
re-radiated back to earth’s surface in all directions. This ability of gases to trap heat in thermal form
and spread evenly at earth’s surface is known as Greenhouse effect.
o The spreading of these greenhouse gases is responsible for the heat required to sustain life on earth.
But the presence of these GHGs in excess enhances the Greenhouse effect which is creating global
warming and consequently climate change.
o Water vapour (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrous oxide (N2O) and methane (CH4) are the
primary greenhouse gases in the Earth’s atmosphere.
o Along with the rapid industrialisation in the 19th and 20th centuries human activities such as
burning of fossil fuels and deforestation have increased the level of the presence of these gases within
the earth’s atmosphere.
o UNFCCC’s (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change) Kyoto Protocol has
recognised six main greenhouse gases primarily responsible for global warming. They are:
o Carbon dioxide (CO2), Methane (CH4), Nitrous oxide (N2O), Hydro fluorocarbons (HFCs), Per
fluorocarbons (PFCs), Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6).
o The most dominant greenhouse gas overall is water vapour, but it has a very short atmospheric
lifetime (about 10 days) and is very nearly in a dynamic equilibrium in the atmosphere, so it is not a
forcing gas in the context of global warming.
o CO2 is identified as the dominant greenhouse gas followed by methane and nitrous oxide as the
major forcing contributors to global warming.
o Maximum anthropogenic GHG emissions is from Power stations followed by Industries,
Transportation fuels, Agriculture by-products, Land use and burning, etc.
Green House Gas Sources and Causes
Carbon dioxide (CO2) Burning of fossil fuels, deforestation
Growing paddy, excreta of cattle and other livestock, termites,
Methane (CH4)
burning of fossil fuel, wood, landfills, wetlands, fertilizer factories.
Nitrous oxides (N2O) Burning of fossil fuels, fertilizers; burning of wood and crop residue.
Hydro fluorocarbons Used as refrigerants, aerosol propellants, solvents and fire retardants.
(HFCs)
Produced as a by-product in aluminium production and
Per fluorocarbons (PFCs)
manufacturing of semi-conductors.
Sulphur hexafluoride Used as tracer gas for leak detection, used in electrical transmission
(SF6) equipment
CARBON CREDIT
o A carbon credit is a tradable permit or certificate that provides the holder of the credit the right to
emit one ton of carbon dioxide or an equivalent of another greenhouse gas – it’s
essentially an offset for producers of such gases.
o The main goal for the creation of carbon credits is the reduction of emissions of carbon
dioxide and other greenhouse gases from industrial activities to reduce the effects of global
warming.
o Carbon credits are market mechanisms for the minimization of greenhouse gases emission.
o Governments or regulatory authorities set the caps on greenhouse gas emissions.

o For some companies, the immediate reduction of the emission is not economically viable. Therefore,
they can purchase carbon credits to comply with the emission cap.
o Companies that achieve the carbon offsets (reducing the emissions of greenhouse gases) are usually
rewarded with additional carbon credits. The sale of credit surpluses may be used to
subsidize future projects for the reduction of emissions.
The introduction of such credits was ratified in the Kyoto Protocol. The Paris Agreement validates
the application of carbon credits and sets the provisions for the further facilitation of the carbon
credits markets.
Types of Carbon Credits

There are two types of credits:
o Voluntary emissions reduction (VER): A carbon offset that is exchanged in the over-the-
counter or voluntary market for credits.
o Certified emissions reduction (CER): Emission units (or credits) created through a regulatory
framework with the purpose of offsetting a project’s emissions. The main difference between the two
is that there is a third-party certifying body that regulates the CER as opposed to the VER.
Trading Credits
o Carbon credits can be traded on both private and public markets. Current rules of trading allow the
international transfer of credits.
o The prices of credits are primarily driven by the levels of supply and demand in the markets. Due to
the differences in the supply and demand in different countries, the prices of the credits fluctuate.
o Although carbon credits are beneficial to society, it is not easy for an average investor to start using
them as investment vehicles. The certified emissions reductions (CERs) are the only product that can
be used as investments in the credits.
o However, CERs are sold by special carbon funds established by large financial institutions. The
carbon funds provide small investors with the opportunity to enter the market.
o There are special exchanges that specialize in the trading of the credits, including the European
Climate Exchange, the NASDAQ OMX Commodities Europe exchange, and the European Energy
Exchange.
METHANE
o Methane (CH4) is a hydrocarbon that is a primary component of natural gas.
o Methane is also a greenhouse gas (GHG), so its presence in the atmosphere affects the earth’s
temperature and climate system. Methane is emitted from a variety of anthropogenic (human-
influenced) and natural sources. Anthropogenic emission sources include landfills, oil and natural
gas systems, agricultural activities, coal mining, stationary and mobile combustion, wastewater
treatment, and certain industrial processes.
o Methane is the second most abundant anthropogenic GHG after carbon dioxide (CO2),
accounting for about 20 percent of global emissions.
o Methane is more than 25 times as potent as carbon dioxide at trapping heat in the
atmosphere. Over the last two centuries, methane concentrations in the atmosphere have more
than doubled, largely due to human-related activities. Because methane is both a powerful
greenhouse gas and short-lived compared to carbon dioxide, achieving significant reductions would
have a rapid and significant effect on atmospheric warming potential.
Who are the biggest methane emitters?

o China, the United States, Russia, India, Brazil, Indonesia, Nigeria, and Mexico are estimated to be
responsible for nearly half of all anthropogenic methane emissions.
o The major methane emission sources for these countries vary greatly. For example, a key source of
methane emissions in China is coal production, whereas Russia emits most of its methane from
natural gas and oil systems.
o The largest sources of methane emissions from human activities in the United States are oil and gas
systems, livestock enteric fermentation, and landfills.
CO2 BUDGET
o A CO₂ budget determines how much CO₂ a country or person is allowed to emit in order to achieve
the global climate protection goal of limiting global warming to 1.5 °C.
o In Germany, German citizens cause an average of 10 tonnes of CO₂ per capita and year.
o In terms of the climate protection target, however, only 1 tonne of CO₂ per person and year is
acceptable.
CARBON CAPTURE AND STORAGE TECHNOLOGY

o Carbon capture and storage technology (CCS) has been hailed as a key component in the world’s
shift towards renewable energy.
o With global CO2 emissions hitting a historic high, growing by more than 1.3% to a record of more
than 33 billion tonnes, the need for tools that can help limit pollution has never been greater.
o The Global CCS Institute claims CO2 emissions from fossil fuel combustion in the energy sector
contribute roughly 30% to the amount of the pollutant present in the EU, specifically.
o Renewable energy presents a possible solution to this, but its ability to cater the world’s power
demand, which is expected to rise by 50% by 2030, according to the UK’s Carbon Capture and
Storage Association (CCSA), is up for debate – this is where CCS comes in.
o The International Energy Agency recently concluded that, to meet the goals of the Paris Agreement,
CCS will need to contribute 32% of the extra effort to move from a 2C scenario to well below 2C.
o The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has estimated that without CCS, the cost of
trying to meet global climate change goals will increase by almost 140%.
Here we take a closer look at CCS and how it works.
What is carbon capture and storage technology?

o CCS is a
technology
reportedly capable
of capturing up
to 90% of the
CO2 emissions
produced by the
burning of fossil
fuels to generate
electricity, as well
as those used in
industrial
processes, and
prevent it from
polluting the
atmosphere.
o Fossil fuel power
plants can be built
with the
technology
already
integrated or it can also be combined with renewable biomass to create a “carbon-

negative” mode the goes one step further by actually removing CO2 from the planet.
o The Global CCS Institute says there are 18 large-scale CCS facilities currently in operation, with an
additional five under construction.
o Some carbon storage facilities date back multiple decades, such as the Sleipner project in the North
Sea, while others remain under construction, like the Gorgon project in Western Australia.
o First, CCS involves capturing CO2, before transporting it to be stored in geological rock formations
thousands of metres below the Earth’s surface.
o The initial part of the process involves separating CO2 from the gasses produced in power generation
and industrial processes, such as manufacturing cement or steel, by pre-combustion capture, post-
combustion capture or oxy-fuel combustion.
o The pollutant is then transporting using either a pipeline or a ship in much the same way the millions
of tonnes of CO2 are transported each year for various commercial purposes, chiefly by countries
such as the US.
o It is then stored in depleted oil and gas fields or deep saline aquifer formations, which the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) says can retain 99% of the pollutant over a
1000-year period.
o At every point in the CCS chain, from production to storage, industry has at its disposal a number of
process technologies that are well understood and have excellent health and safety records
o The commercial deployment of CCS will involve the widespread adoption of these techniques,
combined with robust monitoring techniques and government regulation.
Capturing CO2
Pre-combustion capture
o Pre-combustion systems, as provided by manufacturing companies such as British engineering firm
Costain, convert solid, liquid or gaseous fuel into a blend of hydrogen and CO2 using processes like
“gasification” or “reforming”.
o This can then be used to fuel electricity production, and the CCSA claims it will be able to power
vehicles and provide heating, with extremely low emissions, in the future.
Post-combustion capture
o Post-combustion capture involves capturing the CO2 from the exhaust of a combustion system and
absorbing it into a solvent, before removing and compressing the pollutant elements.
o CO2 can also be separated using high-pressure membrane filtration, as well as cryogenic separation
processes.
Oxy-fuel combustion
o Using oxy-fuel combustion, oxygen is separated from the air before combustion, with the fuel then
being combusted in oxygen using recycled flue-gas.
o This creates an atmosphere full of oxygen and nitrogen with flue-gases comprising CO2 and water,
allowing for easier purification of the former.
Transporting CO2
o Transporting captured CO2 involves many of the same techniques as used for oil and natural gas,
including road tankers, ships and pipelines.
o Many of the networks in use today have been operational for more than 30 years, providing safe and
regulation-consistent methods of getting the pollutant from A to B.
o The CCSA says: “There is significant potential for the development of local and regional CCS pipeline
infrastructure, leading to CCS ‘clusters’ where CO2-intensive industries could locate”.
o Developing clusters, where infrastructure can be shared by a number of industrial sources of carbon
dioxide emissions, will result in the most cost-effective way to deliver CCS infrastructure
development and ultimately lower costs to consumers.
Storing CO2
o Storage sites for captured CO2 range from defunct oil and gas fields to underground saline
formations, porous rocks filled with salt water, while it can also injected into depleting
oil fields to increase their output.
o After being injected into such a formation, the CO2 is trapped by a layer of impermeable rock, known
as the cap rock, preventing it from entering and polluting the atmosphere above in a process referred
to as “structural storage.”
o Deep saline aquifers offer the greatest storage capacity over the long term, according to the CCSA,
but remain a relative unknown in many areas.
UNFCCC
United Nation Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) is an international environment
treaty opened for signature in 1992. It came into force from 1994. Secretariat is located in Bonn,
Germany. The convention is legally non-binding, but makes provisions for meeting called protocols
where negotiating countries can set legally binding limits.
o It aims to stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would
prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system. The framework set no
binding limits on greenhouse gas emissions for individual countries and contains no enforcement
mechanisms. Instead, the framework outlines how specific international treaties (called "protocols"
or "Agreements") may be negotiated to set binding limits on greenhouse gases. Kyoto Protocol was
negotiated under this framework.
o One of the first tasks set by the UNFCCC was for signatory nations to establish national greenhouse
inventories of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and removals, which were used to create the 1990
benchmark levels for accession of Annex I countries to the Kyoto Protocol and for the commitment
of those countries to GHG reductions. Updated inventories must be regularly submitted by Annex I
countries. Annex I, Annex II countries and developing countries.
Parties to UNFCCC are classified as:

o Annex I countries: Industrialized countries and economies in transition.
o Annex II countries: Developed countries which pay for costs of developing countries. Annex II
countries are a sub-group of the Annex I countries.
o Non-Annex I countries: Developing countries are not required to reduce emission levels unless
developed countries supply enough funding and technology.
o Setting no immediate restrictions under UNFCCC serves three purposes: i. It avoids
restrictions on their development, because emissions are strongly linked to industrial capacity; ii.
They can sell emissions credits to nations whose operators have difficulty meeting their emissions
targets; iii. they get money and technologies for low-carbon investments from Annex II countries;
iv. Developing countries may volunteer to become Annex I countries when they are sufficiently
developed; v. India is Non Annex party to UNFCCC.
REDD and REDD+

o It is a mechanism negotiated under UNFCC since 2005.
o Its objective is to mitigate climate change through reducing net emissions of greenhouse gases
through enhanced forest management in developing countries.
o Inclusion of reducing emissions from land use change is considered essential to achieve the
objectives of the UNFCCC.
o During the negotiations for the Kyoto Protocol the inclusion of tropical forest management was
debated but eventually dropped due to anticipated methodological difficulties in establishing – in
particular – additionality and leakage (detrimental effects outside of the project area attributable to
project activities).
o India did not participate in UN-REDD.
o REDD+ (Defined in Bali Action Plan, 2007, CoP13)
o What constitutes "+": 1. sustainable management of forests, 2. conservation of forest carbon
stocks and 3. enhancement of forest carbon stocks.
What is the difference between REDD and REDD+?

o REDD = "reducing emissions from deforestation in developing countries"
o REDD+ (or REDD-plus) = to "reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation in
developing countries, and the role of conservation, sustainable management of forests, and
enhancement of forest carbon stocks in developing countries"
o REDD+ is essentially a vehicle to financially reward developing countries for their verified
efforts to reduce emissions and enhance removals of greenhouse gases through a variety of forest
management option.
o India favours REDD+
OZONE LAYER
Two facets of Ozone: Near the ground, ozone is an air pollutant that causes lung damage and asthma
attacks. But 10 to 30 miles above the Earth’s surface (16-48 km), ozone molecules protect life on Earth.
They help shield our planet from harmful solar radiation.
o The ozone layer, in the stratosphere, is where about 90% of the ozone in the Earth system is
found. But ozone makes up only one to ten out of every million molecules in the ozone layer. (The
rest of the molecules are mostly nitrogen and oxygen, like the air we breathe.) There isn't much of
it, but ozone is powerful, able to block the most harmful radiation.
o Ozone absorbs the most energetic wavelengths of ultraviolet light, known as UV-C and UV-
B, wavelengths that harm living things. Oxygen molecules absorb other forms of ultraviolet light,
too.
o Together, ozone and oxygen molecules are able to absorb 95 to 99.9% of the ultraviolet radiation that
gets to our planet. When UV light is absorbed by oxygen and ozone, heat is generated, which is why
the stratosphere gets warmer with
altitude.
o Ozone and oxygen molecules
are constantly being formed,
destroyed, and reformed in the
ozone layer as they are bombarded
by ultraviolet radiation (UV), which
breaks the bonds between atoms,
creating free oxygen atoms.
o Free oxygen atoms are highly
reactive, meaning that they bond
easily with other molecules. If a free
oxygen atom bumps into an oxygen
molecule (O2), it will form ozone (O3). If a free oxygen atom bumps into another oxygen atom, it will
form an oxygen molecule (O2).
Ozone Holes
o British scientists at Halley Bay, Antarctica have detected a 10% drop in ozone levels during
September, October, and November—the Antarctic spring. Since ozone concentrations over this
region often vary from season to season, the researchers weren't concerned, but record low ozone
levels kept occurring nearly every spring. No one knew why.
o They were the first to find an ozone hole and it would later be identified as the world's largest ozone
hole. An ozone hole is really not a hole but rather a thinning of the ozone layer in the
stratosphere that changes seasonally. At some times of year, the “hole” is larger. At other
times, it’s smaller.
o It wasn't until 1985 that scientists were certain that this was a major problem and it was human-
caused. The culprits were chemical compounds called chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs),
which started to be used in the 1960s in air conditioners, aerosol spray cans, and industrial cleaning
products. They were also used to make Styrofoam. And they were capable of breaking apart ozone
molecules, causing the breakdown of ozone in the stratosphere to happen faster than it could be built
back up.
o UV radiation breaks a chlorine atom off a CFC molecule. The chlorine atom breaks an ozone
molecule apart into an oxygen molecule (O2) and a chlorine monoxide molecule (ClO). A
free oxygen atom bumps the chlorine atom out, forming an oxygen molecule. This leaves the chlorine
atom free to attack and destroy another ozone molecule.
o Once in the atmosphere, CFCs drift slowly upward to the stratosphere, where they are broken up by
ultraviolet radiation, releasing chlorine atoms, which are able to destroy ozone molecules.
o The seasons have an impact on the

Antarctic ozone hole. During the
dark winter, air swirls in a vortex
with very low temperatures that
cause icy clouds to form. Reactions
on the surface of icy cloud particles
release chlorine from chemical
compounds like CFCs, into a form
that reacts with ozone. When
sunlight returns in the spring, the
chlorine begins to destroy ozone.
o There isn’t much ozone depletion in
the Arctic because icy clouds are
less common and the vortex
normally breaks down several weeks before sunlight returns in the spring.
Solving the Problem of Ozone Destruction

o The Montreal Protocol, an international agreement to address the global problem of ozone
destruction, was signed by more than 70 countries in 1986. It set goals of reducing CFC production
20% by 1993 and 50% by 1998. Since the agreement was signed, these targets have been
strengthened to call for the elimination of the most dangerous CFCs by 1996 and for regulation of
other ozone-depleting chemicals.
o Scientists detected the problem and identified the cause of the problem. Their evidence convinced
governments around the world to take action to help stop the problem. The global elimination of
ozone-depleting chemicals from the atmosphere will take decades, but we have made progress on
filling in the hole. It was the first time in history that we tackled a global-scale environmental issue
with worldwide cooperation.
CLIMATE FINANCE
o Climate finance refers to local, national or transnational financing—drawn from public,
private and alternative sources of financing—that seeks to support mitigation and adaptation actions
that will address climate change.
o The Convention, the Kyoto Protocol and the Paris Agreement call for financial assistance
from Parties with more financial resources to those that are less endowed and more vulnerable. This
recognizes that the contribution of countries to climate change and their capacity to prevent it and
cope with its consequences vary enormously.
o Climate finance is needed for mitigation, because large-scale investments are required to
significantly reduce emissions. Climate finance is equally important for adaptation, as significant
financial resources are needed to adapt to the adverse effects and reduce the impacts of a changing
climate.
o In accordance with the principle of “common but differentiated responsibility and
respective capabilities” set out in the Convention, developed country Parties are to provide
financial resources to assist developing country Parties in implementing the objectives of the
UNFCCC. The Paris Agreement reaffirms the obligations of developed countries, while for the first
time also encouraging voluntary contributions by other Parties. Developed country Parties should
also continue to take the lead in mobilizing climate finance from a wide variety of sources,
instruments and channels, noting the significant role of public funds, through a variety of actions,
including supporting country-driven strategies, and taking into account the needs and priorities of
developing country Parties. Such mobilization of climate finance should represent a progression
beyond previous efforts.
o It is important for all governments and stakeholders to understand and assess the financial needs of
developing countries, as well as to understand how these financial resources can be mobilized.
Provision of resources should also aim to achieve a balance between adaptation and mitigation.
o Overall, efforts under the Paris Agreement are guided by its aim of making finance flows consistent
with a pathway towards low greenhouse gas emissions and climate-resilient development. Assessing
progress in provision and mobilization of support is also part of the global stocktake under the
Agreement. The Paris Agreement also places emphasis on the transparency and enhanced
predictability of financial support.
What is the financial mechanism? What are the other funds?

o To facilitate the provision of climate finance, the Convention established a financial mechanism to
provide financial resources to developing country Parties. The financial mechanism also serves the
Kyoto Protocol and the Paris Agreement.
o The Convention states that the operation of the financial mechanism can be entrusted to one or more
existing international entities. The Global Environment Facility(GEF) has served as an
operating entity of the financial mechanism since the Convention’s entry into force in 1994.
o At COP 16, in 2010, Parties established the Green Climate Fund (GCF) and in 2011 also
designated it as an operating entity of the financial mechanism. The financial mechanism is
accountable to the COP, which decides on its policies, programme priorities and eligibility criteria for
funding.
o In addition to providing guidance to the GEF and the GCF, Parties have established two special
funds—the Special Climate Change Fund (SCCF) and the Least Developed Countries Fund
(LDCF), both managed by the GEF—and the Adaptation Fund (AF) established under the Kyoto
Protocol in 2001.
o At the Paris Climate Change Conference in 2015, the Parties agreed that the operating entities of the
financial mechanism – GCD and GEF – as well as the SCCF and the LDCF shall serve the Paris
Agreement. Regarding the Adaptation Fund serving the Paris Agreement negotiations are underway
in the Ad hoc Working Group on the Paris Agreement (APA).
Standing Committee on Finance

o At COP 16 in 2010, Parties decided to establish the Standing Committee on Finance (SCF) to assist
the COP in exercising its functions in relation to the financial mechanism of the Convention.
o Currently, the SCF has four specific functions:
1. assisting the COP in improving coherence and coordination in the delivery of climate change
financing;
2. assisting the COP in rationalization of the financial mechanism of the UNFCCC;
3. supporting the COP in the mobilization of financial resources for climate financing; and
4. supporting the COP in the measurement, reporting and verification of support provided to
developing country Parties.
o The Committee is also tasked to organize an annual forum on climate finance, provide the COP with
draft guidance for the operating entities, provide expert input into the conduct of the periodic
reviews of the financial mechanism and prepare a biennial assessment and overview of climate
finance flows. Furthermore, the SCF is designed to improve the linkages and to promote the
coordination with climate finance related actors and initiatives both within and outside of the
Convention. At the Paris Conference in 2015, Parties decided that the SCF shall also serve the Paris
Agreement.
Long-term climate finance

o The long-term finance process is aimed at progressing on the mobilization and scaling up of climate
finance of resources originating from a wide variety of sources, public and private, bilateral and
multilateral, including alternative sources. The COP decided on the following activities through to
2020: organization, by the secretariat, of annual in-session workshops; developed countries
providing, on a biennial basis, information on strategies and approaches for scaling up climate
finance; and convening of biennial high-level ministerial dialogue on climate finance.
o Through the Cancun Agreements in 2010 developed country Parties committed, in the context of
meaningful mitigation actions and transparency on implementation, to a goal of mobilizing jointly
USD 100 billion per year by 2020 to address the needs of developing countries. When adopting the
Paris Agreement Parties confirmed this goal, called for a concrete road map to achieve the goal by
2020, and agreed that prior to 2025 the Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the
Parties to the Paris Agreement (CMA) shall set a new collective quantified goal from a floor of USD
100 billion per year.
What is the finance portal?

o The UNFCCC website includes climate finance data portal with helpful explanations, graphics and
figures for better understanding the climate finance process and as a gateway to information on
activities funded in developing countries to implement climate action. The finance portal comprises
three modules, each of which includes information made available by Parties and the operating
entities of the financial mechanism.
1. The first module, the National Communications Module, presents information
communicated by contributing countries on the provision of financial resources, in the context of
regular reporting to the Convention.
2. The second module, the Fast-start Finance Module, includes information on resources
provided by developed countries in the context of their commitment to provide approximately USD
30 billion over the period 2010–2012.
3. The third module, on Funds Managed by the GEF, is a joint effort between the secretariat of the
UNFCCC and the GEF and contains information on climate finance flows of the GEF in its role as
one of the operating entities of the financial mechanism to the Convention.
o Additionally, information on projects and programmes of the Adaptation Fund can be found in the
finance portal. This fund was established under the Kyoto Protocol to finance concrete adaptation
projects and programmes in developing countries that are Parties to the Kyoto Protocol.
GRADED RESPONSE ACTION PLAN (GRAP)

The air quality crisis of Delhi has become an annual affair for the past several years. Around the onset
of the winter season, the government implements its Graded Response Action Plan (GRAP) for
immediate relief from the dropping air quality. However, official data suggested that Delhi’s Air
Quality Index (AQI) deteriorates even when the GRAP is in place.
About GRAP
o Approved by the Supreme Court in 2016.
o GRAP works only as an emergency measure. As such, the plan does not include action by
various state governments to be taken throughout the year to tackle industrial, vehicular and
combustion emissions.
o The plan is incremental in nature — therefore, when the air quality moves from ‘Poor’ to
‘Very Poor’, the measures listed under both sections have to be followed.
o If air quality reaches the ‘Severe+’ stage, the response under GRAP includes extreme measures
such as shutting down schools and implementing the odd-even road-space rationing scheme.
o GRAP has been successful in doing two things that had not been done before — creating a step-by-
step plan for the entire Delhi-NCR region, and getting on board several agencies: all pollution
control boards, industrial area authorities, municipal corporations, regional officials of the India
Meteorological Department, and others.
o The plan requires action and coordination among 13 different agencies in Delhi, Uttar Pradesh,
Haryana and Rajasthan (NCR areas). At the head of the table is the EPCA, mandated by the Supreme
Court.
o GRAP was notified in 2017 by the Centre and draws its authority from this notification. Before the
imposition of any measures, EPCA holds a meeting with representatives from all NCR states, and a
call is taken on which actions have to be made applicable in which town.
o A blanket ban on the DG sets for Delhi-NCR towns from October 15 onward was announced last year
as well. However, issues were raised by the Haryana power secretary at the time about deficiencies in
the electrical infrastructure in commercial and residential areas developed by builders in Gurgaon.
Has GRAP helped?

