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Urban Heat Island Phenomena in Dhaka, Bangladesh

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RESILIENT CITY
Physical, Social, and Economic Perspectives

Urban Heat Island Phenomena in Dhaka, Bangladesh

Tasneem Tariq1, Ute Poerschke1, Lisa Domenica Iulo1
1
Pennsylvania State University, State College, PA

ABSTRACT: With rapid urbanization, Dhaka, the capital of Bangladesh, is progressively falling short of sustaining
outdoor life due to the Urban Heat Island (UHI) effects, which is one of the most documented phenomena of urban
climate change. The UHI intensity inside and around Dhaka varies from 2.5°C to 7.5°C, which leads to additional
demand on the urban energy resources for cooling. It is reported that 75% power consumption of the city is occurring
to achieve comfortable thermal conditions. While currently, 34.3% of Bangladesh’s population lives in urban areas, it is
projected to increase to 56% by 2050, which will eventually worsen the UHI phenomenon. Dhaka possesses only 0.12
acres of greenery and open areas per one thousand people, while according to a recommendation from the National
Recreation and Park Association between 6.25 and 10.5 acres of total open space per thousand is needed. Since the
consequences of UHI are significant, the severity of the problem should be carefully examined and reported. Therefore,
this study emphasizes a critical investigation of the features and factors of UHI affecting the outdoor thermal comfort of
Dhaka city. Published scientific papers, governmental reports, and other national publications have been explored to
conduct a systematic review to identify the major contributing factors of the UHI in the context of Dhaka. This paper
identifies that rapid population migration to Dhaka, reduction of percentages of vegetation and green spaces in the land
cover, and the unplanned dense urban development by altering the natural surfaces to impervious surfaces are some
of the major contributing factors to the formation of the UHI phenomenon in Dhaka.

KEYWORDS: UHI effects, Dhaka, factors, mitigation

PAPER SESSION TRACK: Global Sustainability: Mitigation and Adaptation

1.0 INTRODUCTION
Favorable microclimate in cities has a significant impact on the urban life of the people (Nikolopoulou and Steemers
2003) (Gaitani, Mihalakakou, and Santamouris 2007). Outdoor spaces in a city which are thermally comfortable have
an increasing social and economic benefit as they attract more local residents, vendors, office workers, students etc.
and increase the social interaction (Nikolopoulou, Baker, and Steemers 2001). Thermally comfortable outdoor spaces
in different parts of the city often turn into public gathering places thereby fostering a high-quality urban life. Rapid urban
population growth due to the high flow of migrated population towards the cities is one of the main reasons for
unplanned urban expansion in developing countries (Sidiqui et al. 2014). Cities, which are covered with large heat-
holding capacity surfaces and structures, such as, concrete and asphalt, stay warmer and release more heat than
suburbs and surrounding country. According to Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC 2007), global
surface temperature has increased 0.74 ± 0.18 degree Celsius during the period from 1905 to 2005. This phenomenon
is also observed strongly in Dhaka city, the capital of Bangladesh. Studies found that, in the last 100 years, the average
temperature in Dhaka has increased by 0.5 degree Celsius, and in the next 50 years it is expected to increase by
another 1.5–2 degrees (Draft Dhaka Structure Plan 2015). Unfortunately, due to rapid urbanization trend, the outdoor
urban public spaces in Dhaka are declining every day and the outdoor thermal comfort in Dhaka City is an under
addressed issue. This is of concern because outdoor spaces have always played a very important role in tropical
countries like Bangladesh (Ahmed 2003). Traditionally, several social and economic activities, like crops processing,
cooking, eating, sewing, gossiping and even schooling, have taken place in the outdoor spaces in Bangladesh. There
are many reasons to revive urban spaces and secure their future considering the socio-cultural domain of Bangladesh.
A comfortable outdoor microclimate even seems to be a prerequisite for Dhaka city to ensure social integration.
Ensuring an acceptable urban microclimate is vital for architects, urban designers, planners and policy makers (Ahmed
2003). A thermally comfortable outdoor environment can also have a positive impact on indoor conditions, which will
lead to lower energy demand for space conditioning (Johansson and Emmanuel 2006). Therefore, creating a thermally
comfortable outdoor microclimate in an urban environment by mitigating the UHI effects is of utmost importance.

2.0 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND RESEARCH QUESTIONS

This study emphasizes a critical investigation of the features and factors of UHI affecting the outdoor thermal comfort
of Dhaka city, Bangladesh as it is tremendously affected by the global phenomena of Urban Heat Island effects. There
is a lack of knowledge regarding the UHI effects and spatiotemporal variation of day and night surface urban heat island
intensity (SUHII) in the major cities of Bangladesh. However, very limited scientific data and analysis are found on this
topic. In this paper, firstly, the climate and urbanization in Dhaka Bangladesh has been analyzed through literature
review. Then the current trend of UHI effects in Dhaka and other major cities in Bangladesh have been analyzed.
Finally, to identify the major contributing factors of the UHI in the context of Dhaka, a systematic review has been done,
 RESILIENT CITY
Physical, Social, and Economic Perspectives

in which several published scientific papers, governmental reports, and other national publications have been explored.
The major research questions for this paper are:
1. What are the current conditions of UHI effects in Dhaka, Bangladesh?
2. What are the major contributing factors of the UHI effects in the context of Dhaka?

3.0 CLIMATE AND THERMAL COMFORT IN DHAKA, BANGLADESH

Bangladesh, one of the fastest-growing developing countries in South Asia, is bordered by India, Myanmar and the Bay
of Bengal (Figure 1). Bangladesh lies in the tropics, more precisely between latitude 20°34′and 26°33′North and
between longitude 88°01′to 92°41′East, in the Indo-Malayan realm, as described by UNESCO (Lean 1990).
Bangladesh has a small area of land (147,570km²) but a large number of people (169 million), making it the eighth-
most populous country on earth, with one of the highest population densities (1142.29/km²) (UN, 2015). Due to rapid
urbanisation at an annual rate of 2.4 percent (UN 2015), by 2050, nearly 56% of the country’s total population will be
living in urban areas, compared with 34.3 percent in 2015 (UN 2015). Bangladesh is frequently cited as one of the most
vulnerable countries to climate change (Huq 2001), because of its disadvantageous geographic location, high
population density, reliance of many livelihoods on climate sensitive sectors etc. The most anticipated adverse effects
of climate change are sea level rise, higher temperatures, and an increase in cyclone intensity, which will eventually
impede the development in Bangladesh. According to Atkinson’s classification of tropical climates, Bangladesh is a
tropical country on the edge of the Tropic of Cancer, having a composite monsoon climate, with a rather long warm
humid season (Ahmed 1994). Figure 2 shows seven climatic sub zones of Bangladesh, with Dhaka being situated in
the south-central (G) zone of Bangladesh. Generally, the climate has short and dry winters while the summer is long
and wet. Meteorologically the climate of Bangladesh can be categorized into four distinct seasons.

Figure 1: Location of Dhaka and Bangladesh in the world map. Figure 2: The climatic sub zones of Bangladesh.
Source: (World Atlas Travel 1994) Source: (Rashid 1991)

A study shows that, in tropical climates like Dhaka under still air conditions for people wearing typical summer clothes
(0.4 to 0.5 Clo) and being involved in sedentary activities, the comfortable temperature ranges from 28.5°C to 32°C