o The biggest success of GRAP has been in fixing accountability and deadlines. For each action to
be taken under a particular air quality category, executing agencies are clearly marked. In a territory
like Delhi, where a multiplicity of authorities has been a long-standing impediment to effective
governance, this step made a crucial difference. Also, coordination among as many as 13 agencies
from four states is simplified to a degree because of the clear demarcation of responsibilities.
o Three major policy decisions that can be credited to EPCA and GRAP are the closure of the thermal
power plant at Badarpur, bringing BS-VI fuel to Delhi before the deadline set initially, and the ban
on Pet coke as a fuel in Delhi-NCR.
o The initial mandate of the body was to ensure that Delhi’s bus and auto fleet moves entirely to CNG
— a mammoth task that played a crucial role in cleaning Delhi’s air in the late 2000s.
o The body continues to monitor pollution, and assists the Supreme Court in several pollution-related
matters.
ACTIONS UNDER GRAP

o Stop entry of trucks into Delhi (except essential commodities)
Severe+ or Emergency
o Stop construction work
(PM 2.5 over 300
o Introduce odd/even scheme for private vehicles and minimise
µg/cubic metre or
exemptions
PM10 over 500 µg/cu.
m. for 48+ hours) o Task Force to decide any additional steps including shutting of
schools
o Close brick kilns, hot mix plants, stone crushers
Severe
o Maximise power generation from natural gas to reduce generation
(PM 2.5 over 250 from coal
µg/cu. m. or PM10 over
o Encourage public transport, with differential rates
430 µg/cu. m.)
o More frequent mechanised cleaning of road and sprinkling of water
o Stop use of diesel generator sets
Very Poor o Enhance parking fee by 3-4 times
(PM2.5 121-250 µg/cu. o Increase bus and Metro services
m. or PM10 351-430 o Apartment owners to discourage burning fires in winter by providing
µg/cu. m.) electric heaters during winter
o Advisories to people with respiratory and cardiac conditions to
restrict outdoor movement
o Heavy fines for garbage burning
Moderate to poor o Close/enforce pollution control regulations in brick kilns and
(PM2.5 61-120 µg/cu. industries
m. or PM10 101-350 o Mechanised sweeping on roads with heavy traffic and water
µg/cu. m.) sprinkling
o Strictly enforce ban on firecrackers
GREEN ENERGY
o Green energy is any energy type that is generated from natural resources, such as sunlight,
wind or water. It often comes from renewable energy sources although there are some differences
between renewable and green energy, which we will explore, below.
o The key with these energy resources are that they don’t harm the environment through factors such
as releasing greenhouse gases into the atmosphere.
o As a source of energy, green energy often comes from renewable energy technologies such as solar
energy, wind power, geothermal energy, biomass and hydroelectric power. Each of these
technologies works in different ways, whether that is by taking power from the sun, as with solar
panels, or using wind turbines or the flow of water to generate energy.
What Does it Mean?

o In order to be deemed green energy, a resource cannot produce pollution, such as is found
with fossil fuels. This means that not all sources used by the renewable energy industry are green.
For example, power generation that burns organic material from sustainable forests may be
renewable, but it is not necessarily green, due to the CO2 produced by the burning process itself.
o Green energy sources are usually naturally replenished, as opposed to fossil fuel sources like
natural gas or coal, which can take millions of years to develop. Green sources also often avoid
mining or drilling operations that can be damaging to eco-systems.
Types: The main sources are wind energy, solar power and hydroelectric power (including tidal energy,
which uses ocean energy from the tides in the sea). Solar and wind power are able to be produced on a
small scale at people’s homes or alternatively, they can be generated on a larger, industrial scale. The six
most common forms are as follows:
1. Solar Power: This common renewable, green energy source is usually produced using
photovoltaic cells that capture sunlight and turn it into electricity. Solar power is also used to heat
buildings and for hot water as well as for cooking and lighting. Solar power has now become
affordable enough to be used for domestic purposes including garden lighting, although it is also
used on a larger scale to power entire neighbourhoods.
2. Wind Power: Particularly suited to offshore and higher altitude sites, wind energy uses the power
of the flow of air around the world to push turbines that then generate electricity.
3. Hydropower: Also known as hydroelectric power, this type of green energy uses the flow of water
in rivers, streams, dams or elsewhere to produce energy. Hydropower can even work on a small scale
using the flow of water through pipes in the home or can come from evaporation, rainfall or the tides
in the oceans.
4. Geothermal Energy: This type of green power uses thermal energy that has been stored just
under the earth’s crust. While this resource requires drilling to access, thereby calling the
environmental impact into question, it is a huge resource once tapped into. Geothermal energy has
been used for bathing in hot springs for thousands of years and this same resource can be used for
steam to turn turbines and generate electricity. The energy stored under the United States alone is
enough to produce 10 times as much electricity as coal currently can. While some nations, such as
Iceland, have easy-to-access geothermal resources, it is a resource that is reliant on location for ease
of use, and to be fully ‘green’ the drilling procedures need to be closely monitored.
5. Biomass: This renewable resource also needs to be carefully managed in order to be truly labelled
as a ‘green energy’ source. Biomass power plants use wood waste, sawdust and combustible organic
agricultural waste to create energy. While the burning of these materials releases greenhouse gas
these emissions are still far lower than those from petroleum-based fuels.
6. Biofuels: Rather than burning biomass as mentioned above, these organic materials can be
transformed into fuel such as ethanol and biodiesel. Having supplied just 2.7% of the world’s fuel for
transport in 2010, the biofuels are estimated to have the capacity to meet over 25% of global
transportation fuel demand by 2050.
Why is it Important?
o Green energy is important for the environment as it replaces the negative effects of fossil fuels
with more environmentally-friendly alternatives.
o Derived from natural resources, green energy is also often renewable and clean, meaning
that they emit no or few greenhouse gases and are often readily available.
o Even when the full life cycle of a green energy source is taken into consideration, they release far
less greenhouse gases than fossil fuels, as well as few or low levels of air pollutants. This is not
just good for the planet but is also better for the health of people and animals that have to breathe
the air.
o Green energy can also lead to stable energy prices as these sources are often produced
locally and are not as affected by geopolitical crisis, price spikes or supply chain
disruptions. The economic benefits also include job creation in building the facilities that often
serve the communities where the workers are employed. Renewable energy saw the creation of 11
million jobs worldwide in 2018, with this number set to grow as we strive to meet targets such as net
zero.
o Due to the local nature of energy production through sources like solar and wind power, the energy
infrastructure is more flexible and less dependent on centralised sources that can lead to
disruption as well as being less resilient to weather related climate change.
o Green energy also represents a low cost solution for the energy needs of many parts of the
world. This will only improve as costs continue to fall, further increasing the accessibility of green
energy, especially in the developing world.
Which Type Is the Most Efficient?

o Renewable energy sources are currently ranked as follows in efficiency (although this may change as
developments continue):
 Wind Power
 Geothermal
 Hydropower
 Nuclear
 Solar Power
Green Energy vs Clean Energy vs Renewable Energy – What is the Difference?

o Green energy is that which comes from natural sources, such as the sun. Clean energy are those types
which do not release pollutants into the air, and renewable energy comes from sources that are
constantly being replenished, such as hydropower, wind power or solar energy.
o Renewable energy is often seen as being the same, but there is still some debate around this. For
example, can a hydroelectric dam which may divert waterways and impact the local environment
really be called ‘green?’
o However, a source such as wind power is renewable, green and clean – since it comes from an
environmentally-friendly, self-replenishing and non-polluting source.
OCEAN RENEWABLE ENERGY

Ocean renewable energy refers to all forms of renewable energy derived from the sea including wave
energy, tidal energy, ocean current energy, salinity gradient energy and ocean thermal gradient
energy.
o Wave Energy: It is generated from the power of waves near their surface. It can be captured
through oscillating water columns, which trap waves in a column and change the air pressure in the
upper portion which drives a turbine.
o Tidal Energy: The Tides in the oceans are caused by the combined effects of gravitational forces
exerted by the Moon, the Sun, and the rotation of the Earth. Tidal Energy converts the natural rise
and fall of the tides into Electricity.
o Ocean Current Energy: It refers to harnessing the energy of the ocean currents to generate
electricity.
o Salinity gradient energy: Salinity gradient power is the energy created from the difference in salt
concentration between fresh and salt water, e.g., when a river flows into the sea. Hence, Salinity
gradient power plants are based on the natural mixing of fresh and salt water.
o Ocean thermal gradient energy: It is a technology for producing energy by harnessing the
temperature differences (thermal gradients) between ocean surface waters and deep ocean waters.
o India has wave energy potential of 40,000 MW, tidal energy potential of 9000 MW and
Ocean thermal gradient energy potential of around 180,000 MW.
o Tidal Energy: To capture sufficient power from the tidal energy potential, the height of high tide
must be at least five meters more than the low tide. The Gulf of Cambay and the Gulf of
Kutch in Gujarat with higher tidal ranges are considered to be suitable places for harnessing tidal
energy.
Benefits of harnessing ocean energy

o Optimum utilisation of Potential: India has a long coastline with estuaries and gulfs where
waves and tides are strong enough to move turbines for electrical power generation.
o Reliable and Predictable Power: As tides follow monthly cycle, which are more predictable in
nature, the dependence of tidal energy on rise and fall of tides makes tidal energy a more uniform,
reliable and predictable energy source. Similarly, wave energy is reliable because of perpetual motion
of ocean waves.
o Easier Grid Integration: The power generated from renewable sources such as wind and solar is
dependent on random weather patterns. Hence, the power generated may face grid integration
challenges due to their unpredictable nature. However, ocean energy, being uniform and reliable
does not pose grid integration challenges.
o Seashore protection: The Offshore breakwaters are used along beaches for providing protection
against coastal erosion by the waves. These structures can be combined with tidal and wave energy
projects to reap the dual benefits of sea shore protection and harnessing tidal / wave energy.
o Higher Energy Density: Water has higher energy density than air i.e. it can store a larger amount
of energy per unit volume as compared to other forms of renewable energy, such as the wind. Hence,
for a given electricity output, tidal turbines can be much smaller than equivalent wind turbines.
Further, it is possible to harness energy at low speeds from wave and tidal sources as compared to
wind which require comparatively higher speeds.
o Less Visual and Noise Impact: Tidal and wave power systems have less prominent visual impact
as compared to wind and solar systems. They require less space as compared to wind turbine or solar
projects. Furthermore, they produce less amount of noise, unlike wind turbines, which produce
aerodynamic noise, thereby avoiding disturbance to the marine surroundings.
o Socio-economic Impact: Ocean Energy projects provide a number of socio-economic benefits for
the coastal population ranging from local electricity production and consumption, creation of job
opportunities, creation of industrial clusters etc.
SDG GOAL 7: AFFORDABLE AND CLEAN ENERGY

o Lack of access to energy supplies and transformation systems is a constraint to human and economic
development. The environment provides a series of renewable and non-renewable energy sources i.e.
solar, wind, hydropower, geothermal, biofuels, natural gas, coal, petroleum, uranium.
o Increased use of fossil fuels without actions to mitigate greenhouse gases will have global climate
change implications. Energy efficiency and increase use of renewables contribute to climate change
mitigation and disaster risk reduction. Maintaining and protecting ecosystems allow using and
further developing hydropower sources of electricity and bioenergy.
Facts:
o 3 billion people rely on wood, coal, charcoal or animal waste for cooking and heating.
o Energy is the dominant contributor to climate change, accounting for around 60 per cent of total
global greenhouse gas emissions
o Since 1990, global emissions of CO2 have increased by more than 46 per cent.
o Hydropower is the largest single renewable electricity source today, providing 16% of world
electricity at competitive prices. It dominates the electricity mix in several countries, developed,
emerging or developing.
o Bioenergy is the single largest renewable energy source today, providing 10% of world primary
energy supply.
Targets linked to the environment:

1. Target 7.1: By 2030, ensure universal access to affordable, reliable and modern energy services.
2. Target 7.2: By 2030, increase substantially the share of renewable energy in the global energy mix.
3. Target 7.3: By 2030, double the global rate of improvement in energy efficiency.
4. Target 7.a: By 2030, enhance international cooperation to facilitate access to clean energy research
and technology, including renewable energy, energy efficiency and advanced and cleaner fossil-fuel
technology, and promote investment in energy infrastructure and clean energy technology
5. Target 7.b: By 2030, expand infrastructure and upgrade technology for supplying modern and
sustainable energy services for all in developing countries, in particular least developed countries,
small island developing States, and land-locked developing countries, in accordance with their
respective programmes of support.
COP 26
In COP26, the governments endorsed the Glasgow Climate Pact and made new pledges on
deforestation, methane emissions, coal, and more.
Here are some of the notable new commitments by governments, financial institutions, and
individuals:
o In a first for a UN climate agreement, the pact reached by the end of

COP26 urged countries to phase down coal and fossil-fuel subsidies.
But it did not ask countries to completely phase them out.
Glasgow Climate
o It called on countries to make more ambitious commitments by the end of
Pact
2022. (Previously, countries were asked to submit new pledges every five
years.)
o Countries also agreed on rules for international carbon markets.
o More than 130 countries pledged to halt and reverse deforestation
and land degradation by 2030. The signatories possess 90 percent of
the world’s forests.
Deforestation
o Notably, Brazil, home to the Amazon Rainforest, signed on.
o In addition, Jeff Bezos, one of the world’s richest people, pledged $2
billion to help restore natural habitats and transform food systems.
o More than one hundred countries signed the U.S.- and European
Methane Union–led Global Methane Pledge and agreed to collectively slash
methane emissions by 30 percent by 2030.
o Twenty-three countries went further than the Glasgow Climate Pact,
making new commitments to phase out coal.
o Some signed on to an initiative to help developing countries, such as India
Coal and Fossil and South Africa, transition away from coal.
Fuels o Twenty-five countries and five financial institutions committed to stop
public financing for most fossil fuel projects by the end of 2022. And
a handful of countries joined an alliance that aims to halt new drilling for
oil and gas.
o The United States and China, the world’s top emitters of greenhouse gases,
agreed to boost cooperation on combating climate change over
U.S.-China the next decade.
Agreement o They said they will work together on increasing the use of renewable
energy, developing regulatory frameworks, and deploying technologies
such as carbon capture.
India’s Net-Zero o India, one of the top emitters after China and the United States, will aim to
Pledge achieve net-zero emissions by 2070.
o In the Glasgow Climate Pact, governments agreed to set up a mechanism
to help countries already suffering loss and damage due to climate change,
though they did not work out the details.
o The pact also urged developed countries to double their collective
Climate Finance amount of funding by 2025 to help developing countries adapt to the
effects of climate change.
o During COP26, a few countries made such commitments. Among them,
Japan pledged an additional $2 billion per year for the next five
years, and Italy pledged an extra $1.4 billion per year.
Zero-Emission o More than thirty countries, dozens of states and cities, and several
Vehicles automotive companies agreed to work to guarantee that new cars and
vans sold are zero-emission by 2035 in leading markets and
2040 globally.
o More than 450 banks, insurers, pension funds, and other firms that
Firms’ Net-Zero
collectively manage $130 trillion committed to use their funds to
Pledges
reach net-zero emissions by 2050.
NET-ZERO
India has promised to cut its emissions to net zero by 2070. This was stated by Prime Minister of India
during COP 26 summit in Glasgow, United Kingdom.
About Net Zero

o Net-zero, which is also referred to as carbon-neutrality, does not mean that a country would bring
down its emissions to zero. Rather, net-zero is a state in which a country’s emissions are
compensated by absorption and removal of greenhouse gases from the atmosphere.
o Absorption of the emissions can be increased by creating more carbon sinks such as forests, while
removal of gases from the atmosphere requires futuristic technologies such as carbon capture and
storage.
o This way, it is even possible for a country to have negative emissions, if the absorption and removal
exceed the actual emissions. A good example is Bhutan which is often described as carbon-
negative because it absorbs more than it emits.
o A very active campaign has been going on for the last two years to get every country to sign on to a
net-zero goal for 2050. It is being argued that global carbon neutrality by 2050 is the only way to
achieve the Paris Agreement target of keeping the planet’s temperature from rising beyond 2°C
compared to pre-industrial times.
What Does It Mean to Reach Net-Zero Emissions?

o We will achieve net-zero emissions when any remaining human-caused GHG emissions are balanced
out by removing GHGs from the atmosphere in a process known as carbon removal.
o First and foremost, human-caused emissions — like those from fossil-fueled vehicles and
factories — should be reduced as close to zero as possible. Any remaining GHGs would be balanced
with an equivalent amount of carbon removal, for example by restoring forests or through direct
air capture and storage (DACS) technology.
o The concept of net-zero emissions is akin to "climate neutrality."
When Does the World Need to Reach Net-Zero Emissions?

o Under the Paris Agreement, countries agreed to limit warming well below 2 degrees C (3.6 degrees
F) and ideally 1.5 degrees C (2.7 degrees F). Climate impacts that are already unfolding around the
world, even with only 1.1 degrees C (2 degrees F) of warming — from melting ice to devastating heat
waves and more intense storms — show the urgency of minimizing temperature increase to no more
than 1.5 degrees C. The latest science suggests that to meet the Paris Agreement's temperature goals,
the world will need to reach net-zero emissions on the following timelines as given in image below:
o In scenarios that limit

warming to 1.5 degrees C,
carbon dioxide (CO2)
reaches net-zero on average
by 2050 (in scenarios with
low or no overshoot) to
2052 (in scenarios that
have high overshoot, in
which temperature rise
surpasses 1.5 degrees C for
some time before being
brought down). Total GHG
emissions reach net-zero
between 2063 and 2068.
o In 2 degrees C scenarios, CO2 reaches net-zero on average by 2070 (in scenarios with a greater than
66% likelihood of limiting warming to 2 degrees C) to 2085 (50–66% likelihood). Total GHG
emissions reach net-zero by the end of the century.
o The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5˚C, from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC), finds that if the world reaches net-zero emissions one-decade sooner, by 2040, the
chance of limiting warming to 1.5 degrees C is considerably higher. The sooner emissions peak, and
the lower they are at that point, the more realistic it is that we achieve net-zero in time. We would
also need to rely less on carbon removal in the second half of the century.
Do All Countries Need to Reach Net-Zero at the Same Time?

o The timelines above are global averages. Because countries' economies and stages of development
vary widely, there is no one-size-fits-all timeline for individual countries.
o There are, however, hard physical limits to the total emissions the atmosphere can support while
limiting global temperature increase to the agreed goals of the Paris Agreement.
o At the very least, major emitters (such as the United States, the European Union and China) should
reach net-zero GHG emissions by 2050, or it will be hard for the math to work regardless of what
other countries do. Ideally, major emitters will reach net-zero much earlier, given that the largest
economies play an outsize role in determining the trajectory of global emissions.
How Do We Achieve Net-Zero Emissions?

o Policy, technology and behavior need to shift across the board. For example, in pathways to 1.5
degrees C, renewables are projected to supply 70-85% of electricity by 2050.
o Energy efficiency and fuel-switching measures are critical for transportation.
o Improving the efficiency of food production, changing dietary choices, halting
deforestation, restoring degraded lands, and reducing food loss and waste also have
significant potential to reduce emissions.
o It is critical that the structural and economic transition necessary to limit warming to 1.5 degrees C is
approached in a just manner, especially for workers tied to high-carbon industries.
o The good news is that most of the technologies we need are available and they are increasingly cost-
competitive with high-carbon alternatives. Solar and wind now provide the cheapest power for 67%
of the world. Markets are waking up to these opportunities and to the risks of a high-carbon
economy, and shifting accordingly.
o Additionally, investments will need to be made in carbon removal. The different pathways
assessed by the IPCC to achieve 1.5 degrees C rely on different levels of carbon removal, but all rely
on it to some extent. Removing CO2 from the atmosphere will be necessary to compensate for
emissions from sectors in which reaching zero emissions is more difficult, such as aviation. Carbon
removal can be achieved by several means, including land-based approaches (such as restoring
forests and boosting soil uptake of carbon) and technological approaches (such as direct
air capture and storage, or mineralization).
Does the Paris Agreement Commit Countries to Achieving Net-Zero Emissions?

o In short, yes.
The Paris Agreement has a long-term goal of achieving "a balance between anthropogenic emissions
by sources and removals by sinks of greenhouse gases in the second half of this century , on the basis
of equity, and in the context of sustainable development and efforts to eradicate poverty." The
concept of balancing emissions and removals is akin to reaching net-zero emissions.
o Coupled with the ultimate goal to limit warming well below 2 degrees C, and aiming for 1.5 degrees
C, the Paris Agreement commits governments to sharply reduce emissions and ramp up efforts to
reach net-zero emissions in time to avoid the worst consequences of climate change. The Paris
Agreement framework also invites countries to submit long-term, low-emissions development
strategies by 2020. These strategies can be a vehicle for setting net-zero targets and chart how
countries aim to make such transitions.
o Commitments to create bold short- and long-term targets that align with a net-zero emissions future
would send important signals to all levels of government, to the private sector, and to the public that
leaders are betting on a safe and prosperous future, rather than one devastated by climate impacts.
COP 27
The United Nations Special Envoy for Food Systems Summit, has called for an unprecedented focus
on food systems — food and agriculture — by ensuring that COP27 (in Egypt) has a dedicated
focus on this.
Concern
o There is a need to reimagine our food systems, which requires us to look at food systems
through the angle of climate change adaptation and mitigation.
o Food systems should be made more resilient to climate change while making them green and
sustainable.
o IPCC 6th report highlighted the looming danger of climate change on Food Security.
Climate change impact on Food Security

o Shrinking Food Basket: climate change impact whole supply chain from production to
consumption. It destroys land and crops, kills livestock, depletes fisheries, and cuts off transport to
markets. This impacts food production, availability, diversity, access, and safety.
o Increasing Hunger : United Nations World Food Programme (WFP) shows that a 2°C rise in
average global temperature from pre-industrial levels will see a staggering 189 million additional
people in the grip of hunger.
o Increasing Vulnerability : Majority of communities, who rely on subsistence agriculture, fishing,
and livestock, have to bear the impacts of climate change with limited means to adapt.
o Increasing Famine tendencies: Across the world, up to 811 million people do not have enough
food and as per the recent WFP estimates, 41 million people in 43 countries are at risk of sliding into
famine.
o Increasing Hidden Hunger : Latest IPCC report asserted, climate change threatens nutritional
food availability because both crop yield and crop nutritional composition are declining.
Measures need to be taken

o Creating resilient livelihoods and food security solutions by protecting and improving the
livelihood of vulnerable communities.
o The adaptation of climate-resilient food crops, such as millets, for nutritional security.
o Enabling women’s control and ownership of production processes and assets and
increased value addition and local solutions.
o Promoting a resilient agriculture sector. This can be done by creating sustainable opportunities,
access to finance, and innovation for small-holder farmers, with climate information and
preparedness.
o Building capacity and knowledge of civil society and governments for vulnerability
analysis. This will increase food security by addressing the link between food security and climate
risk.
o Developed countries should fulfill their Paris Pledge of $100 billion annual fund for
developing nations.
o Need to follow principles of common but differentiated responsibilities (CBDR), Climate
Justice and principles of intergenerational equity in letters and spirits because the very
vulnerable-poor countries continue to be hardest hit. The top 10 most food-insecure vulnerable
countries contribute only 0.08% of global carbon emissions.
CARBON SINK
A carbon sink is anything that absorbs more carbon from the atmosphere than it releases – for
example, plants, the ocean and soil. In contrast, a carbon source is anything that releases more
carbon into the atmosphere than it absorbs – for example, the burning of fossil fuels or volcanic
eruptions.
o Carbon is an element that is essential to all life on Earth. Carbon makes up the fats and
carbohydrates of our food and is part of the molecules, like DNA and protein, that make up our
bodies. Carbon, in the form of carbon dioxide, is even a part of the air we breathe. It is also stored in
places like the ocean, rocks, fossil fuels, and plants.
o The carbon cycle describes the flow of carbon between each of these places. For example,
carbon continually flows in and out of the atmosphere and also living things. As plants
photosynthesize, they absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. When plants die, the carbon goes
into the soil, and microbes can release the carbon back into the atmosphere through decomposition.
o Forests are typically carbon sinks, places that absorb more carbon than they release. They
continually take carbon out of the atmosphere through the process of photosynthesis.
o The ocean is another example of a carbon sink, absorbing a large amount of carbon dioxide
from the atmosphere.
o Some processes release more carbon dioxide into the atmosphere than they absorb. Any process that
uses fossil fuels—such as burning coal to make electricity—releases a lot of carbon into
the atmosphere.
o Raising cattle for food also releases a lot of carbon into the atmosphere. These processes
that release carbon into the atmosphere are known as carbon sources.
o Ideally, the carbon cycle would keep Earth’s carbon concentrations in balance, moving the carbon
from place to place and keeping atmospheric carbon dioxide levels steady. However, the carbon cycle
is changing because of human activity.
Protecting our carbon sinks

The ocean, atmosphere, soil and forests are the world’s largest carbon sinks. Protecting these vital
ecosystems is essential for tackling climate change and keeping our climate stable. But they’re
increasingly under threat.
o Forests: The world’s forests absorb 2.6bn tonnes of carbon dioxide every year. Yet despite their
vital importance, an area the size of a football pitch is destroyed every second. There are three
important strands to this effort: improving laws, empowering forest communities and fighting illegal
logging and trade.
o Soil: The Earth’s soil absorbs roughly a quarter of all human emissions each year, with a large
portion of this stored in peatland or permafrost. But it's under threat from increasing global demand
for food production, chemical pollution and climate change. Need to push for a reformed
agricultural model.
o The Ocean: The ocean has sucked up about a quarter of the carbon dioxide released into the
atmosphere since we began burning fossil fuels for energy during the Industrial Revolution.
Phytoplankton are the main reason the ocean is one of the biggest carbon sinks.
These microscopic marine algae and bacteria play a huge role in the world’s carbon cycle - absorbing
about as much carbon as all the plants and trees on land combined.
But plastic pollution in our ocean means plankton are eating micro plastics which is impacting the rate
at which they are trapping carbon in our ocean.
NATIONAL HYDROGEN MISSION

o National Hydrogen Mission aims to cut down carbon emissions and increase the use of
renewable sources of energy while aligning India’s efforts with global best practices in
technology, policy and regulation.
o The Government of India has allotted Rs 25 crore in the Union Budget 2021–22 for the research and
development in hydrogen energy and intends to produce three-fourths of its hydrogen from
renewable resources by 2050.
o Similarly, the GCC countries have invested heavily in hydrogen energy and are looking at it as the
holy-grail to a cleaner future. This is an opportune time for India and the GCC countries to
strengthen partnership in R&D, production, storage and transportation of hydrogen
energy.
o India should look at enhancing hydrogen cooperation with GCC countries, especially the front
runners, i.e., Saudi Arabia, the UAE and Oman.
Draft Paper
o The NHM, according to a draft paper prepared by the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy
(MNRE), has identified pilot projects, infrastructure and supply chain, research and development,
regulations and public outreach as broad activities for investment with a proposed financial outlay of
Rs 800 crores for the next three years.
o It aims to leverage the country’s landmass and low solar and wind tariffs to produce low-
cost green hydrogen and ammonia for export to Japan, South Korea and Europe.
o In this regard, there are immense possibilities for India to collaborate with the Gulf Cooperation
Council (GCC) countries that have also invested significantly in developing hydrogen as a future
source of energy.
o Geographical proximity and robust trade ties in conventional energy calls for proactive measures to
collaborate with GCC countries especially Saudi Arabia, UAE and Oman for research and
development pertaining to hydrogen energy.
Hydrogen Energy
o Hydrogen is emerging as an important source of energy since it has zero carbon content and is a
non-polluting source of energy in contrast to hydrocarbons that have net carbon content in the range
of 75–85 per cent.
o Hydrogen energy is expected to reduce carbon emissions that are set to jump by 1.5 billion
tons in 2021.
o It has the highest energy content by weight and lowest energy content by volume.
o As per International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), Hydrogen shall make up 6 per cent
of total energy consumption by 2050.
o The Hydrogen Council Report, 2021 also mentions that, global investments on hydrogen will
constitute around 1.4 per cent of the total global energy funding by 2030.
o Hydrogen energy is currently at a nascent stage of development, but has considerable potential for
aiding the process of
energy transition from
hydrocarbons to
renewables. Though it is
the most abundantly
available element on earth,
commercially viable
Hydrogen can be produced
from hydrocarbons
including natural gas, oil
and coal through processes
like steam methane
reforming, partial
oxidation and coal
gasification; as well as
from renewables like
water, sunlight and wind
through electrolysis and photolysis and other thermo-chemical processes.
o The current global demand for hydrogen is 70 million metric tons per year, more than 76 per cent of
which is being produced from natural gas, 23 per cent comes from coal and the remaining is
produced from electrolysis of water.
o Hydrogen can be stored in cryo-compressed tanks in gaseous form apart from being kept in
liquefied and solid state. Presently, Hydrogen is mostly used in industry sector including
those dealing with oil refining, ammonia production, methanol production and steel production. It
has huge potential in transportation sector as a direct replacement to fossil fuels.
o Shipping and aviation have limited low-carbon fuel options available and represent an opportunity
for hydrogen-based fuels.
Hydrogen Energy in India

o Hydrogen is at an early stage of entering the energy sector in India. Government as well as non-
government funding agencies are engaged in R&D projects pertaining to hydrogen production,
storage, utilisation, power generation and for transport applications.
o As early as in 2003, National Hydrogen Energy Board was formed and in 2006 the Ministry
of New and Renewable Energy laid out the National Hydrogen Energy Road Map identifying
transport and power generation as two major green energy initiatives.
o India is participating in Mission Innovation Challenge for clean hydrogen and shares the
objective to accelerate the development of a global hydrogen market by identifying and overcoming
key technology barriers to the production, distribution, storage and use of hydrogen at gigawatt
scale.
o By 2050 India intends to produce three-fourths of its hydrogen from renewable resources.
o Presently, more than 100 research groups are focusing on fuel cell technology. There are a number of
foreign and Indian companies that are involved in hydrogen production, storage or delivery in India,
including Praxair (USA), Linde (global-member of hydrogen council), Inox (Indo-US joint venture),
Air Liquide (France), SAGIM (France), Air Products (USA), Fuel Cell Energy (USA), H2Scan (USA),
ITM Power (UK), Heliocentris (Germany), Aditya Birla, Bhoruka Gases Ltd, Gujarat Alkalies and
Chemicals Limited, Gujarat Heavy Chemicals Ltd, Air Science Technologies and Sukan Engineering
Private Limited.
Hydrogen Energy and GCC

o Rich in hydrocarbon resources, currently the GCC countries consume around 7 per cent of the grey
hydrogen sourced from the natural gas. Qatar is the largest consumer of hydrogen in the
region followed by Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Oman, the UAE and Bahrain.
o UAE and Saudi Arabia, and more recently Oman, have embraced the concept of a hydrogen
economy. They are keen to use it domestically as part of decarbonisation effort as well as intend to
use it as an alternative export commodity. Besides, there are other motivating factors including
energy security and economic diversification.
o GCC countries are at the forefront of cost reductions in renewables and in shaping the energy
transformation within as well as outside the region. According to an IRENA analysis, the accelerated
deployment of renewable energy in the GCC region can reduce emissions of CO2 by 136 million tons.
o Apart from that, there are facilitating factors that make it convenient for the GCC countries to invest
in renewable energy. These countries have the potential to become hydrogen producers as well as
exporters as they have existing industrial capacity and required capital to invest in the initial
infrastructure.
o Second, GCC has abundance of inexpensive land and water along with solar and wind
resources that can help in production of Green Hydrogen.
o Third, the countries are situated in geographical proximity to the emerging and future
markets for cleaner fuel.
o Lastly, the GCC countries can easily be producers of Blue Hydrogen due to availability of
hydrocarbons and the carbon capture, utilisation and storage (CCUS) capacity.
India–GCC Cooperation
o India and GCC countries share robust energy cooperation. In 2017–18 India imported nearly 53 per
cent of its energy from the Persian Gulf, and UAE and Saudi Arabia were third and fourth largest
trading partners of India.
o India and the GCC are natural energy partners and have huge potential for extending cooperation in
cleaner fuels like hydrogen. India has signed MoUs on renewable energy with most of the GCC
countries.
o India’s largest pure-play solar platform Acme Solar Holdings Ltd plans to invest US$ 2.5 billion to
manufacture green ammonia and green hydrogen in Duqm and signed an MoU with the
Oman Company for the Development of the Special Economic Zone. The manufacturing facility will
supply green ammonia to Europe, America and Asia region and will produce 2,200 metric tonnes
(mt) of green ammonia per day.
o India is looking at developing Hydrogen collaboration with Bahrain and even invited Bahrain to
participate in the Hydrogen Roundtable in April 2021. The two countries agreed to engage more
in renewable energy capacity-building and focus on cooperation between their governments as well
as the private sector, particularly in the field of solar, wind and clean hydrogen.
o In 2019, India signed an agreement with Saudi Arabia about cooperation in renewable energy
including hydrogen. The two countries are collaboratively exploring Hydrogen Energy as a future
source of energy. Saudi companies like Alfanar and Aljomaih that have invested in India’s wind and
solar energy projects may be roped in for collaboration on production of Green Hydrogen.
o Similarly GCC leaders too have stated the importance of clean fuel and their willingness to
collaborate on the hydrogen energy.
o Major prospects of hydrogen collaboration between India and GCC countries are in terms of
investment and technology sharing. One of the major challenges faced by GCC countries in
production of hydrogen fuel is the incompatibility of electrolysers with salt water. Sea water needs
to be desalinised before it becomes feasible for electrolysis. There is a potential for
collaboration between India and these countries on this issue.
o A number of Indian research groups are working on hydrogen generation from sea water. For
instance, Central Electrochemical Research Institute, Karaikudi is conducting research on
design of electrodes and electrolytes for hydrogen generation using sea water and Centre for Fuel
Cell Technology at the International Advanced Research Centre for Powder Metallurgy and New
Materials, Chennai is conducting research on sea water electrolysis.
ARCTIC COUNCIL
o The establishment of the Arctic Council was considered an important milestone enhancing
cooperation in the circumpolar North.
o In the Ottawa Declaration, the eight Arctic States established the Council as a high-level forum to
provide means for promoting cooperation, coordination and interaction among the Arctic States –
including the full consultation and full involvement of Arctic Indigenous communities and other
Arctic inhabitants.
o The Arctic Council is the leading intergovernmental forum promoting cooperation,
coordination and interaction among the Arctic states, Arctic Indigenous communities
and other Arctic inhabitants on common Arctic issues, in particular, on issues of sustainable
development and environmental protection in the Arctic.
The work of the Council is primarily carried out in six Working Groups:
1. The Arctic Contaminants Action Program (ACAP) acts as a strengthening and supporting
mechanism to encourage national actions to reduce emissions and other releases of pollutants.
2. The Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme (AMAP) monitors the Arctic
environment, ecosystems and human populations, and provides scientific advice to support
governments as they tackle pollution and adverse effects of climate change.
3. The Conservation of Arctic Flora and Fauna Working Group (CAFF) addresses the
conservation of Arctic biodiversity, working to ensure the sustainability of the Arctic’s living
resources.
4. The Emergency Prevention, Preparedness and Response Working Group (EPPR) works
to protect the Arctic environment from the threat or impact of an accidental release of pollutants or
radionuclides.
5. The Protection of the Arctic Marine Environment (PAME) Working Group is the focal point
of the Arctic Council’s activities related to the protection and sustainable use of the Arctic marine
environment.
6. The Sustainable Development Working Group (SDWG) works to advance sustainable
development in the Arctic and to improve the conditions of Arctic communities as a whole.
7. The Council may also establish Task Forces or Expert Groups to carry out specific work.
Member States
Canada, the Kingdom of Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, the Russian Federation, Sweden and the
United States
Permanent Participants
Aleut International Association (AIA), Arctic Athabaskan Council (AAC), Gwich'in Council
International (GCI), Inuit Circumpolar Council (ICC), Russian Association of Indigenous Peoples of the
North (RAIPON), Saami Council (SC)
Observers
o States: France, Germany, the Netherlands, Poland, Spain, United Kingdom, People’s Republic of
China, Italian Republic, Republic of Korea, Republic of Singapore, Republic of India
o Non-Govermental Organizations: Advisory Committee on Protection of the Seas (ACOPS),
Arctic Institute of North America (AINA)—Formerly Arctic Cultural Gateway (ACG), Association of
World Reindeer Herders (AWRH), Circumpolar Conservation Union (CCU), International Arctic
Science Committee (IASC), International Arctic Social Sciences Association (IASSA), International
Union for Circumpolar Health (IUCH), International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs (IWGIA),
Northern Forum (NF), University of the Arctic (UArctic), World Wide Fund for Nature-Global Arctic
Program (WWF)
Chairmanship
o The chairmanship of the Council rotates among the eight member states, each state holding the
position for two years at a time.
o Iceland is currently holding the Arctic Council Chairmanship (2019-2021).
LIGHTNING IN ARCTIC
o Meteorologists were stunned when three
successive thunderstorms swept across the
icy Arctic from Siberia to north of Alaska,
unleashing lightning bolts in an unusual
phenomenon that scientists say will become
less rare with global warming.
o Typically, the air over the Arctic Ocean,
especially when the water is covered with
ice, lacks the convective heat needed to
generate lightning storms. But as climate
change warms the Arctic faster than the rest
of the world, that's changing, scientists say.
Tripled in frequency
o Episodes of summer lightning within the
Arctic Circle have tripled since 2010, a trend
directly tied to climate change and
increasing loss of sea ice in the far north,
scientists reported in a study published in the journal Geophysical Research Letters. As sea ice
vanishes, more water is able to evaporate, adding moisture to the warming atmosphere.
o These electrical storms threaten boreal forests fringing the Arctic, as they spark fires in remote
regions already baking under the round-the-clock summer sun.
o The paper also documented more frequent lightning over the Arctic’s treeless tundra regions, as well
as above the Arctic Ocean and pack ice. In August 2019, lightning even struck within 100 kilometers
of the North Pole, the researchers found.
o In Alaska alone, thunderstorm activity is on track to increase threefold by the end of the century if
current climate trends continue.
CONSERVATION- FLORA AND FAUNA
IUCN
o International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), in full International Union for
Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources was formerly called World Conservation
Union.
o It is a network of environmental organizations founded as the International Union for the
Protection of Nature in October 1948 in Fontainebleau, France, to promote nature
conservation and the ecologically sustainable use of natural resources.
o It changed its name to the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources
(IUCN) in 1956 and was also known as the World Conservation Union (IUCN) from 1990 to 2008.
The IUCN is the world’s oldest global environmental organization.
o Its headquarters are in Gland, Switz.
o Through its member organizations, the IUCN supports and participates in environmental scientific
research; promotes and helps implement national conservation legislation, policies, and practices;
and operates or manages thousands of field projects worldwide.
o The IUCN’s activities are organized into several theme-based programs ranging from business
and biodiversity to forest preservation to water and wetlands conservation. In addition, a smaller
number of special initiatives draw upon the work of different programs to address specific issues,
such as climate change, conservation, and poverty reduction.
o The volunteer work of more than 10,000 scientists and other experts is coordinated through special
commissions on education and communication; environmental, economic, and social policy;
environmental law; ecosystem management; species survival; and protected areas.
o All of the IUCN’s work is guided by a global program, which is adopted by member organizations
every four years at the IUCN World
Conservation Congress.
o The IUCN maintains the IUCN
Red List of Threatened
Species, a comprehensive
assessment of the current risk of
extinction of thousands of plant
and animal species. The
organization also publishes or
coauthors hundreds of books,
reports, and other documents each
year.
o The IUCN has been granted
observer status at the United
Nations General Assembly.
o The IUCN’s membership includes
more than 1,000 governmental and
nongovernmental organizations from more than 140 countries.
o It is governed by a democratically elected council, which is chosen by member organizations at
each World Conservation Congress. The IUCN’s funding comes from a number of governments,
agencies, foundations, member organizations, and corporations.
CITES
o The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, often
referred to as CITES, is an agreement between governments that regulates the international
trade of wildlife and wildlife products—everything from live animals and plants to food,
leather goods, and trinkets.
o It came into force in 1975 with the goal of ensuring that international trade does not threaten the
survival of wild plants and animals.
o There are about 5,800 species of animals and 30,000 species of plants protected by CITES currently.
They’re categorized into one of three appendices, depending on how at risk from trade they are.
o As of June 2019, CITES had 183 party governments, which must abide by CITES regulations by
implementing legislation within their own borders to enforce those regulations.
o CITES was first conceived of at a 1963 meeting of the International Union for the Conservation
of Nature (IUCN), the global authority on the conservation status of wild animals and plants.
What are CITES appendices?

There are three appendices: Appendix I, II, and III. Each denotes a different level of protection from
trade.
o Appendix I includes species that are in danger of extinction because of international trade.
Permits are required for import and export, and trade for commercial purposes is prohibited.
Trade may be allowed for research or law enforcement purposes, among a few other limited reasons,
but first the source country must confirm that taking that plant or animal won’t hurt the species’ chance
of survival. (This is known as a “non-detriment finding.”)
The Asiatic lion and tigers are two species listed as Appendix I.
o Appendix II includes species that aren’t facing imminent extinction but need monitoring
to ensure that trade doesn’t become a threat.
Export is allowed if the plant,
animal, or related product was
obtained legally and if harvesting it
won’t hurt the species’ chance of
survival.
American alligators are listed on
Appendix II, for example. They
were overhunted through the
1960s for their skin, but their
numbers are now on the rise.
CITES Appendix II listing helps
ensure the alligator skin trade
doesn’t become a threat again.
o Appendix III includes
species that are protected
in at least one country, when that country asks others for help in regulating the trade.
Regulations for these species vary, but typically the country that requested the listing can issue export
permits, and export from other countries requires a certificate of origin.
CONVENTION ON BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY

o The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), known informally as the Biodiversity Convention, is a
multilateral treaty.
o The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) was adopted at the Earth Summit, in Rio de Janeiro,
in 1992.
o It has three main objectives:

a. To conserve biological diversity;
b. To use its components in a sustainable way;
c. To share fairly and equitably the benefits arising from the use of genetic resources.
o The CBD was negotiated under the guidance of the United Nations. It was signed by more than 150
government leaders at the Rio Earth Summit (which official denomination is the 'United Nations
Conference on Environment and Development').
o The convention is now one of the most widely ratified international treaties on environmental issues,
with 194 member countries.
o Unlike other international agreements that set compulsory targets and obligations, the CBD takes a
flexible approach to implementation.
o It identifies general goals and policies, and countries are free to determine how they want to
implement them.
The Convention on Biological Diversity has adopted two supplementary protocols

they are:
1. The Cartagena Protocol on Bio-safety - The Cartagena Protocol on Bio-safety to the
Convention on Biological Diversity is an international treaty governing the movements of living
modified organisms (LMOs) resulting from modern biotechnology from one country to another. It
was adopted in 2000 as a supplementary agreement to the Convention on Biological Diversity and
entered into force in 2003.
2. Nagoya Protocol on Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable Sharing of
Benefits Arising from their Utilization - The Nagoya Protocol on Access to Genetic Resources
and the Fair and Equitable Sharing of Benefits Arising from their Utilization to the Convention on
Biological Diversity is a supplementary agreement to the Convention on Biological Diversity.
o It provides a transparent legal framework for the effective implementation of one of the three
objectives of the CBD: the fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising out of the
utilization of genetic resources. The Protocol was adopted in 2010 in Nagoya, Aichi Province,
Japan, and entered into force in 2014.
o Its objective is the fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from the utilization of genetic
resources, thereby contributing to the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity. The Strategic
Plan consists of 20 new biodiversity targets, termed the 'Aichi Biodiversity Targets'
 Aichi Biodiversity Targets
The 20 Aichi Targets are divided into 5 sections

o Strategic Goal A: Address the underlying causes of biodiversity loss by mainstreaming biodiversity
across government and society
o Strategic Goal B: Reduce the direct pressures on biodiversity and promote sustainable use.
o Strategic Goal C: To improve the status of biodiversity by safeguarding ecosystems, species and
genetic diversity.
o Strategic Goal D: Enhance the benefits to all from biodiversity and ecosystem services.
o Strategic Goal E: Enhance implementation through participatory planning, knowledge

management and capacity building.
INDIA STATE OF FOREST REPORT (ISFR) 2021

The Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change (MoEFCC) released the India State of
Forest Report (ISFR) 2021. The report showed a continuing increase in forest cover across the
country, but a decline in moderate dense forest and an increase in forest fires.
o The IFSR is an overall
assessment of the
country’s forests and is
published every two
years by the Forest
Survey of India.
o It was published in 1987
for the first time and
recently, the 17th ISFR
was released.
o The ISFR-2021 provides
information on forest
cover, tree cover,
mangrove cover,
growing stock,
carbon stock in
India’s forests,
forest fire
monitoring, forest
cover in tiger
reserve areas, above
ground estimates of biomass using SAR data and climate change hotspots in Indian forests.
o It is the 17th biennial assessment of India’s forests by the Forest Survey of India, an organisation
under the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC).
o The ISFR 2021 presents the latest status of the 'Forest cover' and 'Tree cover' of the country.
o In addition to the regular chapters, this time round, a special chapter on “Forest Cover
assessment in Tiger reserves and Tiger corridor areas of the country and decadal
change in Forest Cover” has also been included.
o Results of the two special studies namely Above Ground Biomass Estimation using Synthetic
Aperture Radar data (carried out in collaboration with ISRO) and Climate hot spots in
forest areas studies (carried out in collaboration with BITS Pilani, Goa campus) are also
being presented in this report.
o India's progress towards achieving the Nationally Determined Contribution commitments are also
included as part of the chapter on Forest carbon assessment.
Key findings of ISFR 2021

o The biennial forest report has found that there is an increase of 2,261 sq km in the total forest
and tree cover of the country, as compared to 2019.
o The total forest and tree cover of the country is 80.9 million hectares which is 24.62 per cent of the
geographical area of the country. As compared to the assessment of 2019, there is an increase of
2,261 sq km in the total forest and tree cover of the country.
o The increase in the forest cover has been observed as 1,540 sq km and that in tree cover is 721 sq km.
o Top three states showing increase in forest cover are Andhra Pradesh (647 sq km) followed by
Telangana (632 sq km) and Odisha (537 sq km).
o Area-wise Madhya Pradesh has the largest forest cover in the country followed by Arunachal
Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Odisha and Maharashtra.
o In terms of forest cover as percentage of total geographical area, the top five states are
Mizoram (84.53 per cent), Arunachal Pradesh (79.33 per cent), Meghalaya (76.00 per cent),
Manipur (74.34 per cent) and Nagaland (73.90 per cent).
o A total of 17 states/union territories’ have above 33 percent of the geographical area
under forest cover. Out of these states and union territories, five namely Lakshadweep, Mizoram,
Andaman & Nicobar Islands, Arunachal Pradesh and Meghalaya have more than 75 per cent forest
cover.
o Twelve states and union territories namely Manipur, Nagaland, Tripura, Goa, Kerala, Sikkim,
Uttarakhand, Chhattisgarh, Dadra & Nagar Haveli and Daman & Diu, Assam, Odisha, have forest
cover between 33 per cent to 75 per cent.
o Total mangrove cover in the country is 4,992 sq km. An increase of 17 sq km in mangrove cover
has been observed as compared to the previous assessment of 2019. Top three states showing
mangrove cover increase are Odisha (8 sq km) followed by Maharashtra (4 sq km) and Karnataka (3
sq km).
o Bamboo forests have grown from 13,882 million culms (stems) in 2019 to 53,336 million culms in
2021.
o Total carbon stock in the country’s forest is estimated to be 7,204 million tonnes and there is an
increase of 79.4 million tonnes in the carbon stock of the country as compared to the last assessment
of 2019. The annual increase in the carbon stock is 39.7 million tonnes.
Causes of concern
Forest fires:
o Over 3.98 lakh forest fires were reported in India in the fire season from 2020-2021, more than
double the number of blazes compared to the previous year.
o Among states, the maximum number of fires were observed in Odisha at 51,968, followed by Madhya
Pradesh at 47,795 and Chhattisgarh at 38,106.
o Among districts, the maximum number of such incidents were observed in Gadchiroli in
Maharashtra at 10,577, followed by Kandhamal in Odisha at 6,156 and Bijapur in Chhattisgarh at
5,499 incidents.
o According to the long-term trend analysis performed by the FSI, nearly 10.66 per cent area of
forest cover in India is under extremely to very highly fire-prone zones.
Decline in natural forests:

o Even though ‘very dense forests’ (with canopy density over 70 per cent) have increased by 501 sq km,
'moderately dense forests' or ‘natural forests’ (with 40-70 per cent canopy density) have declined by
1,582 sq km.
o When compared with an increase of 2,621 sq km in open forest areas (10-40 per cent density), the
decline of moderately dense forests suggests a degradation of forests in the country as natural forests
are degrading to less dense open forest areas.
Decline in North-eastern forest cover: Even though Mizoram, Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya,
Manipur and Nagaland top the charts in terms of forest cover as percentage of total geographical area,
the five north-eastern states have all shown a loss in forest cover. The forest cover in the region has
shown an overall decline of 1,020 sq km in forest cover.
Other findings
o The report for the first time has assessed forest cover in tiger reserves, tiger corridors and the Gir
forest and found that it has increased by 37.15 sq km (0.32 per cent) in tiger corridors between 2011-
2021, but tiger reserves recorded a decline of 22.6 sq km (0.04 per cent).
o The report has found that forest cover has increased in 20 tiger reserves, and decreased in 32 in the
last 10 years.
Impact of climate change

o The ISFR 2021 estimates that by 2030, 45-64 per cent of Indian forests will be affected by climate
change and rising temperatures, and forests in all states (except Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura and
Nagaland) will be highly vulnerable climate hot spots.
o The report suggests that Ladakh (forest cover 0.1-0.2 per cent) is likely to be the most affected by
climate change.
ANIMAL DISCOVERIES 2020

India has added 557 new species to its fauna, which includes 407 new species and 150 new records,
reveals Animal Discoveries 2020, a document published recently by the Zoological Survey of India
(ZSI). The number of faunal species in India has climbed to 1,02,718 species with the discovery of the
news species.
o The ZSI, which was set up by British zoologist Thomas Nelson Annandale, in 1916, has been
publishing Animal Discoveries since 2007.
o The ZSI publication shows that India is a mega biodiverse country, rich in biodiversity, with
23.39% of its geographical area under forest and tree cover.
o India is positioned 8th in mega biodiversity countries in the world with 0.46 BioD index
which is calculated by its percentage of species in each group relative to the total global number of
species in each group.
o Among the new species, some interesting species discovered in 2020 are:
Trimeresurus salazar a new species of green pit viper discovered from Arunachal Pradesh
Lycodon deccanensis the Deccan wolf snake discovered from Karnataka
Sphaerotheca Bengaluru a new species of burrowing frog named after the city of Bengaluru
Xyrias anjaalai a new deep water species of snake eel from Kerala
Glyptothorax a new species of catfish from Manipur
giudikyensis
Clyster galateansis a new species of scarab beetles from the Great Nicobar Biosphere
a bat species earlier known from China, Taiwan and Russia, has been
Myotis cf. frater
reported for the first time from Uttarakhand in India
an orange-headed thrush from the Narcondam island in the Andaman
Zoothera citrina
& Nicobar Islands.
gibsonhilli
o Of these 557 species, invertebrates constitute the majority with 486 species, while 71 species belong
to vertebrates. Among invertebrates, insects dominated, with 344 species, whereas pisces and
reptiles dominated among vertebrates.
o Among the States, the highest number of new species were discovered from Karnataka
(66 species), followed by Kerala (51 species). Also in 2020, 46 new species were discovered from
Rajasthan and 30 from West Bengal.
o In terms of new records or species recorded in the country for the first time, Arunachal Pradesh had
the highest (20 new records). In the Andaman & Nicobar Islands, 25 new species were discovered
and 16 new records documented in 2020.
PROJECT TIGER
o India is now home to almost 75% of the world’s Wild Tigers. The relative transparency in the
estimation process and the dedication to the project in India of Saving the Tiger is unparalleled.
o A previous estimation by the data collected, and number of Tigers shot for sport – it was estimated
that, at the beginning of the 20th Century, there likely could have been upwards of 50,000 Tigers in
India alone. The continued hunting, poaching and habitat destruction has decimated their
populations and by the 1960’s, wildlife in India had hit rock bottom. They were treated like vermin,
and nearly exterminated.
o It was around 1970, that, a group of conservationists and researchers applied sustained pressure on
the Indian Government. Notable Conservationist Dr.Kailash Sankhla made a personal appeal to
then Prime Minister Mrs. Indira Gandhi, who turned out to be empathetic and understanding
towards the need to protect India’s Natural Heritage – the oldest heritage of India.
o Wildlife Protection Act was drawn up in 1972 as a result, and it ended legally, all hunting in
India – and protected individual species by Law.
o Project Tiger was launched subsequently, in 1973, and Dr.Kailash Sankhla was appointed the 1st
Director of Project Tiger in India.
o Jim Corbett Tiger Reserve in Uttarakhand was the 1st Tiger Reserve in India. A further 8
Tiger Reserves were established with around 9115 sq.km of forests under the wing of Project Tiger.
o This figure stands today at 71,000 sq.km – a stark improvement from its initial days but nearly not
enough forest cover for a burgeoning country such as India with a beautiful and rich Natural
Heritage.
o Today, there are 53 Tiger Reserves established in India.
o Each Tiger Reserve is divided into 02 areas: Core Area and Buffer Area
Core Area /Critical Tiger Habitat

o This is the critical habitat of
surviving Tigers and prey species
which can support or already
support Tiger populations in the
landscape due to favourable
ecological conditions having
potential for improving existing
habitat to ensure long-term
success of the species.
o No human activity save for
conservation-related or Park-
management related activities are
permitted here. Everyday tasks of
wood collection, grazing and
utilisation of forest produce is
banned.
o Tourism is permitted, however according to NTCA guidelines, only upto 20% of the Core
Area is available for Wildlife Tourism.
o These areas usually have a legal status of National Park or Wildlife Sanctuary.
Buffer Area
o Demarcated areas adjoining or surrounding the Core Area have been given the status of the Buffer
Area.
o These are peripheral areas of the Core or newly created habitat for wildlife which inevitably spills
over from the declared Core Area.
o However, activities such as livestock grazing, controlled collection of firewood and minimal use of
forest produce for the sake of livelihood by the locals are permitted.
o Forest Check-Posts and Patrolling Camps have been strategically established across Tiger Reserves
in the Core and Buffer Areas to mitigate poaching threats and ensure management of the reserve and
swift action in case of emergency situations.
Village Relocation
o One of the most difficult and herculean of all tasks has been the ongoing Village Relocation
Programmes in Tiger Reserves, ongoing since 1973.
o Voluntary relocation of people and settlements has been one of the major tasks and a massive
challenge ineffective establishment and management of Tiger Reserves across India in addition to
reducing poaching threats and preserving the habitat.
o Many villages were/are situated in the identified Critical Tiger Habitats in India, as well as in the
newly identified Critical Tiger Habitats for the future establishment of Tiger Reserves. The need to
educate the local people of the benefits of relocating/moving away from their present homes in the
Tiger Reserve. Compensatory land or money is provided as aid from the government along with
logistical assistance.
o The challenge of Human Rights, Political pressure and vested interest groups has definitely ensured
that this task be a Herculean effort – however, relatively good governance practices and diligence of
the various Forest Departments has resulted in various positive breakthroughs for Project Tiger.
Tiger Task Force

o In light of heavy poaching and formation of strong poaching networks by smugglers within India, a
need for greater monitoring and an additional layer of protection was included in the year 2005.
o Following the exposure by the media and ground-level conservationists on the sudden disappearance
of Tigers in the notable plight of Sariska Tiger Reserve in Rajasthan, the then Prime Minister of India
Dr. Manmohan Singh set up the Tiger Task Force to strengthen the conservation of the National
Animal of India.
o The guiding principles for all the Tiger Reserves in the country by the Tiger Task Force include : –
 Looking into the various problems of Tiger Conservation and suggesting methods for its
improvement.
 Improving methods to check-poaching of tigers and illegal practices followed in the wildlife
sanctuaries.
 To improve the method of counting and forecasting Tigers.
 To educate the local indigenous population inhabitant in the Reserves towards the conservation of
tigers and preservation of habitat.
NTCA
The National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA) is the Apex body that administers Project Tiger.
Powers and functions of the National Tiger Conservation Authority as prescribed under Section 38 of
the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 are as under:-
o To approve the Tiger Conservation Plan prepared by the Individual State Governments.
o To evaluate and assess the various aspects of sustainable ecology.
o Disallowing unsustainable land use for projects such as Mining, Industry and other such
projects within Tiger Reserves.
o Establishment of Standards for Tourism Guidelines within the Tiger Reserves has to be set by
the NTCA. It encapsulates those in the Core as well as the Buffer Area of the Tiger Reserve.
o To focus on addressing inevitable Human-Animal Conflict scenarios. To ensure due
processes are established on the areas surrounding the National Park, Sanctuaries or Tiger Reserve
to enable co-existence around forest areas.
o To provide information on Protection Measures including the Future Conservation Plan,
Estimation of Tiger Population and its Natural Prey Species, Status of Habitats, Disease Surveillance,
Mortality Survey, Patrolling, reports on any Untoward Happenings and such Management Aspects
as deemed fit in the Future Conservation Plan.
o To approve and co-ordinate Research and Monitoring on ecological aspects of the Tiger,
Prey, Habitat as well as related ecological and socio-economic parameters and their evaluation.
o To ensure that Tiger Reserves and areas linking a protected area with another, are not
diverted for ecologically unsustainable use, except in absolute public interest; with approval from
the National Board for Wildlife and the advice of the NTCA.
o To facilitate Eco-development and People’s Participation in Biodiversity Conservation
Initiatives as per the approved management plans. Additionally, to support similar initiatives in
adjoining areas consistent with State and Central Laws.
o To ensure critical support including Scientific, Information Technology and Legal Support for
ideal implementation of the Future Conservation Plan.
o To ensure Training and Development of Officers and Staff of Tiger Reserves through
Capacity – building Programs.
o To perform any such other functions to carry out purposes of the Project with regards to protecting
the Tiger and its Habitat.
SIMILIPAL TIGER RESERVE

o Similipal, which derives its name from ‘Simul’ (Silk Cotton) tree, is a national park and a Tiger
Reserve situated in the northern part of Orissa’s Mayurbhanj district.
o The tiger reserve is spread over 2750 sq km and has some beautiful waterfalls like Joranda and
Barehipani. The park is surrounded by high plateaus and hills, the highest peak being the twin
peaks of Khairiburu and Meghashini (1515m above mean sea level).
o At least twelve rivers cut across the plain area, all of which drain into the Bay of Bengal. The
prominent among them are Burhabalanga, Palpala Bandan, Salandi, Kahairi and Deo.
o An astounding 1078 species of plants including 94 species of orchids find their home in the park. The
vegetation is a mix of different forest types and habitats, with Northern tropical moist
deciduous dominating some semi-evergreen patches. Sal is the dominant tree species here.
The park also has extensive grasslands that are grazing grounds for many of the herbivores. These
forests boast of many plants that have medicinal and aromatic properties.
o The park is known for the tiger, elephant and hill mynah. It holds the highest tiger population in
the state of Orissa. 55 species of mammals, 304 species of birds, 60 species of reptiles, 21 species of
frogs, 38 species of fish and 164 species of butterflies have been recorded from the Park.
o Apart from the tiger, the major mammals are leopard, sambar, barking deer, gaur, jungle cat, wild
boar, four-horned antelope, giant squirrel and common langur. Grey hornbill, Indian pied hornbill
and Malabar pied hornbill are also found here. The park also has a sizeable population of reptiles,
which includes the longest venomous snake, the King cobra and the Tricarinate hill turtle. The
Mugger Management Programme at Ramatirtha has helped the mugger crocodile to flourish on
the banks of the Khairi and Deo Rivers.
History and current status:

o The Tiger Reserve originated as a hunting ground for the surrounding royalty. It was formally
designated a tiger reserve under Project Tiger in May 1973. The Government of Orissa declared
Similipal as a wildlife sanctuary in 1979 with an area of 2750 sq. km.
o Later in 1980, Government of Orissa proposed 303 sq. km of the sanctuary as National Park. Further
in 1986, the area of the National Park was increased to 845.70 sq. km.
o The Government of India declared it as a biosphere reserve in 1994. UNESCO added this National
Park to its list of Biosphere Reserves in May 2009.
o This tiger reserve also comes under Mayurbhanj Elephant Reserve that includes the adjacent
Hadgarh and Kuldiha Wildlife Sanctuaries.
o Apart from its biodiversity, the region around Similipal forests is home to a variety of tribes.
Prominent among these are Kolha, Santhala, Bhumija, Bhatudi, Gondas, Khadia,
Mankadia and Sahara. Most of them are settled agriculturists, supplementing their income by
collecting firewood and timber except for the last three who are indigenous hunter-gatherer
communities living primarily off the forest, collecting forest produce. While the tribes earlier
followed a number of traditional conservation practices like closed seasons, hunting taboos on
specific species, maintenance of sacred groves (Jharia) etc., of late, these practices have been on the
decline due to the increasing influence of modern civilization, increasing human population and
decreasing wildlife availability.
SARISKA TIGER RESERVE

The measures for habitat management for tigers launched about six months ago at the famous
Sariska Tiger Reserve in Rajasthan’s Alwar district have started bearing fruit.
The tiger population in the wildlife sanctuary has gone up to 25, while the resources are being
provided to create water holes and develop grasslands for ungulates as a prey base.
o Sariska Tiger Reserve is well nestled in the Aravali Hills covering 800 sq km area divided into
the grasslands, dry deciduous forests, sheer cliffs and rocky landscape.
o Nearly 90% of the area in the sanctuary is covered with dhok trees accommodating various wildlife
species.
o A variety of other wild animals like the leopard, sambhar, chital, nilgai, four-horned antelope, wild
boar, rhesus macaque, langur, hyena and jungle cats are found in the Sariska Tiger Reserve apart
from the tiger.
o The Sariska National Park is home to India's largest population of peafowl, and harbours
quail, sand grouse, golden- backed woodpeckers and crested serpent eagles, among other species.
o Also the Siliserh Lake on the edge of the park has a large number of crocodiles.
o The Sariska Wildlife Sanctuary houses the ruins of medieval temples of Garh-Rajor that date
back to the 10th and 11th centuries.
o The Sariska was declared a sanctuary in 1955 and attained the status of a National Park in
1979.
SATKOSIA TIGER RESERVE

o Fifteen years after declaration as a tiger reserve and failure of revival of big cat population through
India’s first inter-State tiger relocation programme, the Satkosia Tiger Reserve (STR)
in Odisha has started making efforts afresh to re-establish it as a tiger habitat.
o The State and Forest department are attempting to relocate inhabitants of three villages from its core
area to create 500 sq km area of inviolate zone for tigers.
o Satkosia Tiger Reserve is a tiger reserve located in the Angul district of Odisha, India
covering an area of 988.30 km²
o The STR was declared as tiger reserve in 2007.
o In 2017, the National Board for Wildlife (NBWL) tried to rationalise STR boundary by excluding 104
villages from its STR’s jurisdiction. The STR had 963.87 sq km where it was declared as a tiger
reserve. Later, forest patches of 172 sq km were proposed to be added to the STR.
TIGER COUNT IN KARNATAKA

Bandipur and Nagarahole lead in tiger numbers in the State followed by BRT Tiger Sanctuary,
Bhadra and Kali tiger reserves, as per the ‘Status of Tigers, Co-predators, and Prey in India’ report.
o In terms of density, Nagarahole has 11.82 tigers per 100 sq.km, while Bandipur has 7.7 tigers per 100
sq.km.
o BRT has 4.96 tigers per 100 sq.km and Bhadra has a relatively low tiger density pegged at 2.86 in the
same area.
o Other forests and sanctuaries where tiger presence has been found in significant numbers include
M.M. Hills Wildlife Sanctuary, Madikeri Wildlife Division, Madikeri Territorial Division, Virajpet
Territorial Division, Koppa Wildlife Division, and Haliyal Forest Division which is part of Joida taluk
of Uttara Karnataka district, among others.
Bandipur National Park

o Bandipur National Park is a national park covering 868.63 km2 (335.38 sq mi) in Chamarajnagar
district of Karnataka.
o It was established as a tiger reserve under Project Tiger in 1973.
o It is part of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve since 1986
o Bandipur National Park is located where the Deccan Plateau meets the Western Ghats, and
the altitude of the park ranges from 680 meters (2,230 ft) to 1,454 meters (4,770 ft).
o As a result, the park has a variety of biomes including dry deciduous forests, moist
deciduous forests and shrublands.
o The park is flanked by the Kabini river in the north and the Moyar river in the south.
o The Nugu river runs through the park.
o Bandipur has typical tropical climate with distinct wet and dry seasons. The dry and hot
period usually begins in early March and can last till the arrival of the monsoon rains in June.
o Bandipur supports a wide range of timber trees including: teak (Tectona grandis), rosewood
(Dalbergia latifolia), sandalwood (Santalum album V), Indian-laurel (Terminalia tomentosa), Indian
kino tree (Pterocarpus marsupium), giant clumping bamboo (Dendrocalamus strictus), clumping
bamboo (Bambusa arundinacea) and Grewia tiliaefolia.
o Bandipur National Park harbours Indian elephant, gaur, Bengal tiger, sloth bear, mugger crocodile,
Indian rock python, four-horned antelope, golden jackal and dhole.
o Peafowl are among the most commonly seen birds in Bandipur along with grey junglefowl, crows
and drongos.
Nagarahole Tiger Reserve

o “Nagarahole Tiger Reserve” previously known as Rajiv Gandhi National Park is named after the
stream ‘Nagarahole’ which literally means serpent stream (Nagara – serpent, hole – stream) in
Kannada language.
o The protected area is located in both the districts of Mysuru and Kodagu with an area of
847.981 sq.km
o This park was declared the 37th Tiger Reserve of India in 1999.
o It is part of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve.
o The Western Ghats Nilgiri Sub-Cluster of 6,000 km2 (2,300 sq mi), including all of Nagarhole
National Park, is under consideration by the UNESCO World Heritage Committee for selection as a
World Heritage Site.
o The Kabini and Taraka reservoirs are large waterbodies located towards the west and south
eastern parts of the park respectively.
o Nagarahole is contiguous with Wayanad wildlife sanctuary (Kerala) to the south and
Bandipur Tiger Reserve to its south eastern parts.
o These forests of Malenad landscape in the western ghats support large assembles of carnivores and
herbivores: Tiger (Panthera tigris), Leopard (Panthera pardus), Asiatic Wild Dog (Cuon alpinus),
Sloth Bear (Melursus ursinus), Asiatic Elephant (Elephas maximus), Gaur (Bos gaurus), Sambar
(Rusa unicolor), Chital (Axis axis), Muntjac(Muntiacus muntjak) , Four Horned Antelope
(Tetracerus quadricornis), Wild Pig (Sus scrofa), Mouse Deer (Moschiola indica) and South-western
langur (Semnopithecus hypoleucos).
RAIMONA NATIONAL PARK

o Raimona in Kokrajhar district has become Assam’s sixth national park.
o The five national parks that existed prior to
the 422 sq. km Raimona are Kaziranga,
Manas, Nameri, Orang and Dibru-
Saikhowa.
o The Raimona National Park is within the
Bodoland Territorial Region. The area of
the park includes the northern part of the
notified Ripu Reserve Forest (508.62 sq.
km), which forms the western-most buffer to
the Manas National Park that straddles the
India-Bhutan border.
o Raimona was bounded on the west by the
Sonkosh river along the Assam-West
Bengal border running southward from the India-Bhutan border and the Saralbhanga river on
the east till it touched the India-Bhutan border on the north and the southern part of the Ripu
Reserve Forest.
o The Pekua river defines Raimona’s southern boundary.
o Raimona also shares contiguous forest patches of the Phipsoo Wildlife Sanctuary and the
Jigme Singye Wangchuk National Park in Bhutan (total area of 1,999 sq. km) creating a
transboundary conservation landscape of more than 2,400 sq. km.
o Raimona is an integral part of the 2,837 sq. km Manas Biosphere Reserve and the Chirang-Ripu
Elephant Reserve.
DIHING PATKAI NATIONAL PARK

o Dihing Patkai has been created as the seventh
National Park in Assam.
o It was declared a wildlife sanctuary in 2004.
o The 234.26-sq. km Dihing Patkai straddling eastern
Assam’s Dibrugarh and Tinsukia districts is a
major elephant habitat and 310 species of
butterflies have been recorded there.
o The Dehing Patkai Wildlife Sanctuary was declared
as Dehing-Patkai Elephant Reserve under
Project Elephant.
o The park has 47 species each of reptiles and
mammals, including the tiger and clouded leopard.
o Dihing Patkai, in focus a year ago for illegal coal
mining in the vicinity, encompasses the erstwhile
Dehing Patkai Wildlife Sanctuary, the Jeypore
Reserve Forest and the western block of the Upper Dihing Reserve Forest.
o Short stretches of the Dirak and Buri Dihing rivers have been included in the park.
o The newly-notified national park will be administered by the Soraipung Range of Digboi Forest
Division and Jeypore Range of Dibrugarh Forest Division. Additional anti-poaching camps and
manpower are being provided for intensive patrolling and conservation of the new park.
PAKKE TIGER RESERVE

o The 862 km2 (333 sq mi) reserve is protected
by the Department of Environment and Forest
of Arunachal Pradesh.
o Pakke Tiger Reserve (declared in 1999 - 2000)
lies in the foothills of the eastern Himalaya in
Arunachal Pradesh's Pakke Kessang
District.
o It is also known as Pakhui Tiger Reserve.
o It falls within the Eastern Himalaya
Biodiversity Hotspot.
o It is home to over 2000 species of plants, 300
species of birds, 40 species of mammals, 30
species of amphibians and 36 species of reptiles. Many species of the flora and fauna are globally
threatened, and PTR is one of the last remaining strongholds left for these species.
o It is known for its amazing sightings of four resident hornbill species.
o This Tiger Reserve has won India Biodiversity Award 2016 in the category of 'Conservation of
threatened species' for its Hornbill Nest Adoption Programme.
o Towards the south and south-east, the sanctuary adjoins reserve forests and Assam's Nameri
National Park. To the west, it is bounded by Doimara Reserve Forest with an area of 216 km2
(83 sq mi) and Eaglenest Wildlife Sanctuary; and to the north by Shergaon Forest Division.
o The main perennial streams in the area are the Nameri, Khari and Upper Dikorai.
MANAS NATIONAL PARK

Captive-bred pygmy hogs, the world’s rarest and smallest wild pigs, were released in the Manas
National Park of western Assam. This is the second batch to have been reintroduced into the wild
under the Pygmy Hog Conservation Programme (PHCP) in a year.
The PHCP is a collaboration among Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust of UK, Assam
Forest Department, Wild Pig Specialist Group of International Union for
Conservation of Nature and Union Environment Ministry and is currently being
implemented by NGOs Aaranyak and EcoSystems India.
o Manas, at the base of foot hills of the Bhutan-Himalayas in the state of Assam, with unique
biodiversity and landscape is one of the first reserves included in the network of tiger reserve under
Project tiger in 1973.
o In 1985, the Manas Wildlife Sanctuary was inscribed as World Heritage Site.
o In 1989, Manas acquired the status of a Biosphere reserve.
o It extends over an area of 2837 Sq. Km from Sankosh river in the west to Dhansiri river in the
east, with a core area of 500 Sq. Km. of the National park, which declared in 1990. The average
elevation of the area is 85 m above mean sea level. The river Manas flows into the national Park from
the gorges of Bhutan and split into two major streams of which the main water course comes out of
the National Park about 30 km downstream is known as ‘Beki”.
o About the half of the Park is covered by Grasslands of Terai and Bhabar type, the riparian areas have
colonizing grasslands and woodlands of several species. The thick woodlands are called Eastern
Moist Deciduous Forests of various types. The undergrowths are very thick. There are more than 650
species of Angiosperms alone. The commonly seen trees are the Simul, Oxi, Sissoo, Khaie, Gamari,
etc.
o Manas is the only landscape in the world where pristine Terai Grasslands are seen
merging with the Bhabar grasslands interspersed with diverse habitats ascending to Semi-
Evergreen forests and then to Bhutan Himalayas. The Biodiversity is very rich here. The last
population of the Pygmy Hog survive in the wilds of Manas and nowhere else in the world.
OPERATION OLIVIA
o Operation Olivia was started by the
Indian Coast Guard (ICG), first in early
1980s. This operation helps in
protecting Olive Ridley turtles every
year when they start nesting along Odisha
coast for breeding in months of November
to December. Under it, round-the-clock
surveillance is conducted from November
till May through Coast Guard assets like
Fast patrol vessels, Interceptor craft, Air
cushion vessels and Dornier aircraft.
o These laws and operation are enforced by
the Coast Guard which gets power under Orissa Marine Fisheries Act. Efforts are made at various
levels such as:
 Enforcement of use of Turtle Excluder Devices (TED) by trawlers in waters surrounding nesting
areas.
 Prohibition of using gill nets as turtle approaches to the shore to curtail turtle poaching.
About Olive Ridley

o Olive Ridley turtles are listed as vulnerable under International Union for Conservation of
Nature (IUCN) Red List.
o Sea turtles found in India have been included in Schedule I of Indian Wildlife Protection Act,
1972.
o They are also listed in Appendix I of Convention of International Trade in Endangered
Species (CITES) of Wild Fauna and Flora.
o Their mass nesting is called as arribada.
o Gahirmatha, Astaranga coast, mouth of Devi river and Rushikulya are four arribadas sites off the
Odisha Coast in India. Apart from that, Hope Island of Coringa Wildlife Sanctuary in Andhra
Pradesh is also preferred for mass nesting.
KAZIRANGA NATIONAL PARK

o Kaziranga National Park is a national park in the Golaghat, Karbi Anglong and Nagaon
districts of the state of Assam, India.
o The sanctuary hosts two-thirds of the world's great one-horned rhinoceroses.
o In the year 1985, the park was declared as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO.
o Kaziranga is home to large density of tigers.
o The park is home to large breeding populations of elephants, wild water buffalo, and swamp deer.
o Kaziranga is recognized as an Important Bird Area by BirdLife International for conservation
of avifaunal species. When compared with other protected areas in India, Kaziranga has achieved
notable success in wildlife conservation. Located on the edge of the Eastern Himalaya biodiversity
hotspot, the park combines high species diversity and visibility.
o Kaziranga is a vast expanse of tall elephant grass, marshland, and dense tropical moist
broadleaf forests, criss-crossed by four major rivers, including the Brahmaputra, and the park
includes numerous small bodies of water. Kaziranga has been the theme of several books, songs, and
documentaries. The park celebrated its centennial in 2005 after its establishment in 1905 as a
reserve forest.
o It was formed on the recommendation of Mary Curzon, the wife of the Viceroy of India – Lord
Curzon.
o Flora: Due to the difference in altitude between the eastern and western areas of the park, here one
can see mainly four types of vegetation’ like alluvial inundated grasslands, alluvial savanna
woodlands, tropical moist mixed deciduous forests, and tropical semi-evergreen
forests.
o Kumbhi, Indian gooseberry, the cotton tree, and elephant Apple are amongst the famous trees that
can be seen in the park. Also, a good variety of aquatic flora can be seen in lakes, ponds, and along
the river shores.
o Fauna: The forest region of Kaziranga Park is home to world’s largest population of Indian
Rhinoceros. Other animals that can be seen are Hoolock Gibbon, Tiger, Leopard, Indian Elephant,
Sloth Bear, Wild water buffalo, swamp deer, etc. With increase in tiger population every year, the
government authorities declared Kaziranga as a Tiger Reserve in the year 2006. Also here one can
find good number of migratory bird species from Central Asia.
WORLD RHINO DAY

o Assam marked World Rhino Day —
September 22 — with a special ceremony by
burning a stockpile of nearly 2,500 horns of
the one-horned rhinoceros.
o Rhino horn is used in traditional Chinese
medicine to cure a range of ailments, from
cancer to hangovers, and also as an
aphrodisiac. In Vietnam, possessing a rhino
horn is considered a status symbol.
o Due to demand in these countries, poaching
pressure on rhinos is ever persistent.
What is the purpose of the ceremony?

o The public ceremony at Bokakhat in Kaziranga National Park (KNP) with Chief Minister Himanta
Biswa Sarma as the chief guest has been publicised as a “milestone towards rhino conservation”
aimed at “busting myths about rhino horns”. It’s a loud and clear message to the poachers and
smugglers that such items have no value.
o Thus the case for the destruction of horns — a process that is in compliance with Section 39(3)(c)
of the Wildlife (Protection) Act of 1972.
How serious a threat is poaching?

o Several cases of rhino poaching were reported in the years leading up to 2013 and 2014. These two
years witnessed the highest number of incidents in a decade, at 27 in each year. This has since
decreased to 17 in 2015, 18 in 2016, 6 each in 2017 and 2018, and 3 in 2019.
o The one-horned rhino, which was earlier “endangered” as per the IUCN Red List, is now listed as
“Vulnerable.”
o In 2019, the Assam government constituted a dedicated “Special Rhino Protection Force” to
keep a check on rhino poaching and related activities at KNP.
o A March 2018 rhino census pegged the rhino population at 2,413 in KNP, 101 in Orang National
Park, and 102 in Pobitora Wildlife Sanctuary, and a more recent count said there were 43 in the
Manas National Park.
WORLD ELEPHANT DAY

o On 12 August, 2012, the first international Elephant Day was celebrated. Since then, it is observed
annually and this day is dedicated to huge animal protection and preservation.
o World Elephant Day was conceived by the Elephant Reintroduction Foundation and
filmmakers Patricia Sims and Michael Clark.
o This day makes people understand the need for better protection for wild animals, elephants, and
also to improve the illegal poaching and trade of ivory, better treatment of captive elephants.
o In the IUCN Red List of threatened species, African elephants are listed as Vulnerable and
Asian elephants as Endangered.
o The goal of World Elephant Day is to create awareness of the urgent plight of African and Asian
elephants, and to share knowledge and positive solutions for the better care and management of
captive and wild elephants.
PROJECT ELEPHANT
o Project Elephant was launched by the Government of India in the year 1992 as a Centrally
Sponsored Scheme.
o The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change provides the financial and technical
support to major elephant range states in the country through Project Elephant.
o The Project is being implemented in 16 States / UTs , viz. Andhra Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh,
Assam, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Orissa,
Tamil Nadu, Tripura, Uttarakhand, Uttar
Pradesh, West Bengal.
Project Elephant - Objectives

o To protect elephants, their habitat & corridors.
o To address issues of man-animal conflict.
o Welfare of captive elephants.
Project Elephant - Activities

o Main activities under Project Elephant are as
follows:
 Research on Elephant management related
issues;
 Public education and awareness programmes;
 Eco-development;
 Veterinary care;
 Elephant Rehabilitation/Rescue Centers;
 Ecological restoration of existing natural
habitats and migratory routes of elephants;
 Development of scientific and planned
management for conservation of elephant
habitats and viable population of Wild Asiatic elephants in India;

 Promotion of measures for mitigation of man-elephant conflict in crucial habitats and
moderating pressures of human and domestic stock activities in crucial elephant habitats;
 Strengthening of measures for the protection of Wild elephants from poachers and unnatural causes
of death.
MIKE: GLOBAL EFFORTS

o The Monitoring the Illegal Killing of Elephants (MIKE) programme is an international
collaboration that measures the levels, trends and causes of elephant mortality, thereby providing
an information base to support international decision-making related to conservation of elephants in
Asia and Africa.
o The MIKE Programme was established by the Convention on International Trade in
Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) by Resolution 10.10 adopted at the
tenth Conference of the Parties in 1997.
o There are currently 28 sites participating in the MIKE programme in Asia, distributed
across 13 countries: India has 10 sites, followed by two sites each in Cambodia, Indonesia, Lao PDR,
Malaysia, Myanmar and Thailand, and one site each in Bangladesh, Bhutan, China, Nepal, Sri Lanka
and Viet Nam.
o In 2017, IUCN was engaged by CITES to implement the MIKE Asia programme in two sub-regions:
South Asia (via the IUCN India Country Office in New Delhi); and Southeast Asia (through the
IUCN Asia Regional Office in Bangkok). This forms part of the wider Asia Wildlife Law Enforcement
and Demand Reduction Management Project funded by the European Union.
o The main objective of the MIKE Asia programme is to identify spatial, temporal and other trends
in elephant mortalities by collating and analysing data on elephant carcasses (which are collected by
management agencies). Other objectives include support for law enforcement activities, capacity-
building for front-line field staff and limited provision of field equipment to sites. The program’s
analytical outputs and field activities support international decision-making related to elephant
conservation in Asia.
Expected outputs:
o Collation and quality control of annual records of elephant carcasses from MIKE sites in Asia.
o Data analysis to identify patterns at the level of site, local region and country.
ELEPHANT CORRIDORS
The fragmented and patchy forests of south Bengal have emerged as one of the hotspots of human-
elephant conflict in the country, resulting in loss of lives of both humans and pachyderms. To
reduce conflicts, Elephant corridors are to be restored in south Bengal.
o Elephant corridor is a thin strip of land that allows elephants to move freely from one
habitat patch to another.
o More than 100 elephant corridors have been identified by the wildlife trust of India under National
elephant Corridor project.
Importance of elephant corridors

o To address the development vs. environment issue which causes habitat loss to animals.
o To reduce man-animal conflict: Expanding economic aspirations have given way to the
conversion of many wetlands into urban centres,
roads and railway projects, infrastructure for
tourism. It has caused reduction of space
available for animals to roam freely. It arises
from man-animal conflict if space for roaming is
not provided for them.
o These corridors/projects are win-win for both
the people and the animal because farming
produce in those get destroyed whenever a herd
of animals passes from those areas.
o It can address the poaching issue because
now the corridors can be technologically
monitored.
o WLT(world land trust) and other foreign
elephant conservation organisations are funding
wildlife trust of India in some corridor
formation.
Latest Man-elephant Conflict Examples

o Elephant corridor identified by WWF-India in
Wayana for restoration stuck due to non-
cooperation among various government agencies.
o Due to quarrying which has come up on hills adjacent to the 566-hectare Basavanatara forest, there
is very loud noise pollution which causes elephants to stray from their groups
o Parsa East and Kanta Basan’ open cast mine, which consists of a coal washery, involves 1,871
hectares of forest and an elephant corridor.
o Lands owned by the Isha foundation based at the foothills of Velliangiri Mountains are located in the
elephant corridor-Case is under litigation in high court and NGT(National Green Tribunal).
o Numaligarh Refinery Ltd (NRL) in Assam created a golf course and fenced it with a barbed wire and
wall resulting in deaths of many elephants since then. It is present in elephant corridor region and
also it is a No-development zone.
o Dhanagur elephant corridor, where a farmer was killed and another seriously injured in separate
elephant attacks.
Some Initiative on domestic front

o To swiftly address the man-animal conflict issue, West Bengal government has come up with Rapid
Response Force (RRP) plan which is response team that would be equipped with forest official,
personnel with animal rescue training and equipment, veterinary surgeons and a smart vehicle with
rotating searchlights fitted atop it.
o Another initiative by WB government is Airavat (mythical war elephant and the pet of Lord
Indra), dedicated to reducing man-elephant conflict.
o Radio collar and technological devices for real-time monitoring in Assam and west Bengal
elephant corridors.
AMUR FALCON
With the arrival of the migratory Amur falcons to Tamenglong
district of Manipur for the annual stopover, State Forest and
Environment Minister appealed to the people not to hunt the seasonal
visitors.
These falcons visit the district every year from breeding grounds in
China and Russia before beginning their onward voyage to Africa for
the winter — a journey of more than 30,000 km.
Key Facts
o The Amur Falcon is a fascinating migratory raptor. Every year, the small, resilient birds make the
daring voyage from breeding grounds in Russia and China to winter in southern Africa. It is
supposed that the falcons cross the Arabian Sea during their
migration, but much is still unknown about the patterns of
their migration.
o Breeds in South-east Russia and northern China.
o Migrates west through India and across the Arabian Sea to
Southern Africa.
o Feeds on dragonflies that follow a similar migration path
over Arabian Sea.
o 22,000 km journey (longest sea crossing of any raptor)
o Flyway: East-Asian Australasian and African Eurasian
o IUCN Red List Status: Least Concern
BEHLER AWARD
o Indian biologist Shailendra Singh has been awarded the Behler Turtle Conservation Award for
bringing three critically endangered turtle conservation species back from the brink of extinction.
o These are Red-crowned Roofed Turtle (Batagur kachuga), Northern River Terrapin
(Batagur baska), and Black Softshell Turtle (Nilssonia nigricans)
Red-crowned Roofed Turtle (Batagur kachuga)

o Red Crowned Roofed Turtle is one of the 24 species endemic to India, is characterised by the bright
colours such as red, yellow, white and blue on the faces and necks of the males.
o Common Names: Bengal roof turtle, Red-crowned roofed turtle.
Distribution:
o It is a freshwater turtle species found in deep flowing rivers with terrestrial nesting sites.
o The Red-crowned roofed turtle is native to India, Bangladesh and Nepal.
o Historically, the species was widespread in the Ganga River, both in India and Bangladesh. It also
occurs in the Brahmaputra basin.
o Currently in India, the National Chambal River Gharial Sanctuary is the only area with substantial
population of the species, but even this Protected Area and habitat are under threat.
Northern River Terrapin (Batagur baska)

o The northern river terrapin (Batagur
baska), is a species of riverine turtle.
It is one of the most critically
endangered turtle species according
to IUCN.
o Habitat: Terrestrial & highly aquatic
(freshwater & brackish); lives in tidal
areas of the estuaries of medium and
large rivers and also in mangrove
habitat.
Habit
o Amphibian. Little known about the
natural ecology and behavior of Batagurs, partly because the highly silted rivers of their habitat make
observations particularly difficult.
o Mainly prefers freshwater habitats and go up to brackish river mouths or estuaries in the breeding
season. After laying eggs they return to the freshwater. Individuals known to undertake massive
seasonal migrations of 50 to 60 miles to the sand banks that constitutes their breeding grounds.
o Diet: Omnivorous- Takes waterside plants and small animals such as clams.
Black Softshell Turtle (Nilssonia nigricans)

o Scientific Name: Nilssonia nigricans
o Features: They look almost the same as the Indian peacock softshell turtle (Nilssonia hurum).
Habitat:
o A freshwater species and there are
29 species of freshwater turtles and
tortoises found in India.
o They are found in ponds of temples
in north-eastern India and
Bangladesh. Its distribution range
also includes the Brahmaputra River
and its tributaries.
o Protection Status: IUCN Red List:
Critically Endangered; CITES: Appendix I; Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972: No legal protection
o Threats: Consumption of turtle meat and eggs, silt mining, encroachment of wetlands and change in
flooding pattern.
MANDA BUFFALO
o The Manda buffalo found in the Eastern Ghat
and Koraput plateau in Odisha has been
tagged as the 19th unique breed of buffaloes found
in the country by the National Bureau of
Animal Genetic Resources (NBAGR).
o The NBAGR is affiliated with the Indian
Council of Agriculture Research (ICAR). It
gave the indigenous recognition to this breed after
assessing a survey report submitted by Odisha’s
Animal Resource Development (ARD) and Odisha
University of Agriculture and Technology (OUAT).
o The ARD and OUAT had first identified the germ-
plasm of this unique breed through a survey.
o There are around one lakh Manda buffaloes, which mostly contribute to nutrition needs of
households and also assist in agricultural operations in the hilly terrains of Koraput, Malkangir and
Nabarangpur districts. Besides, these buffaloes are resistant to parasitic infections and less
prone to diseases.
o The average single milk yield of these buffaloes is 2-2.5 litres with more than 8% fat. However, some
of the yield goes up to 4 litres.
o The Manda buffaloes get matured in three years and give birth to the first calf in the fourth year.
During their 20-year life span, they give birth to a calf every 1.5 to 2 years.
GECKO
Recent:
o A team of herpetologists have recorded a new species of bent-toed gecko from a wooded part of
the Umroi Military Station in Meghalaya.
o Its scientific name is Crytodactylus exercitus and English name is Indian Army’s bent-toed
gecko.
o Exercitus in Latin means army.
What are Geckos?
o Geckos are reptiles and are found on
all the continents except Antarctica.
o These colorful lizards have adapted to
habitats from rainforests, to deserts, to
cold mountain slopes.
o Over a long period of time, geckos have
developed special physical features to
help them survive and avoid predators.
o Gecko tails serve many purposes. They
help balance their weight as they climb
branches, they act as fuel tanks to store
fat, and as camouflage to help them
disappear into their environment.
o Geckos are also able to shed their tails if a predator grabs them.
o Most geckos are nocturnal, which means they are active at night, but day geckos are active
during the day and nibble on insects, fruits, and flower nectar.
o Most geckos make noises such as chirping, barking, and clicking when they are defending their
territory or attracting a mate.
o There are many species of geckos. Depending on the species, their endangered status can range from
least concern to critically endangered.
CRIMSON ROSE
Recent:
o The pristine beach of Dhanushkodi at the southern-most tip of the Rameswaram island in the
Indian peninsula has witnessed a rare phenomenon.
o Thousands of Crimson Rose butterflies swarmed all available flowering plants along the beach. It
was their stopover for nectaring, before the butterflies undertook their ultimate flight towards Sri
Lanka, which is around 25 km away from the tip of Dhanushkodi.
About Crimson Rose
o It is a large butterfly with a mix of black, white and crimson colours on its wings and body.
o It is known for crossing the sea to migrate to Sri Lanka.
o Certain other butterfly species found in Tamil Nadu are also known for their migration in response
to the climate and food availability.
BLACK PERCHER
Recent
o Black Percher or Black Ground Skimmer (
Diplacodes lefebvrii ), a species of dragon
fly, was sighted for the first time in the
Seshachalam Hill ranges.
o It belongs to the phylum arthropoda,
class insecta and order odonata.
About Black Percher or Black

Ground Skimmer (Diplacodes
lefebvrii):
o It is a species of dragon fly.
o It is labelled as of ‘least concern’ the
International Union for Conservation of
Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN)
Red List of threatened species.
o Habitat and distribution: It is a common species native of Africa and southern Eurasia. It can be
found in almost any type of freshwater habitat.
The Seshachalam Hills

o These are hilly ranges part of the Eastern Ghats in southern Andhra Pradesh state, in
southeastern India.
o The ranges are bounded by the Rayalaseema uplands to the west and northwest, and the
Nandyal Valley to the north.
o Tirupati, a major Hindu pilgrimage town is located in the hills.
o Protected reserve forest: In 2010, it was designated as a Biosphere Reserve. It has large reserves
of red sandalwood, which is used in medicines, soaps, spiritual rituals, etc.
PYROSTRIA LALLJI
o A 15-meter-tall tree that belongs to the genus of the coffee family has recently been discovered from
the Andaman Islands.
o The new species, Pyrostria laljii, is also the first record of the genus Pyrostria in India.
o Plants belonging to genus Pyrostria are usually found in Madagascar but the recently discovered
species is new to science.
o The tree is distinguished by a long stem with a whitish coating on the trunk, and oblong-obovate
leaves with a cuneate base, and was first reported from South Andaman’s Wandoor forest. The
other places in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands where the tree could be located are the Tirur
forest near the Jarawa Rerserve Forest and the Chidia Tapu (Munda Pahar) forest.
o Pyrostria laljii has been assessed as ‘Critically Endangered’ based on the International Union for
Conservation of Nature’s (IUCN) Red List criteria.
o While the genus Pyrostria is not found in India, there are several genera from the family Rubiaceae
that are common in India. These plants, including cinchona, coffee, adina, hamelia, ixora, galium,
gardenia, mussaenda, rubia, morinda, have high potential for economic value.
POKEWOOD SPECIES
o A new species of pokeweed named Rivina andamanensis was discovered recently A&N Islands.
o Pokeweed is a species of open or edge habitats, especially those where birds are able to roost. It is
found at forest edge
o It was found growing under large trees, shaded and rocky areas, along with herbs and shrubby
plants. This discovery of new species, representing the first record of the pokeweed family
Petiveriaceae in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, adds one more family to the islands’ flora.
o The A&N Islands is a group of 572 islands and islets that are rich and unique in terms of plant
diversity in India. The total number of listed flora on the islands is approximately 3,410 plant species
under 1,281 genera and 303 families belonging to Angiosperms, Gymnosperms, Pteridophytes,
Bryophytes, and Lichens.
WHITEFLIES
o Whiteflies are soft-bodied, winged insects closely related to aphids and mealybugs. Despite their
name, whiteflies are not a type of fly, though they do have wings and are capable of flying.
o Whiteflies can be as small as 1/12 of an inch, are somewhat triangular in shape, and are often
found in clusters on the undersides of leaves. They are active during the day and will scatter
when disturbed, so they can be easier to
spot than some nocturnal insect pests.
o There are hundreds of species of
whiteflies, but most affect only a small
number of host plants. However, there
are a few whitefly species that affect a
wider range of plants, which make
them the most problematic in
horticulture.
o These whitefly species include the
greenhouse whitefly,
bandedwinged whitefly, giant
whitefly, and silverleaf whitefly,
among others.
o Whiteflies can be found on a wide variety of plants, from ornamental flowers to warm-weather
vegetables, including tomatoes, eggplant, peppers, and okra. Some species may attack sweet
potatoes, plants from the cabbage family, and citrus trees. Indoors, they will feed on most common
houseplants, especially those with soft, smooth leaves.
o Like aphids, whiteflies use their piercing mouthparts to suck up plant juices and, in turn, produce a
sticky substance known as honeydew.
o Honeydew left on its own can cause fungal diseases such as sooty mold to form on leaves.
o With heavy whitefly feeding, plants will quickly become extremely weak and may be unable to carry
out photosynthesis. Leaves will wilt, turn pale or yellow, growth will be stunted, and eventually
leaves may shrivel and drop off the plant.
Where to find whiteflies on plants

o Whiteflies tend to prefer to feed on new growth, so check around any newly unfurled leaves
first.
o Check the undersides of leaves—especially around the veins—for white insects, even if they
aren’t immediately visible, and feel leaf surfaces for sticky honeydew. If the whiteflies are feeding,
they’ll suddenly all fly off the leaves in a swarm.
o Eggs are laid on the undersides of leaves. This is the beginning of a new generation! When the eggs
hatch, the larvae will look like teeny white ovals without legs; they don’t move but they immediately
start sucking the plant juice. This is why gardeners often miss whiteflies until it’s too late.
GIANT AFRICAN SNAIL

An offer to buy the highly invasive African giant snails is being promoted to end its menace. Posters,
complete with contact numbers, making such an offer are turning heads in the coastal panchayats of
Nayarambalam and Njarackal in Kerala.
About the snail

o The giant African land snail is a highly
invasive agricultural pest, known to
feed on over 500 varieties of plants.
o They also pose a risk to humans and
animals by carrying rat lung worm,
a parasite that can cause meningitis in
humans.
o The species is native to East Africa,
but it has been widely introduced to other
parts of the world through the pet trade,
as a food resource, and by accidental
introduction.
o Nonetheless, the species has established
itself in some temperate climates and its
habitat now includes most regions of the humid tropics, including many Pacific islands, southern
and eastern Asia, and the Caribbean.
o The giant snail can now be found in agricultural areas, coastland, natural forest, planted
forests, riparian zones, scrub and shrublands, urban areas, and wetlands.
o The giant African snail is a macrophytophagous herbivore; it eats a wide range of plant
material, fruit, vegetables, lichens, fungi, paper, and cardboard.
o It sometimes eats sand, very small stones, bones from carcasses, and even concrete as calcium
sources for its shell.
o In rare instances, the snails consume each other, snail eggs, and other deceased small animals such
as mice and birds.
ACUTE BLADDER SNAIL

A tiny snail with a striking, pellucid golden-yellow shell found in the Edappally canal in Kochi has
been flagged as an invasive species that could play havoc with native ecosystems.This is the first time
that this snail has been reported in the
State.
About the snail

o ACUTE BLADDER SNAIL (Physella
acuta) is considered native to North
America but is now found in all
continents except Antarctica.
o The snail was first reported in India in
the early 1990s. It is believed to have
reached Kerala through the
aquarium trade, a major vector
for invasive species.
o In the Edappally canal, the snail had
made its home in a highly polluted reach plagued by high sedimentation, untreated sewage,
commercial effluents, construction wastes and a thick growth of invasive aquatic weeds.
o Small in size, the snail can grow to 16 mm in height and 9 mm in width.
o The dead, vacant shell is brownish-yellow while that of the live individuals are
translucent golden-yellow with a mottled appearance.
o Physella acuta is easily identified by its sinistral (left-opening aperture) shell.
o Threat posed by invasive species to global biodiversity can be drastic due to their ability to quickly
dominate new environments, endanger native species, even causing serious economic loss.
RISE IN BUTTERFLY SPECIES

The four-day butterfly survey was conducted by the Kerala Forest Department and Travancore
Nature History Society (TNHS) Thiruvananthapuram.
o The survey was done in Peechi-Vazhany, Chimmony, and Chulannur Wildlife Sanctuaries.
o Peechi-Vazhany Wildlife sanctuary had 132 species of butterflies, Chimmony had 116 species, while
Chulannur recorded 41 species.
o The survey added 80 species, almost double, to the older record of Peechi-Vazhany, 33 to
Chimmony, and 41 species to Chulannur.
Butterfly species
o Southern Birdwing, the largest butterfly
in India, and Grass Jewel, the smallest,
were found during the survey.
o Buddha Peacock, the State butterfly of
Kerala, was also recorded.
o Other notable species are Nilgiri Grass
Yellow, Travancore Evening Brown, Malabar
Flash, Orange Tailed Awl, Southern Spotted
Ace and Common Onyx.
o The report of Common Tinsel at Chulannur was another highlight.
INDIAN DESERT CAT

An Indian desert cat has been spotted for the first time in
Madhya Pradesh’s Panna Tiger Reserve (PTR).
About the cat

o It is usually a creature of the Thar desert in
Rajasthan, and inhabits scrub desert areas.
o The cat occurs in arid and semi-arid zones of
western India which includes Gujarat, Rajasthan,
Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra up to Pune and
Nagpur.
o This cat is found in deserts and can survive without
water.
o The toes of the species have cushion-like hair which help it balance the fluctuating desert
temperatures.
o It can be found mostly in scrub deserts, up to 2,000-3,000 m elevation, mountainous areas with
sufficient vegetation, as well as temperate forests.
o The Asiatic wildcat usually occurs close to water sources but can also live in low-water areas. It does
not seem to avoid cultivated areas and human settlements.
o IUCN Red List: Least Concern
o CITES: Appendix-II
o Wildlife protection Act’s: Schedule-I.
Panna Tiger Reserve

o It was established in 1981 and is situated in the Vindhya mountain range in the northern part
of Madhya Pradesh.
o Ken river (a tributary of the Yamuna River) flows through the reserve.
o The region is also famous for Panna diamond mining.
o Ken-Betwa river interlinking project will be located within the tiger reserve.
o The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) designated the
Panna Tiger Reserve as a Biosphere Reserve in 2011.
o In 2021, it was awarded the Conservation Assured Tiger Standards (CAITS) certificate by
the National Tiger Conservation Authority for meeting the established international standards for
tiger conservation and management.
GHARIAL
Gharial have been successfully
reintroduced in the Beas River of
Punjab where it had become extinct half
a century ago.
o The Beas Conservation Reserve is a
185-kilometre stretch of the Beas
River located primarily in the north-west
of the State of Punjab.
o The gharial reintroduction in the Beas
Conservation Reserve is an ambitious
programme of the Punjab government.
About Gharials
o Gharials, sometimes called gavials, are a type of Asian crocodilian distinguished by their long, thin
snouts.
o Population of Gharials are a good indicator of clean river water.
o Gharials are a type of Crocodilians that also includes crocodiles, alligators, caimans, etc.
o India has three species of Crocodilians namely:
 Gharial (Gavialis gangeticus): International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)- Critically
Endangered.
 Mugger crocodile (Crocodylus palustris): IUCN- Vulnerable
 Saltwater crocodile (Crocodylus porosus): IUCN- Least Concern
o In comparison to Crocodiles, Gharials are very shy and unharmful species
Beas River
o The Beas originates near the Rohtang Pass, at a height of 4,062 m above sea level, on the southern
end of the Pir Panjal Range, close to the source of the Ravi.
o It is a tributary of Indus river.
o It meets the Satluj river at Harike in Punjab.
o It is a comparatively small river which is only 460 km long but lies entirely within the Indian
territory.
o The river flows through Kullu Valley.
o It forms a gorge at Kati and Largi in the Dhauladhar range.
INDIAN PANGOLIN
The Odisha Forest and Environment Department has completed its first-ever radio-tagging of the
Indian pangolin in an attempt to standardise the rehabilitation protocol for the animal in the State.
About Pangolin
o India is home to two species of pangolin.
o While the Chinese Pangolin (Manis
pentadactyla) is found in north-eastern India,
the Indian Pangolin is distributed in other
parts of the country as well as Sri Lanka,
Bangladesh and Pakistan.
o Both these species are protected and are listed
under Schedule I Part I of the Wild Life
(Protection) Act, 1972 and under Appendix I
of the Convention on International Trade
in Endangered Species (CITES).
o Commonly known as ‘scaly anteaters’, the
toothless animals are unique, a result of millions of years of evolution.
o Pangolins evolved scales as a means of protection. When threatened by big carnivores like lions or
tigers they usually curl into a ball.
o The scales defend them against dental attacks from predators.
o IUCN status: Endangered
HORNBILL FESTIVAL
About the festival
o This is a very popular festival of Nagaland.
Often cited as “festival of all festivals”,
the Hornbill Festival is a grand celebration
that is brought to life each year in Nagaland.
o The festival is conducted to encourage
inter-tribal interaction and to promote
cultural heritage of Nagaland.
o The festival gets its name from the Indian
Hornbill. The Hornbill is a common bird
among the folklores and tribes of
Nagaland and can be commonly seen
prancing around in the forests of Nagaland.
o The Hornbill festival is celebrated
annually. The festival opens in the first
week of December each year. The
government of Nagaland organizes the
cultural event.
o The festival is lush with various food fair, games, songs, musical concerts and entertainment to keep
the lively spirits of the celebration going.
o Traditional art work, wood crafts, handy crafts, sculptures, paintings, and wood carvings are
displayed. Sales and exhibition of these art pieces are held. There are also herbal medicine stalls and
display of flower shows.
o There are various food stalls that serve different varieties of food, including the traditional Naga food
which is deliciously indulging.
o People indulge in traditional archery, Naga wrestling,
indigenous games, other athletic sports and other activities.
LESSER FLORICAN
In a major discovery, the longest in-country migration route of
lesser floricans, the endangered birds of the bustard group, has
been tracked for the first time from Rajasthan to
Maharashtra’s Ahmednagar district.
o The exercise was undertaken in the Shokaliya landscape

of Ajmer district to trace the journey of lesser floricans
from their breeding grounds to their places of origin.
o The scientific experiment has succeeded in locating a bird
which travelled a distance of 1,000 km after breeding during
the monsoon.
o Lesser florican (Sypheotides indicus), is a small and
slender bird species belonging to the bustard group, found in
tall grasslands.
o For its conservation, Dehradun-based Wildlife Institute of India (WII) has launched a recovery
programme.
o The endangered bird is observed in Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat and some other regions
during the monsoon season, when it breeds and later disappears with its chicks to unknown places.
o IUCN status: critically endangered.
CHILIKA LAKE
Poacher held with 10 dead migratory birds near Chilika lake in Odisha.
o The vast Chilika Lagoon is situated on the east-coast of India.
o It is the largest brackish Water Lagoon with estuarine character that sprawls along the east
coast.
o It is the largest wintering ground for migratory waterfowl found anywhere on the Indian
sub-continent.
o It is one of the hotspot of biodiversity in the country, and some rare, vulnerable and endangered
species listed in the IUCN Red List of threatened Animals inhabit in the lagoon for atleast part of
their life cycle.
o Chilika supports some of the largest congregation of migratory birds in the country, particularly
during the winter.
o Flocks of migratory waterfowl arrive from as far as the Caspian Sea, Lake Baikal, Aral Sea, remote
parts of Russia, Kirghiz steppes of Mongolia, Central and South East Asia, Ladakh and the
Himalayas, to feed and breed in its fertile waters. In 1989-90 an estimated two million birds visited
the Lake.
o Chilika is an integral part of the culture of coastal Odisha.
SPOT-BILLED PELICAN
A nematode infestation has led to mass mortality of spot-billed pelicans (Pelicanus philippensis) at
Telineelapuram Important Bird Area (IBA) in Naupada swamp of Srikakulam district in Andhra
Pradesh.
o The spot-billed pelican (Pelecanus
philippensis) belongs to the family
Pelecanidae.
o The Spot-billed pelican species is distributed in
India, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Myanmar, Thailand,
Vietnam and Cambodia.
o The adult pelican has a dull white head
and neck.
o The feathers on the hind neck are curly
and form a greyish nape crest. The tail is
brownish. The pouch is pinkish with speckles.
The upper mandible carries speckles. The tip of the bill is orange. The base of the bill is dark grey and
the orbital patch is pink.
o Habitat: These spot-billed pelican species roost in trees near water bodies such as ponds, village
tanks, lakes, streams and rivers.
o Feeding habits: These spot-billed pelican species feed mainly on fish. They also feed on
crustaceans and small birds.
o Breeding: The breeding season of these pelican species varies between October to May.
 In South India, it coincides with the Northeast monsoon.
 They build nest on low trees. The nest may contain a clutch of three to four white eggs.
o Distribution: The breeding population of these pelican species is limited to India, Sri Lanka and
Cambodia. In the non-breeding season they are recorded in Nepal, Myanmar, Thailand, Laos and
Vietnam.
o Movement Patterns: The pelican species in South India are considered to be sedentary. Not much
is known about their migratory movement. They may locally move for selecting feeding grounds.
Status and conservation

o These species are threatened by habitat loss, fishing activity in the feeding grounds, poaching of
chicks and eggs, agricultural pollutants and silting up of water bodies.
o The IUCN has listed them as "Near Threatened".
SEPTEMERANTHUS PARASITIC PLANT

o A new genus of a parasitic flowering
plant has recently been discovered from
the Nicobar group of islands.
o The genus Septemeranthus grows on
the plant species Horsfieldia
glabra(Blume) Warb.
o The parasitic flowering plants have a
modified root structure spread on the
stem of the tree and are anchored inside
the bark of the host tree.
o The plant was found on the periphery of
the tropical forest in one of the
biodiversity hotspots, the Nicobar group
of islands.
o The genus Septemeran thus has a distinct vegetative morphology, inflorescence architecture and
floral characters.
o The leaves of the plant are heart-shaped with a very long tip and the ovary, fruit and seeds are
‘urceolate’ (earthen pot-shaped).
o The flowers have five persistent bracts having conspicuous margins.
o The name Septemeranthusis derived from the Latin word ‘septem’ meaning ‘seven’, referring to the
arrangement of flowers.
DENISON BARB
Denison barb (Miss Kerala), a fish species, has been included in Schedule I of the Wild Life
(Protection) Amendment Bill, 2021.
However, aquarists and ornamental
fish breeders have issues with this
inclusion.
o Denison barb (Miss Kerala) is
also known as red-line torpedo barb,
or roseline shark.
o It is a native freshwater fish
species, commonly found in parts of
Karnataka and Kerala.
o The fish is featured with red and
black stripes on its body.
o IUCN Status: Endangered
o Threats: The fish species is being exploited for the aquarium trade.
What are the issues with the inclusion of Denison barb under Schedule I of the
Wild Life (Protection) Amendment Bill, 2021?
o Firstly, the scientific name given to the Denison barb is Puntius denisonii. This is wrong. It should
have been named Sahyadria denisonii.
o Secondly, the inclusion of Denison barb in Schedule I is incorrect as it is commonly found.
 This fish species is found in rivers of Kerala and Karnataka with some of the highest endemic aquatic
fauna in the country.
 The income from the collection of Denison barb for the fish trade acts as an incentive for fishermen
to protect habitats.
 Hence, it would have been preferable to better regulate the trade by including the species in Schedule
IV instead of Schedule I.
EASTERN SWAMP DEER

The population of the vulnerable eastern swamp deer, extinct elsewhere in South Asia, has dipped in
the Kaziranga National Park and Tiger
Reserve.
About Swamp Deer

o The barasingha, also called swamp
deer, is a deer species distributed in the
Indian subcontinent.
o It differs from all other Indian deer species
in that the antlers carry more than three
tines.
o Threats: Poaching for antlers and meat,
habitat loss.
o Barasingha is the state animal of the Indian states of Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh.
Three subspecies of swamp deer are:
o Western swamp deer is adapted to the flooded tall grassland habitat in the Indo-Gangetic plain
and are found in the Sukla Phanta Wildlife Reserve of Nepal.
o Southern swamp deer has hard hooves and is adapted to hard ground in open sal forest with a
grass understorey survives only in the Kanha National Park. It was reintroduced into Satpura Tiger
Reserve.
o Eastern swamp deer is only found in Assam i.e. it is endemic to Assam.
Protection Status
o It is listed as Vulnerable in the IUCN Red list.
o It is listed on CITES Appendix I.
o In India, it is included under Schedule I of the Wildlife Protection Act of 1972.
ROOT BRIDGES
UNESCO tag sought for living root bridges.
o The Living Root Bridges are
made from rubber tree roots
also known as Ficus
elastica tree.
o These wonderful structures
have meticulously grown
over a period of time and are
among the biggest
attractions in Meghalaya.
o Such a bridge is locally
called jingkieng jri.
o The ever evolving
Meghalaya bridges are made
up of tangled thick roots
that provide formidability to
the structure and make it good enough to hold 50 or more people in one go.
o They are grown by trained Khasi and Jaintia tribes who have mastered the art of growing root
bridges across raised banks of streams running through the dense woods of Meghalaya.
o The whole idea of Meghalaya’s living bridges came into the picture some two centuries ago (180
years precisely) when veterans of Khasi clan living in Meghalaya put rubber tree roots into
hollow canes of Areca nut palm that met halfway across the stream.
o The roots were nurtured and cared properly until they grew enough to reach the opposite bank, get
completely entwined with each other, and make themselves capable enough to carry heavy weight.
o Once fully grown, these roots last for as long as 500 years. While some of the roots decay because of
their continuous association of water, others grow and make up for the decayed, thus providing the
required stability to the bridge.
o Of all the Living Root Bridges in Meghalaya, the double-decker root bridge in Cherrapunji and the
single-decker root bridge in Shillong are the unique bridges in the world and make for prime
attraction in the Northeast.
NEW PLANT SPECIES

Researchers have reported two new plant species from the biodiversity-rich Western Ghats regions in
Thiruvananthapuram and Wayanad districts.
They have been christened Fimbristylis sunilii and Neanotis prabhuii.
Fimbristylis sunilii Neanotis prabhuii
o Fimbristylis sunilii has been provisionally

assessed as data deficient (DD) under the
IUCN Red List
o Neanotis prabhuii is a prostrate perennial

herb.
o Discovered in the Chembra Peak grasslands of
Wayanad, it hails from the family Rubiaceae
and grows on high-altitude grasslands.
o Neanotis prabhuii grows up to 70 cm in length
and is many-flowered with the petals pale pink
in colour
o Neanotis prabhuii has been categorised data
deficient (DD) in the absence of any detailed
observations and data on populations
BHUNGLOTI CREEPER
A creeper that once gave a monk’s robe its saffron colour has made a Buddhist village in eastern
Assam’s Charaideo district adopt a forest.
o Bhugloti is a creeper that in combination with the pith of the roots of a jackfruit tree
yields a saffron dye.
o Five years ago, the bhikkhus of a Buddhist monastery in the 152-year-old Chalapather Shyamgaon
had bemoaned the near-extinction of bhungloti, a creeper that in combination with the pith of the
roots of a jackfruit tree yielded a saffron dye for their robes.
o The concern of the monks triggered a movement for conserving the adjoining Chala Reserve
Forest.
o In 2018, the people of ten villages in the vicinity converged to form Chala Village Sanctuary
Conservation Society and 683 hectare reserve forest under the Sivasagar Forest Division was
declared as the Chala Village Sanctuary.
o The Chala Reserve Forest is about 100 metres above sea level, but it houses a few orchids that are
usually found in higher altitudes.
TEMPLE TURTLE
o Hayagriva Madhava Temple temple in Assam has signed a memorandum of understanding
with two green NGOs, the Assam State Zoo cum Botanical Garden and the Kamrup district
administration for long-term conservation of the rare freshwater black softshell turtle (Nilssonia
nigricans).
o A vision document 2030 was also launched after Turtle Survival Alliance India and Help
Earth signed the pact involving the Hayagriva Madhava Temple Committee. The temple, revered by
both Hindus and Buddhists, is at Hajo, about 30 km northwest of Guwahati.
o Until sightings along the Brahmaputra River’s drainage in Assam, the black softshell turtle was
thought to be ‘extinct in the wild’ and confined only to ponds of temples in northeastern India and
Bangladesh.
Critically endangered
o The International Union for
Conservation of Nature had in 2021
listed the turtle as ‘critically endangered’.
But it does not enjoy legal protection
under the Indian Wildlife (Protection)
Act of 1972 although it has traditionally
been hunted for its meat and cartilage,
traded in regional and international
markets.
o Various temple ponds in Assam such as
that of the Hayagriva Madhava Temple harbour various threatened species of turtles. Since the
turtles are conserved in these ponds only based on religious grounds, many biological requirements
for building a sustainable wild population have since long been overlooked.
o This multi-stakeholder association (conservation pact) aims to restock the wild with viable, self-
sufficient and genetically pure threatened turtle populations in the region.
BIRD ATLAS OF KERALA

The Kerala Bird Atlas (KBA), the first-of-its-kind state-level bird atlas in India, has created solid
baseline data about the distribution and abundance of various bird species across all major habitats
giving an impetus for futuristic studies.
o It was conducted as a citizen science-driven exercise with
the participation of volunteers of the bird watching
community.
o KBA was prepared based on systematic surveys held twice
over 60 days a year during the wet (July to September) and
dry (January to March) seasons between 2015 and 2020.
o It is arguably Asia’s largest bird atlas in terms of
geographical extent, sampling effort and species coverage
derived from the aggregation of 25,000 checklists.
o It was found that the species count was higher during the
dry season than in the wet season while species richness
and evenness were higher in the northern and central
districts than in the southern districts.
o Most of the endemics were concentrated in the Western
Ghats while the threatened species were mostly along the
coasts. The KBA is considered to be a valuable resource for
testing various ecological hypotheses and suggesting
science-backed conservation measures.
o Among the species, White-cheeked Barbet and House
Crow topped the chart.
o The survey, however, ignored the very short duration passage of migrant species like Eurasian
Cuckoo, Amur Falcon etc.
RAMGARH VISHDHARI SANCTUARY
o After the Centre’s nod for creation of the

Ramgarh Vishdhari sanctuary, the Rajasthan
government is hoping to develop a tiger
corridor connecting three tiger reserves
passing through districts including Sawai
Madhopur, Kota and Bundi.
o Tiger corridor connecting Ranthambore,
Ramgarh Vishdhari and Mukundra.
SIKKIM: FLORA CAPITAL

o Sikkim, the smallest State with less than 1% of India’s
landmass, is home to 27% of all flowering plants found in
the country as per the recent publication by the Botanical
Survey of India (BSI).
o Flora of Sikkim – A Pictorial Guide, lists 4,912 naturally
occurring flowering plants in the tiny Himalayan State.
o The total number of naturally occurring flowering plants in
the country is about 18,004 species, and with 4,912
species, the diversity of flowering plants in Sikkim is very
unique.
o Scientists and researchers behind the publication said that
the State, which is a part of the Kanchenjunga
biosphere landscape, has different altitudinal
ecosystems, which provide opportunity for herbs and trees
to grow and thrive. The State also borders China, Bhutan
and Nepal, and the Darjeeling hills of West Bengal.
o Landscape: From subalpine vegetation to the temperate to the tropical, the State has different
kinds of vegetation, and that is the reason for such a diversity of flora. The elevation also varies
between 300 to 8,598 metres above mean sea level, the apex being the top of Mt. Kanchenjunga
(8,586 metres).
DEEPER BEEL
o The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change notified the eco-sensitive zone of the
Deepar Beel Wildlife Sanctuary on the south-western edge of Guwahati.
o Deepor Beel (Beel means wetland or
large aquatic body in Assamese)
located about 10 km Southwest of Guwahati
city is considered one of the large and
important riverine wetlands in the
Brahmaputra Valley of lower Assam, India.
o Deepor Beel is an open lake basin
connected with a set of inflow and outflow
channels.
o Deepor Beel has both biological and
environmental importance besides being
the only major storm-water storage basin for Guwahati city. It is considered one of the staging sites
for migratory birds in India; and some of the large congregations of aquatic birds in Assam during
winter.
o Because of the richness of avian fauna it enjoyed, Deepor Beel has been selected as one of the
Important Bird Area (IBA) sites by Birdlife International.
o Deepor Beel has also been designated as a Ramsar Site in November 2002.
o The wetland expands up to 30 sq. km in summer and reduces to about 10 sq. km in the winter. The
wildlife sanctuary measures 4.1 sq. km within this wetland.
SUNDERBANS
Unregulated inflow of relief to the Sunderbans has resulted in a new crisis in the cyclone-battered
region: plastic waste after Cyclone Yaas
o The Sundarbans is the biggest
delta, back water and tidal
phenomenon of the region
and thus provides diverse
habitats for several hundreds of
aquatic, terrestrial and
amphibian species.
o The site includes the entire
landscape of mangrove
habitats with an adequate
surrounding area of aquatic
(both marine and
freshwater) and terrestrial
habitats, and thus all the areas
essential for the long term
conservation of the Sundarbans
and its rich and distinct biodiversity.
o The Sundarbans mangrove forest, one of the largest such forests in the world (140,000 ha), lies on
the delta of the Ganges, Brahmaputra and Meghna rivers on the Bay of Bengal.
o It is adjacent to the border of India’s Sundarbans World Heritage site inscribed in 1987. The
site is intersected by a complex network of tidal waterways, mudflats and small islands of salt-
tolerant mangrove forests, and presents an excellent example of ongoing ecological processes. The
area is known for its wide range of fauna, including 260 bird species, the Bengal tiger and other
threatened species such as the estuarine crocodile and the Indian python.
o The Sundarbans Reserve Forest (SRF), located in the south-west of Bangladesh between the
river Baleswar in the East and the Harinbanga in the West, adjoining to the Bay of Bengal, is the
largest contiguous mangrove forest in the world. The land area, including exposed sandbars,
occupies 414,259 ha (70%) with water bodies covering 187,413 ha (30%).
o The three wildlife sanctuaries in the south cover an area of 139,700 ha and are considered core
breeding areas for a number of endangered species. Situated in a unique bioclimatic zone within a
typical geographical situation in the coastal region of the Bay of Bengal, it is a landmark of ancient
heritage of mythological and historical events. Bestowed with magnificent scenic beauty and natural
resources, it is internationally recognized for its high biodiversity of mangrove flora and fauna both
on land and water.
o The Sundarbans is of universal importance for globally endangered species including the Royal
Bengal Tiger, Ganges and Irawadi dolphins, estuarine crocodiles and the critically
endangered endemic river terrapin (Batagur baska). It is the only mangrove habitat in the
world for Panthera tigris species.
o The Sundarbans provides a significant example of on-going ecological processes as it represents the
process of delta formation and the subsequent colonization of the newly formed deltaic islands and
associated mangrove communities. These processes include monsoon rains, flooding, delta
formation, tidal influence and plant colonization. As part of the world’s largest delta, formed from
sediments deposited by three great rivers; the Ganges, Brahmaputra and Meghna, and covering the
Bengal Basin, the land has been moulded by tidal action, resulting in a distinctive physiology.
o Natural calamities such as cyclones, have always posed threats on the values of the property and
along with saline water intrusion and siltation, remain potential threats to the attributes.
o Cyclones and tidal waves cause some damage to the forest along the sea-land interface and have
previously caused occasional considerable mortality among some species of fauna such as the
spotted deer.
o Over exploitation of both timber resources and fauna, illegal hunting and trapping, and agricultural
encroachment also pose serious threats to the values of the property and its overall integrity.
CORALS
o Corals are sessile, which means that they permanently attach themselves to the ocean floor,
essentially "taking root" like most plants do. We certainly cannot recognize them by their faces or
other distinct body parts, as we can most other animals.
o Corals are invertebrate animals belonging to a large group of colourful and fascinating
animals called Cnidaria. Other animals in this group that you may have seen in rock pools or on
the beach include jelly fish and sea anemones. Although Cnidarians exhibit a wide variety of colours,
shapes and sizes, they all share the same distinguishing characteristics; a simple stomach with a
single mouth opening surrounded by stinging tentacles.
o Each individual coral animal is called a polyp, and most live in groups of hundreds to
thousands of genetically identical polyps that form a ‘colony’. The colony is formed by a process
called budding, which is where the original polyp literally grows copies of itself.
o Coral are generally classified as either “hard coral” or “soft coral”. There are around 800 known
species of hard coral, also known as the ‘reef building’ corals. Soft corals, which include seas fans, sea
feathers and sea whips, don’t have the rock-like calcareous skeleton like the others, instead they
grow wood-like cores for support and fleshy rinds for protection.
o Soft corals also live in colonies, that often resemble brightly coloured plants or trees, and are easy to
tell apart from hard corals as their polyps have tentacles that occur in numerals of 8, and have a
distinctive feathery appearance. Soft corals are found in oceans from the equator to the north and
south poles, generally in caves or ledges. Here, they hang down in order to capture food floating by in
the currents that are usually typical of these places.
More about coral reefs

o Hard corals extract abundant calcium from surrounding seawater and use this to create a
hardened structure for protection and growth. Coral reefs are therefore created by millions of
tiny polyps forming large carbonate structures, and are the basis of a framework and home
for hundreds of thousands, if not millions, of other species. Coral reefs are the largest living structure
on the planet, and the only living structure to be visible from space.
o Coral reefs have evolved on earth over the past 200 to 300 million years, and over this evolutionary
history, perhaps the most unique feature of corals is the highly evolved form of symbiosis. Coral
polyps have developed this relationship with tiny single-celled plants, known as
zooxanthellae. Inside the tissues of each coral polyp live these microscopic, single-celled algae,
sharing space, gas exchange and nutrients to survive.
o This symbiosis between plant and animal also contributes to the brilliant colors of coral that can be
seen while diving on a reef. It is the importance of light that drives corals to compete for space on the
sea floor, and so constantly pushes the limits of their physiological tolerances in a competitive
environment among so many different species. However, it also makes corals highly susceptible to
environmental stress.
o Coral reefs are part of a larger ecosystem that also includes mangroves and seagrass
beds. Mangroves are salt tolerant trees with submerged roots that provide nursery and breeding
grounds for marine life, that then migrate to the reef. Mangroves also trap and produce nutrients for
food, stabilise the shoreline, protect the coastal zone from storms, and help filter land based
pollutants from run off. Seagrasses are flowering marine plants that are a key primary producer in
the food web. They provide food and habitat for turtles, seahorses, manatees, fish and foraging sea
life such as urchins and sea cucumbers, and are also a nursery for many juvenile species of sea
animals. Seagrass beds are like fields that sit in shallow waters off the beach, filtering sediments out
of the water, releasing oxygen and stabilising the bottom.
o Location-Coral reefs are found throughout the oceans, from deep, cold waters to
shallow, tropical waters. Temperate and tropical reefs however are formed only in a zone
extending at most from 30°N to 30°S of the equator; the reef-building corals prefering to grow at
depths shallower than 30 m (100 ft), or where the temperature range is between 16-32oc, and light
levels are high.
What does a coral reef look like?

It was Charles Darwin who originally classified coral reefs as to their
structure and morphology, and described them as follows:
o Fringing reefs lie near emergent land. They are fairly shallow,
narrow and recently formed. They can be separated form the coast by a
navigable channel (which is sometimes incorrectly termed a “lagoon”).
o Barrier reefs are broader and lie farther away from the coast. They
are separated from the coast by a stretch of water which can be up to
several miles wide and several tens of metres deep. Sandy islands
covered with a characteristic pattern of vegetation have sometimes
formed on top of a barrier reef. The coastline of these islands is broken
by passes, which have occupied the beds of former rivers.
o Atolls are large, ring-shaped reefs lying off the coast, with a
lagoon in their middle. The emergent part of the reef is often
covered with accumulated sediments and the most characteristic
vegetation growing on these reefs consists of coconut trees. Atolls
develop near the sea surface on underwater islands or on islands that
sink, or subside.
THINGS TO KNOW
GEO-TOURISM SITES
The Geological Survey of India (GSI) has identified certain geological sites across the Northeast for
promotion of geo-tourism.
o Of the 12 sites in the Northeast, three are in Meghalaya, two each in Assam and Tripura, and one
each in Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Mizoram, Nagaland and Sikkim.
MEGHALAYA
Mawmluh Cave: Near Cherrapunjee in the
East Khasi Hills district, this cave led scientists
to the Meghalayan Age associated with a
major climatic event – very abrupt, critical and
significant drought and cooling – 4,200 years
ago.
A stage of the Meghalayan Age is defined
from a specific level in a stalagmite from
this cave. According to geologists,
speleothems from the cave provide important
records of Holocene paleo-climate and paleo-
monsoon.
The cave is about 55 km from the State capital
Shillong.
Mawblei or God’s Rock: Situated near Syntung Therriaghat: Also in East Khasi Hills
village in East Khasi Hills district, it is a huge district, it is probably one of the best-
balancing rock slanting at an angle of about 45 preserved and most complete Cretaceous-
degrees in the south-southeast direction on a hill Paleogene boundary sections in India.
slope at 1,303 metres above mean sea level Most of the large vertebrates, planktons and
overlooking the Wahrashi River valley. many tropical invertebrates suddenly became
The rock is composed of the reddish-purple extinct at the end of the Cretaceous period.
Mahadek sandstone belonging to the Khasi A new assemblage of ammonites recorded
group of cretaceous age. Thin partings of shale are recently probably represent a few of the last
also observed in the boulder. representatives just before the mass
Mawblei in the Khasi language means God’s extinction in which the complete sub-class
Rock and is a sacred place for the local populace. Ammonidea vanished from the face of the
The rock is about 63 km from Shillong. earth.
ASSAM
Umananda: One of the smallest inhabited islands in the Brahmaputra, Umananda is off the
administrative hub of Guwahati and sports an old Shiva temple. The island is actually an inselberg,
composed of the rocks of the Assam-Meghalaya gneissic complex.
Majuli: A river “island”, among the world’s

largest, Majuli is a district at the mercy of the
Brahmaputra. The river erodes the island every
year but also deposits soil to ensure a constant
change in its shape.
The island is also the hub of spiritualism in
Assam because of a number of ‘satras’ or
Vaishnav monasteries established by the 15th-
16th century saint-reformer Srimanta
Sankaradeva and his disciples.
The island is about 330 km east of Guwahati.
TRIPURA
Chabimura: In Gomati district, this site is
known for its panels of rock carving on a steep
hill wall on the bank of river Gomati.
The huge images of Shiva, Vishnu,
Karthikeya, Durga and other gods and
goddesses date back to the 15th-16th century
and the biggest carved deity is about 20 ft.
The hill range is covered with thick jungles and
one can reach this abode of gods after trekking
through the foliage but rafting or boating on the
river is the only option for a view of the rock-
face carvings. The site is about 82 km from the
State capital Agartala.
Unakoti: This site in the Unakoti district has numerous rock-cut sculptures and temples made
between the 7th and 9th centuries. The hilly environs and waterfalls are an added attraction at Unakoti,
which means “one less than a crore”. The place is a historic Shaiva pilgrimage 172 km from Agartala.
The central Shiva head, known as ‘Unakotiswara Kal Bhairava’ is about 30 feet high, including an
embroidered headdress that is 10 feet high.
ARUNACHAL PRADESH
Sangetsar Tso: Popularly known as

Madhuri Lake, this waterbody in Tawang
district is close to the border with Tibet and was
formed due to the damming of a river during a
major earthquake in 1950.
The lake is surrounded by a lush valley and
snow-capped mountains.
MIZORAM
Reiek Tlang: About 29 km from State capital Aizawl, this hill is a cuesta formed due to erosion of
the tertiary sand shale alternations.
Cuesta means a ridge with a gentle slope or dip on one side and a steep slope or scarp on the
other. The local authorities host the annual anthurium festival at a heritage village near the Reiek peak.
MANIPUR
Loktak Lake: About 40 km from State

capital Imphal, this lake in the Bishnupur
district is the largest freshwater lake in the
Northeast.
The attractions of this lake are the ‘
phumdis’ or floating biomass and the
‘phumsangs’ or huts of fishermen on them.
The Keibul Lamjao National Park, the
only floating wildlife habitat on earth, is on
the southwestern part of the lake and is the
last natural habitat of the sangai or brow-
antlered dancing deer.
NAGALAND
Naga Hill Ophiolite: Geologically referred to as NHO, it is in the Pungro region of Kiphire district
and about 240 km from State capital Kohima.
It refers to the ophiolitic rocks of mantle and oceanic crust percentage at the continental
plate margin with vast potential for intensive research and economic growth.
The NHO consists of a variety of Mesozoic and the subsequently Cenozoic rocks – magmatic,
metamorphic and sedimentary – that originated at the India-Myanmar convergent plate boundary. It
has been assigned ages ranging from Cretaceous to Paleocene.
SIKKIM
Stromatolite Park: At Mamley, about 80 km from State capital Gangtok, this site comprising
stromatolitic (algal) development – boulder outcrops with circular structures – hosted in the limestone
of Buxa Formation was discovered a little over a decade ago.
It provides one of the rare examples of early life on earth in the Sikkim Himalayas. The age of the Buxa
Formation is tentatively assigned as Meso-Neoproterozoic based on the available evidence of
stromatolites and organic-walled microfossils.
TRADITIONAL RAINWATER HARVESTING

Jhalara:
are typically rectangular-shaped stepwells that have tiered steps on three or four sides. These stepwells
collect the subterranean seepage of an upstream reservoir or a lake.
Jhalaras were built to ensure easy and regular supply of water for religious rites, royal ceremonies and
community use. The city of Jodhpur has eight jhalaras, the oldest being the Mahamandir Jhalara that
dates back to 1660 AD.
Talab /Bandhi:
Talabs are reservoirs that store water for household consumption and drinking purposes. They may be
natural, such as the pokhariyan ponds at Tikamgarh in the Bundelkhand region or man-made, such
as the lakes of Udaipur.
A reservoir with an area less than five bighas is called a talai, a medium sized lake is called a bandhi
and bigger lakes are called sagar or samand.
Bawari:
Bawaris are unique stepwells that were once a part of the ancient networks of water storage in the cities
of Rajasthan. The little rain that the region received would be diverted to man-made tanks through
canals built on the hilly outskirts of cities.
The water would then percolate into the ground, raising the water table and recharging a deep and
intricate network of aquifers. To minimise water loss through evaporation, a series of layered steps were
built around the reservoirs to narrow and deepen the wells.
Taanka:
Taanka is a traditional rainwater harvesting technique indigenous to the Thar desert region of
Rajasthan. A Taanka is a cylindrical paved underground pit into which rainwater from rooftops,
courtyards or artificially prepared catchments flows.
Once completely filled, the water stored in a taanka can last throughout the dry season and is sufficient
for a family of 5-6 members. An important element of water security in these arid regions, taankas can
save families from the everyday drudgery of fetching water from distant sources.
Ahar Pynes:
Ahar Pynes are traditional floodwater harvesting systems indigenous to South Bihar.
Ahars are reservoirs with embankments on three sides that are built at the end of diversion channels
like pynes.
Pynes are artificial rivulets led off from rivers to collect water in the ahars for irrigation in the dry
months. Paddy cultivation in this relatively low rainfall area depends mostly on ahar pynes.
Johads:
Johads, one of the oldest systems used to conserve and recharge ground water, are small earthen check
dams that capture and store rainwater. Constructed in an area with naturally high elevation on three
sides, a storage pit is made by excavating the area, and excavated soil is used to create a wall on the
fourth side.
Sometimes, several johads are interconnected through deep channels, with a single outlet opening into
a river or stream nearby. This prevents structural damage to the water pits that are also called madakas
in Karnataka and pemghara in Odisha.
Panam Keni:
The Kuruma tribe (a native tribe of Wayanad) uses a special type of well, called the panam keni, to store
water. Wooden cylinders are made by soaking the stems of toddy palms in water for a long time so that
the core rots away until only the hard outer layer remains. These cylinders, four feet in diameter as well
as depth, are then immersed in groundwater springs located in fields and forests. This is the secret
behind how these wells have abundant water even in the hottest summer months.
Khadin:
Khadins are ingenious constructions designed to harvest surface runoff water for agriculture. The main
feature of a khadin, also called dhora, is a long earthen embankment that is built across the hill slopes
of gravelly uplands.
Sluices and spillways allow the excess water to drain off and the water-saturated land is then used for
crop production. First designed by the Paliwal Brahmins of Jaisalmer in the 15th century, this system is
very similar to the irrigation methods of the people of ancient Ur (present Iraq).
Kund:
A kund is a saucer-shaped catchment area that gently slope towards the central circular underground
well. Its main purpose is to harvest rainwater for drinking.
Kunds dot the sandier tracts of western Rajasthan and Gujarat. Traditionally, these well-pits were
covered in disinfectant lime and ash, though many modern kunds have been constructed simply with
cement. Raja Sur Singh is said to have built the earliest known kunds in the village of Vadi Ka Melan in
the year 1607 AD.
Baoli:
Built by the nobility for civic, strategic or philanthropic reasons, baolis were secular structures from
which everyone could draw water. These beautiful stepwells typically have beautiful arches, carved
motifs and sometimes, rooms on their sides.
The locations of baolis often suggest the way in which they were used. Baolis within villages were
mainly used for utilitarian purposes and social gatherings. Baolis on trade routes were often frequented
as resting places. Stepwells used exclusively for agriculture had drainage systems that channelled water
into the fields.
Nadi:
Found near Jodhpur in Rajasthan, nadis are village ponds that store rainwater collected from adjoining
natural catchment areas. The location of a nadi has a strong bearing on its storage capacity and hence
the site of a nadi is chosen after careful deliberation of its catchment and runoff characteristics.
Since nadis received their water supply from erratic, torrential rainfall, large amounts of sandy
sediments were regularly deposited in them, resulting in quick siltation. A local voluntary organisation,
the Mewar Krishak Vikas Samiti (MKVS) has been adding systems like spillways and silt traps to
old nadis and promoting afforestation of their drainage basin to prevent siltation.
Bhandara Phad:
Phad, a community-managed irrigation system, probably came into existence a few centuries ago. The
system starts with a bhandhara (check dam) built across a river, from which kalvas (canals) branch
out to carry water into the fields in the phad (agricultural block).
Sandams (escapes outlets) ensure that the excess water is removed from the canals by charis
(distributaries) and sarangs (field channels). The Phad system is operated on three rivers in the Tapi
basin – Panjhra, Mosam and Aram – in the Dhule and Nasik districts of Maharashtra.
Zing:
Zings, found in Ladakh, are small tanks that collect melting glacier water. A network of guiding
channels brings water from the glacier to the tank. A trickle in the morning, the melting waters of the
glacier turn into a flowing stream by the afternoon. The water, collected by evening, is used in the fields
on the following day.
A water official called a Chirpun is responsible for the equitable distribution of water in this dry
region that relies on melting glacial water to meet its farming needs.
Kuhls:
Kuhls are surface water channels found in the mountainous regions of Himachal Pradesh. The channels
carry glacial waters from rivers and streams into the fields. The Kangra Valley system has an estimated
715 major kuhls and 2,500 minor kuhls that irrigate more than 30,000 hectares in the valley.
An important cultural tradition, the kuhls were built either through public donations or by royal rulers.
A kohli would be designated as the master of the kuhl and he would be responsible for the maintenance
of the kuhl.
Zabo:
The Zabo (meaning ‘impounding run-off’) system combines water conservation with forestry,
agriculture and animal care.
Practised in Nagaland, Zabo is also known as the Ruza system. Rainwater that falls on forested
hilltops is collected by channels that deposit the run-off water in pond-like structures created on the
terraced hillsides. The channels also pass through cattle yards, collecting the dung and urine of animals,
before ultimately meandering into paddy fields at the foot of the hill. Ponds created in the paddy field
are then used to rear fish and foster the growth of medicinal plants..
Bamboo Drip Irrigation:

Bamboo Drip irrigation System is an ingenious system of efficient water management that has been
practised for over two centuries in northeast India. The tribal farmers of the region have developed a
system for irrigation in which water from perennial springs is diverted to the terrace fields using
varying sizes and shapes of bamboo pipes. Best suited for crops requiring less water, the system ensures
that small drops of water are delivered directly to the roots of the plants. This ancient system is used by
the farmers of Khasi and Jaintia hills to drip-irrigate their black pepper cultivation..
Jackwell:
The Shompen tribe of the Great Nicobar Islands lives in a region of rugged topography that they make
full use of to harvest water. In this system, the low-lying region of the island is covered with jackwells
(pits encircled by bunds made from logs of hard wood). A full-length bamboo is cut longitudinally and
placed on a gentle slope with the lower end leading the water into the jackwell. Often, these split
bamboos are placed under trees to collect the runoff water from leaves. Big jackwells are interconnected
with more bamboos so that the overflow from one jackwell leads to the other, ultimately leading to the
biggest jackwell.
Ramtek model:
The Ramtek model has been named after the water harvesting structures in the town of Ramtek in
Maharashtra. An intricate network of groundwater and surface water bodies, this system was
constructed and maintained mostly by the malguzars (landowners) of the region.
In this system, tanks connected by underground and surface canals form a chain that extends from
the foothills to the plains. Once tanks located in the hills are filled to capacity, the water flows down
to fill successive tanks, generally ending in a small waterhole. This system conserves about 60 to 70 %
of the total runoff in the region!
Pat system:
The Pat system, in which the peculiarities of the terrain are used to divert water from hill streams into
irrigation channels, was developed in the Bhitada village in Jhabua district of Madhya Pradesh.
Diversion bunds are made across a stream near the village by piling up stones and then lining them
with teak leaves and mud to make them leak-proof. The Pat channel then passes through deep ditches
and stone aqueducts that are skilfully cut info stone cliffs to create an irrigation system that the villagers
use in turn..
Eri:
The Eri (tank) system of Tamil Nadu is one of the oldest water management systems in India. Still
widely used in the state, eris act as flood-control systems, prevent soil erosion and wastage of runoff
during periods of heavy rainfall, and also recharge the groundwater.
Eris can either be a system eri, which is fed by channels that divert river water, or a non-system eri,
that is fed solely by rain. The tanks are interconnected in order to enable access to the farthest village
and to balance the water level in case of excess supply. The eri system enables the complete use of river
water for irrigation and without them, paddy cultivation would have been impossible in Tamil Nadu.
There are several other hyperlocal versions of the traditional method of tank irrigation in India. From
Keres in Central Karnataka and Cheruvus in Andhra Pradesh to Dongs in Assam, tanks are
among the most common traditional irrigation systems in our country.
BIO-DECOMPOSER
About
o Bio-decomposer generally, an activator or accelerator is a substance that activates, accelerates or
increases the total output of the process.
o Microbial cultures added to organic materials or residues to hasten their decomposition act as
biological accelerators. Decomposers produce enzymes, which lower the activation energy
necessary to break chemical bonds in organic materials.
o It is formulation of fast decomposing fungus, which converts biomass its includes grass
windrows/clippings, animal wastes, fields straw after crop harvest and weeds, etc. in fertile humus
gradually.
o It will take 60-90 days for conversion of agricultural wastes in powder form.
CIRCULAR ECONOMY
o A circular economy is restorative and
regenerative by design. This means
materials constantly flow around a
‘closed loop’ system, rather than being
used once and then discarded.
o In the case of plastic, this means
simultaneously keeping the value of
plastics in the economy, without
leakage into the natural environment.
o In short, the circular economy is an
economic system in which materials are
designed to be used, not used up. From
the outset, products and the systems they sit within should be designed to ensure no materials are
lost, no toxins are leaked, and the maximum use is achieved from every process, material, and
component. If applied correctly, the circular economy benefits society, the environment, and the
economy.
Eliminate the plastics we don’t need.

o Plastic brings many benefits. At the same time, there are some problematic items on the market that
need to be eliminated to achieve a circular economy, and sometimes, plastic packaging can be
avoided altogether while maintaining utility.
o While improving recycling is crucial, we cannot recycle our way out of the plastic issues we currently
face. Wherever relevant, reuse business models should be explored as a preferred
solution (or ‘inner loop’ in circular economy terms), reducing the need for single-use plastic
packaging. Reuse models, which provide an economically attractive opportunity for at least 20% of
plastic packaging, need to be implemented in practice and at scale.
o Innovate to ensure that the plastics we do need are reusable, recyclable, or compostable. This
requires a combination of redesign and innovation in business models, materials, packaging design,
and reprocessing technologies.
o Compostable plastic packaging is not a blanket solution, but rather one for specific, targeted
applications, because an effective collection and composting infrastructure is essential but often not
in place.
o Circulate all the plastic items we use to keep them in the economy and out of the environment.
o No plastic should end up in the environment. Landfill, incineration, and waste-to-energy are not
long term solutions that support a circular economy.
o Governments are essential in setting up effective collection infrastructure, facilitating the
establishment of related self-sustaining funding mechanisms, and providing an enabling regulatory
and policy landscape.
o Businesses producing and/or selling packaging have a responsibility beyond the design and use of
their packaging, which includes contributing towards it being collected and reused, recycled, or
composted in practice.
o In a new plastics economy, plastic never becomes waste or pollution. Three actions are required to
achieve this vision and create a circular economy for plastic. Eliminate all problematic and
unnecessary plastic items. Innovate to ensure that the plastics we do need are reusable, recyclable,
or compostable. Circulate all the plastic items we use to keep them in the economy and out of the
environment.
REUSE
INDIA PLASTIC PACT

o The India Plastics Pact is an ambitious, collaborative initiative that aims to bring together
businesses, governments and NGOs to reduce, reuse, and recycle plastics in their value chain.
o Launched on 3 September, the Pact aims to tackle plastic pollution in the country, bringing
together businesses from across the Indian plastics value chain to move towards a circular
plastics system that aims to keep the material in the economy, and out of the environment.
o India generates 9.47 million tonnes of plastic waste annually, of which 40 per cent goes uncollected.
43 per cent of all plastics produced in the country are used for packaging, most of which is single-
use.
o The India Plastics Pact will set out to address this through direct actions across four 2030 targets –
define a list of unnecessary or problematic plastic and take measures to address them through
redesign and innovation; 100 per cent of plastic packaging to be reusable or recyclable; 50 per cent
of plastic packaging to be effectively recycled, and 25 per cent average recycled content across all
plastic packaging.
o A total of 27 businesses and supporting organisations have joined the Pact as founding members,
including major FMCG brands, manufacturers, retailers and recyclers such as Tata Consumer
Products, Amazon, Hindustan Unilever, Coca Cola India, Mondelez, Godrej, Marico and ITC.
o The Pact has been developed as a collaboration between WRAP, WWF India, and the CII.
The development received funding from UK Research and Innovation (UKRI), with further
capital to support delivery being secured from Stewart Investors.
o Following the launch of the Pact in India, collaboration is set to continue between WRAP, the CII
and WWF-India on four key actions – draw up a delivery roadmap; initiate ‘Action Groups’ to
support the targets; scope out the reporting process to develop a baseline; drive recruitment.
o The India Plastics Pact is the latest to join a growing list of Pacts, including initiatives in Europe, the
US, Canada, South Africa and Chile.
SRISAILAM DAM
o The inflows into
Srisailam Reservoir
have touched 5 lakh
cusecs and the Dam
Maintenance
engineers are
discharging 5,50,149
cusecs and the
quantum of discharge
from the dam is
inching closer to the
highest reached last
year 597,440 cusecs
on September 27,
2020.
o The Srisailam Dam is constructed across the Krishna River in Kurnool district, Andhra
Pradesh near Srisailam temple town and is the 2nd largest capacity working hydroelectric station in
the country.
o The dam was constructed in a deep gorge in the Nallamala Hills in between Kurnool and
Mahabubnagar districts.
MEKEDATU PROJECT
The Tamil Nadu government has moved the
Supreme Court against a National Green
Tribunal (NGT) decision to close proceedings
against the Mekedatu dam project.
o Mekedatu, meaning goat’s leap, is a deep
gorge situated at the confluence of the rivers
Cauvery and its tributary Arkavathi.
o The Rs. 9,000 crore project aims to store and
supply water for drinking purposes for the
Bengaluru city. Around 400 megawatts (MW)
of power is also proposed to be generated
through the project.
o It was first approved by the Karnataka state
government in 2017.
o It received approval from the erstwhile
Ministry of Water Resources for the detailed
project report and is awaiting approval from
the Ministry of Environment, Forest and
Climate Change (MoEFCC).
o The approval from MoEFCC is crucial because
63% of the forest area of the Cauvery Wildlife
Sanctuary will be submerged.
o In 2018, Tamil Nadu approached the Supreme
Court (SC) against the project even if
Karnataka had held that it would not affect the flow of water to Tamil Nadu.
o In June 2020, during the Cauvery Water Management Authority’s meeting, Tamil Nadu reiterated
its opposition to the project.
Reasons for Opposition by Tamil Nadu:

o Tamil Nadu is opposed to any project being proposed in the upper riparian unless it was approved by
the SC.
o Karnataka has no right to construct any reservoir on an inter-state river without the consent of the
lower riparian state i.e. Tamil Nadu in this case.
o The project is against the final order of the Cauvery Water Disputes Tribunal (CWDT) in which the
SC held that no state can claim exclusive ownership or assert rights to deprive other states of the
waters of inter-state rivers.
o The CWDT and the SC have found that the existing storage facilities available in the Cauvery basin
were adequate for storing and distributing water so Karnataka’s proposal is ex-facie (on the face of
it) untenable and should be rejected outright.
o It has also held that the reservoir is not just for drinking water alone, but to increase the extent of
irrigation, which is in clear violation of the Cauvery Water Disputes Award.
UNCLOS
o United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) 1982, also known as Law of the Sea
divides marine areas into five main zones namely- Internal Waters, Territorial Sea, Contiguous
Zone, Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) and the High Seas.
o UNCLOS is the only international convention which stipulates a framework for state jurisdiction in
maritime spaces. It provides a different legal status to different maritime zones.
o It provides the backbone for offshore governance by coastal states and those navigating the oceans. It
not only zones coastal states’ offshore areas but also provides specific guidance for states’ rights and
responsibilities in the five concentric zones.
Maritime Zones
Baseline: It is the low-water line along the coast as officially recognized by the coastal state.
Internal Waters:
o Internal waters are
waters on the
landward side of the
baseline from which
the breadth of the
territorial sea is
measured.
o Each coastal state has
full sovereignty over
its internal waters as
like its land territory.
Examples of internal
waters include bays,
ports, inlets, rivers
and even lakes that are
connected to the sea.
o There is no right of innocent passage through internal waters.
o The innocent passage refers to the passing through the waters which are not prejudicial to peace and
security. However, the nations have the right to suspend the same.
Territorial Sea:
o The territorial sea extends seaward up to 12 nautical miles (nm) from its baselines.
o A nautical mile is based on the circumference of the earth and is equal to one minute of latitude. It is
slightly more than a land measured mile (1 nautical mile = 1.1508 land miles or 1.85 km).
o The coastal states have sovereignty and jurisdiction over the territorial sea. These rights extend not
only on the surface but also to the seabed, subsoil, and even airspace.
o But the coastal states’ rights are limited by the innocent passage through the territorial sea.
Contiguous Zone:
o The contiguous zone extends seaward up to 24 nm from its baselines.
o It is an intermediary zone between the territorial sea and the high seas.
o The coastal state has the right to both prevent and punish infringement of fiscal, immigration,
sanitary, and customs laws within its territory and territorial sea.
o Unlike the territorial sea, the contiguous zone only gives jurisdiction to a state on the ocean’s surface
and floor. It does not provide air and space rights.
Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ):

o Each coastal State may claim an EEZ beyond and adjacent to its territorial sea that extends seaward
up to 200 nm from its baselines.
Within its EEZ, a coastal state has:
o Sovereign rights for the purpose of exploring, exploiting, conserving and managing natural
resources, whether living or nonliving, of the seabed and subsoil.
o Rights to carry out activities like the production of energy from the water, currents and wind.
o Unlike the territorial sea and the contiguous zone, the EEZ only allows for the above-mentioned
resource rights. It does not give a coastal state the right to prohibit or limit freedom of navigation or
overflight, subject to very limited exceptions.
High Seas:
o The ocean surface and the water column beyond the EEZ are referred to as the high seas.
o It is considered as “the common heritage of all mankind” and is beyond any national jurisdiction.
o States can conduct activities in these areas as long as they are for peaceful purposes, such as transit,
marine science, and undersea exploration.
ETHANOL
Govt. recently launched Ethanol 20 programme, under which it aims to achieve 20% ethanol
blending in petrol by 2025.
o Ethanol is a renewable fuel made from various plant materials collectively known as "biomass." More
than 98% of U.S. gasoline contains ethanol, typically E10 (10% ethanol, 90% gasoline), to oxygenate
the fuel, which reduces air pollution.
o Ethanol is also available as E85 (or flex fuel), which can be used in flexible fuel vehicles, designed to
operate on any blend of gasoline and ethanol up to 83%. Another blend, E15, is approved for use in
model year 2001 and newer light-duty vehicles.
There are several steps involved in making ethanol available as a vehicle fuel:
o Biomass feedstocks are grown, collected, and transported to an ethanol production facility.
o Feedstocks are converted to ethanol at a production facility and then transported to a fuel terminal
or end-user by rail, truck, or barge.
o Ethanol is blended with gasoline at the fuel terminal to make E10, E15, or E85, and then distributed
by truck to fueling stations. E15 is either sourced directly from a terminal or via a blender pump from
the E10 and E85 tanks at a station.
Fuel Properties
o Ethanol (CH3CH2OH) is a clear, colorless liquid. It is also known as ethyl alcohol, grain
alcohol, and EtOH (see Fuel Properties search.)
o Ethanol has the same chemical formula regardless of whether it is produced from starch- or sugar-
based feedstocks, such as corn grain (as it primarily is in the United States), sugar cane (as it
primarily is in Brazil), or from cellulosic feedstocks (such as wood chips or crop residues).
o Ethanol has a higher octane number than gasoline, providing premium blending properties.
Minimum octane number requirements for gasoline prevent engine knocking and ensure drivability.
Lower-octane gasoline is blended with 10% ethanol to attain the standard 87 octane.
o Ethanol contains less energy per gallon than gasoline, to varying degrees, depending on the volume
percentage of ethanol in the blend. Denatured ethanol (98% ethanol) contains about 30% less energy
than gasoline per gallon. Ethanol’s impact on fuel economy is dependent on the ethanol content in
the fuel and whether an engine is optimized to run on gasoline or ethanol.
Ethanol Energy Balance

o In the United States, 94% of ethanol is
produced from the starch in corn grain.
Energy is required to turn any raw feedstock
into ethanol. Ethanol produced from corn
demonstrates a positive energy balance,
meaning that the process of producing
ethanol fuel does not require more energy
than the amount of energy contained in the
fuel itself.
o Cellulosic ethanol improves the energy
balance of ethanol because the feedstocks are
either waste, co-products of another industry
(wood, crop residues), or are dedicated
crops—such as switchgrass and miscanthus—with low water and fertilizer requirements compared to
corn.
o When biomass is used to power the process of converting non-food-based feedstocks into cellulosic
ethanol, the amount of fossil fuel energy used in production is reduced even further. Another benefit
of cellulosic ethanol is that it results in lower levels of life cycle greenhouse gas emissions.
OIL PALM
Scenario
o A plan cleared by the Union Cabinet to
expand domestic palm oil output in
ecologically-sensitive regions could be
environmentally dangerous unless backed
by a set of strong safeguards, experts said,
citing disastrous impacts in growers such as
Malaysia and Indonesia.
o Palm oil is the cheapest edible oil, used in
most foods items, from bread to pizzas. In
recent months, global prices have surged to
multi-year peaks, forcing the government to cut import duties to make the fats affordable.
o To cut India’s growing reliance on import of edible oils, the government approved the “National
Mission on Edible Oils – Oil Palm (NMEO-OP)”, allocating ₹11,040 crore for it. The
programme seeks to promote plantations in the northeastern regions, besides the Andaman and
Nicobar Islands.
o Problem: Edible oil plantations, as opposed to oilseeds crops, tend to replace natural tropical
forests, depleting biodiversity. Environmental case studies in forested belts of Sumatra, Borneo and
the Malay Peninsula -- which produce 90% of global palm oil – have found commercial cultivation
had decimated swathes of pristine forests, wiping out wildlife, from orangutans to birds.
o A top expert on sustainable agriculture said it was possible to grow sustainable palm oil, but certain
strict criteria will need to be followed, which he said he hoped to see in the government’s plan.
o India has become the world’s largest importer of vegetable oils, a base ingredient for cooking most
common dishes. The country meets up to two-thirds of its domestic demand through imports. In
2020-21, India imported both crude and refined palm oil worth $5.8 billion. Edible oil is the
country’s third most high-value import, after petroleum crude and gold.
o Palm oil, a perennial crop, yields more oil per acre, than say, coconut, but it requires
three times the water. So, it must be grown in rainy areas to avoid groundwater extraction.
o The new scheme seeks to bring additional 0.65 million hectare under oil palm by 2025-26 to reach a
targeted one million hectare, up from 0.3 million hectare at present. This would result in an increase
in crude palm oil output to o 1.1 million tonne by 2025-26 and up to 2.8 million tonne by 2029-30.
o The scheme also provides for viability gap funding to shield growers from international price
volatility by paying directly to the farmers’ accounts in the form of direct benefit transfer.
Know more
o Oil palm, (Elaeis guineensis) is an African tree in the palm family (Arecaceae), cultivated as a source
of oil.
o The oil palm is grown extensively in its native West and Central Africa, as well as in
Malaysia and Indonesia. Palm oil, obtained from the fruits, is used in making soaps, cosmetics,
candles, biofuels, and lubricating greases and in processing tinplate and coating iron plates.
o Palm kernel oil, from the seeds, is used in manufacturing such edible products as margarine, ice
cream, chocolate confections, cookies, and bread, as well as many pharmaceuticals. The cake residue
after kernel oil is extracted is a cattle feed.
o The plant is also grown as an ornamental in many subtropical areas.

o For commercial oil production, the outer fleshy portion of the fruit is steamed to destroy the lipolytic
enzymes and then pressed; the resulting palm oil is highly coloured because of the presence of
carotenes. The kernels of the fruit are pressed in mechanical screw presses to recover palm kernel
oil, which is chemically quite different from the oil from the flesh of the fruit.
o The commercial palm oil industry rapidly expanded in the late 20th century and led to the
deforestation of significant swaths of Indonesia and Malaysia as well as large areas in Africa.
o New plantations are often formed using slash-and-burn agricultural methods, and the
resulting fragmentation of natural forests and loss of habitat threatens native plants and animals.
Bornean and Sumatran orangutans are especially iconic species threatened by the expansion of oil
palm farming in Indonesia.
o In addition to driving biodiversity loss, the slash-and-burn practices of oil palm cultivation have
contributed significantly to poor seasonal air quality in parts of Southeast Asia. Although attempts
have been made to certify sustainably grown palm oil, corporate buyers have been slow to support
those endeavours; some environmental groups have urged individuals to avoid products with palm
oil altogether.
Additional
o The American oil palm (Elaeis oleifera) is native to Central and South America and is sometimes
cultivated under the erroneous name Elaeis melanococca. Unlike the African oil palm, the trunk of
the American oil palm creeps along the ground and bears flat leaves. Both the American oil palm and
the maripa palm (Attalea maripa) are used to obtain palm oil in some areas.
o The oil of the American oil palm was probably used for making candles by the early American
colonizers.
INDIAN ENVIRONMENT SERVICE

The Supreme Court has asked the Government if it will create an Indian Environmental Service (IES)
as recommended by a committee headed by former Cabinet secretary T.S.R Subramanian in 2014.
TSR Subramanian Committee Report on Environment
o The Subramanian committee was set up in August 2014 to review the country’s green laws and the
procedures followed by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEF&CC).
o It suggested several amendments to align with the Government’s economic development agenda.
o The report had suggested amendments to almost all green laws, including those relating to the
environment, forest, wildlife and coastal zone clearances.
o The committee suggested that another committee, with more expertise and time, be constituted to
review the environmental laws.
Key recommendations
Establishment of Environment Management Authorities
o The report proposed an ‘Environmental Laws (Management) Act’ (ELMA), that envisioned
full-time expert bodies to be constituted at the Central and State levels respectively:
 National Environmental Management Authority (NEMA)
 State Environmental Management Authority (SEMA)
Project clearances
o These authorities evaluate project clearance (using technology and expertise), in a time bound
manner, providing for single-window clearance.
o It suggested a “fast track” procedure for “linear” projects (roads, railways and transmission lines),
power and mining projects and for “projects of national importance.”
o It also suggested an appellate mechanism against the decisions of NEMA/SEMA or MoEF&CC, in
respect of project clearance, prescribing a three-month deadline to dispose appeals.
Expanding Environment Protection Act

o The Air Act and the Water Act is to be subsumed within the EP Act.
o The existing Central Pollution Control Board and the State PCBs, which monitor and regulate the
conditions imposed on the industries to safeguard environment be integrated into NEMA and
SEMA.
Evaluating Environmental Reconstruction Cost (ERC)

o The report also recommends that an “ERC” should be assessed for each project on the basis of the
damage caused by it to the environment and this should be added into the cost of the project.
o This cost has to be recovered as a cess or duty from the project proponent during the life of the
project.
Research and Development

o It proposed the establishment of a National Environment Research institute “on the lines of the
Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education”.
o It would bring in the application of high-end technology in environment governance.
Establishment of Indian Environment Service (IES)

o Finally, an Indian Environment Service should be established to recruit qualified and skilled human
resource in the environment sector.
How were the recommendations received?

o The Centre never formally accepted this report and neither constituted a new committee as
recommended by the Parliamentary Standing Committee.
o The Parliamentary rejected the report on the grounds that it ended up diluting key aspects of
environmental legislation designed to protect the environment.
o However, many of these recommendations are implicitly making their way into the process of
environmental regulation.
ZERO BUDGET NATURAL FARMING

Zero budget natural farming, which has been on the central government’s agenda, has recently got
another push from the Prime Minister.
What is natural farming?
o Zero budget natural farming is a type of farming that promotes chemical-free agricultural
practices.
o It was originally introduced by agriculturist Subhash Palekar in the mid-1990s as an
alternative to the Green Revolution methods such as the adoption of high yield variety seeds and use
of inorganic fertilisers and pesticides.
o While current farming practices are driven by using chemicals, zero budget natural farming
promotes low-cost inputs such as the use of cow dung, aged cow urine, jaggery, pulse flour
and other plant-based extracts.
o Palekar has argued that the cost of external inputs such as pesticides and fertilisers were the leading
cause of indebtedness and suicides among farmers in the country. By implementing traditional
methods, he said that production costs and interest rates for credit could be significantly reduced.
Similarly, according to the Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations, a zero budget
promises to end reliance on loans which in turn could help in ending the debt cycle for farmers.
o According to Palekar’s website, natural
farming is based on four pillars:
 “Jeevamrit” (nectar of life),
 “Beejamrit” (seed treatment),
 “Acchadana” (mulching) and
“Waaphasa” (soir aeration),
 “Jiwamrita”, a fermented microbial
culture containing ingredients such
water, cow dung, cow urine, jaggery or
sugarcane juice, ripen fruit pulp, flour
of any pulses (Beans, Black gram, Cowpea, Bengal gram, Red gram, Pigeon pea) and a handful of soil
from bund of a farm or forest.
o About 200 litres of this mixture should be sprayed twice a month per acre.
o Further, zero budget natural farming also promotes soil aeration and mulching (spreading a layer of
material to the surface of the soil for moisture retention).
Research in progress
o The Indian Council of Agriculture Research initiated an experiment on “Evaluation of zero budget
farming practices in basmati rice-wheat system” at Modipuram (Uttar Pradesh), Ludhiana (Punjab),
Pantnagar (Uttarakhand) and Kurukshetra (Haryana) from Rabi 2017 to study the impact of zero
budget natural farming on productivity, economics and soil health including soil organic carbon and
soil fertility.
o The study is still in progress. However, the National Academy of Agricultural Sciences, a
think-tank of agriculture scientists in India, said, in a policy brief, that zero budget natural farming is
an “unproven technology” because of insufficient data.
o In 2019, the National Academy of Agricultural Sciences had expressed concern over the
possible effects of zero budget natural farming on the income of farmers and food security.
HOGENAKKAL WATER PROJECT

Tamil Nadu Chief Minister M.K. Stalin had said a detailed project report would be prepared for the
second phase of the Hogenakkal Integrated Drinking Water project at an estimated cost of ₹4,600
crore.
Water Resources Minister of Tamil Nadu asserted that Tamil Nadu had the right to execute, legally
and on humanitarian grounds, the second phase of the Hogenakkal combined drinking water project.
o Hogenakkal Integrated Drinking Water Project is a fluorosis mitigation drinking water
project being undertaken at Hogenakkal, Dharmapuri district, state of Tamil Nadu, India.
o It is scheduled to be executed by Tamil Nadu Water Supply and Drainage Board (TWAD), with
funding from Japan Bank for International Cooperation (JBIC) using Tamil Nadu's share of Cauvery
river water.
o The project aims to supply safe drinking water to drought prone and fluorosis affected Dharmapuri
and Krishnagiri districts of Tamil Nadu.
Opposition by Karnataka
o Karnataka government would legally oppose the proposed project by Tamil Nadu as it falls within
the geographical jurisdictions of both Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.
o The Survey of India has not finalised the Karnataka-Tamil Nadu border at Hogenakkal.
o Any project that Tamil Nadu wants to implement in the Cauvery basin should be in line with the
allocation of water made by the Cauvery Water Disputes Tribunal and Supreme Court orders.
o Tamil Nadu has not placed the proposed project before the Tribunal or the Supreme Court.
o As per Section 13 of the Cauvery Tribunal’s order, the Hogenakkal project should be taken up
through the Central Water Commission.
MICROPLASTICS
o Delhi-based NGO Toxics Link released a study titled, “Quantitative analysis of Microplastics
along River Ganga”, which has found that the river – which flows through five states covering
about 2,500 km before flowing into the Bay of Bengal – is heavily polluted with microplastics.
What are microplastics?

o Among the range of plastic debris that is found in water bodies, microplastics are the most notorious
because of their small size, on average microplastics are less than 5 mm in length or roughly
equal to five pinheads.
o Apart from humans, microplastics are harmful to marine species as well. More than 663 marine
species are affected by marine debris and 11 percent of them are said to be related to microplastic
ingestion, the study says.
o Because microplastics are so small, they are ingested by marine habitants including fish, corals,
planktons and sea mammals and are then carried further into the food chain. In the case of humans,
most of the microplastics can be found in food, water and food containers and their ingestion can
cause health problems.
What does the recent study about the levels of pollution in river Ganga tell us?
o For the study, samples of Ganga’s water were collected from Haridwar, Kanpur and Varanasi and
microplastics were found in all of them. Apart from microplastics, there were other kinds of plastics
as well such as single-use plastic and secondary plastic products. Of the samples, those taken at
Varanasi had the highest concentration of plastic pollution.
o Further, the study notes that untreated sewage from densely populated cities across the river’s
course, along with industrial waste and religious offerings that are wrapped in non-degradable
plastic add a significant amount of pollutants into the river. As the river flows, these waste and
plastic materials break down further and are eventually carried into the Bay of Bengal and then into
the ocean which is the “ultimate sink” of all plastics that are used by humans.
o Essentially all along microplastics are flowing into the river system. It does reflect or suggest a direct
linkage between the poor state of both solid and liquid waste management; hence it is critically
important to initiate steps to remediate it.
What are the efforts being made to clean the Ganga?

o Ganga has the largest river basin in terms of catchment area in the country and constitutes about 26
percent of India’s landmass spread across 11 states, which supports 43 percent of the population.
o That the holy river Ganga is polluted is not a recent discovery, in fact, efforts to clean it have been
ongoing for over 40 years. Most of them have focussed on creating sewage treatment capacities in
the major urban centres along the river.
o In May 2015, the government approved the Namami Gange (which receives a 100 percent funding
from the central government) programme to clean and protect the river. Programmes launched
before this include the Ganga Action Plan (GAP) in 1985, the IIT Consortium (2011) for water
diversion and effective treatment, and the National Mission for Clean Ganga in 2011.
o However, the Toxics Link study says that not only do none of these plans address pollution caused by
microplastics but even otherwise these programs and schemes launched over the past decades on
which millions of rupees have been spent so far, have yielded “little success”.
BRAHMANI RIVER
o Environmentalists expressed concern over the
massive diversion of fresh water from the
Brahmani river basin, which could pose a grave
threat to the famous mangrove vegetation in
Odisha.
o Bhitarkanika — a notified Ramsar wetland —
is spread over 195 sq. km and is home to 62
mangrove species. Besides, 1,600 salt water
crocodiles crawl on the mudflats of the
Bhitarkanika mangrove forest.
o Mangroves grow in brackish water. Proportionate fresh water flow from the Brahmani river basin
and the Kharasrota river keep the salinity level of the water along the shore down. The brackish
water becomes ideal for the mangroves to grow and stay healthy.
o The Wildlife Society of Orissa (WSO), an environmental pressure group, had drawn public attention
on the excess water allocation for industries, which is likely to reduce fresh water discharge to the
sea.
o The Talcher-Angul coal mines, steel and power plants as well as the Kalinganagar steel and power
hub are drawing enormous quantities of fresh water from the Brahmani river.
Brahmani River
o Brahmani River is in northeastern Odisha state.
o Formed by the confluence of the Sankh and South Koel rivers, the Brahmani flows for 300 miles
(480 km).
o It winds generally south-southeast past Bonaigarh and Talcher and then turns east to join northern
branches of the Mahanadi River, which then empties into the Bay of Bengal at Palmyras Point.
o It is one of the few rivers that cut across the Eastern Ghats, and it has formed a minor gorge at
Rengali, where a dam has been built.
IMPORTANT MAPS
CORAL MAP OF INDIA
MOUNTAINS MAP OF INDIA
RIVERS MAP OF INDIA
CLIMATE MAP OF INDIA
SOIL MAP OF INDIA
MAJOR MOUNTAIN PASSES
TOP TEN NATIONAL PARKS
WESTERN GHATS MAP
TIGER RESERVES MAP
BIOSPHERE RESERVES MAP

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NOTE FOR STUDENTS

RAPID REVISION BOOK-5

Highlights of this book:

o Curation of content as per relevance with the coming examination.

Note: The next Rapid Revision Book-6 is on Science and Technology.

GEOGRAPHY AND COP 26 43

CLIMATE PROTECTION NTCA 64

CARBON CREDIT 27 BANDIPUR NATIONAL PARK 67

METHANE 28 NAGARHOLE TIGER RESERVE 67

CO2 BUDGET 29 RAIMONA NATIONAL PARK 68

CARBON CAPTURE AND STORAGE 30 DIHING PATKAI NATIONAL PARK 69

SHIELD IAS RAPID REVISION BOOK -5

THINGS TO KNOW CIRCULAR ECONOMY 105

SHIELD IAS RAPID REVISION BOOK -5

SHIELD IAS RAPID REVISION BOOK -5

How do icebergs form, and where do they go?

Why are icebergs important?

Why do scientists study icebergs?

Difference between sea ice and glaciers

Glacier in Antarctica Sea ice in Finland

Why are glaciers melting?

Effects of melting glaciers on sea level rise

How do melting sea ice and glaciers affect weather patterns?

Loose Snow Avalanche: They are

Slab Avalanche: Loose Snow Avalanches

Powder Snow Avalanche: A mix of the

Wet Snow Avalanche: These are quite

What are the main types of volcanoes?

Composite Volcano (Stratovolcano)

Other volcanic landforms

VOLCANO DISTRIBUTION MAP

o Sometimes an earthquake has foreshocks.

What causes earthquakes and where

How are earthquakes recorded?

How can scientists tell where the earthquake

Characteristics of tropical cyclones

The different terminologies

Classification of tropical cyclones

Daily Tide Patterns

Monthly Tidal Patterns

Montane Grasslands and Shrublands:

Temperate Coniferous Forest:

Temperate Broadleaf and Mixed Forests:

Tropical and Sub-tropical Broadleaf Forests:

Monsoon onset and early developments

About Western Disturbance

Impact of Western Disturbances on Indian climate

Are there any ill-effects of Western Disturbances?

What are greenhouse gases?

What is the evidence for warming?

How much will temperatures rise in future?

How will climate change affect us?

IPCC’s main activities are to prepare:

Sixth Assessment Report

GREEN HOUSE EFFECT AND GREEN HOUSE GASES

o Governments or regulatory authorities set the caps on greenhouse gas emissions.

Types of Carbon Credits

Who are the biggest methane emitters?

CARBON CAPTURE AND STORAGE TECHNOLOGY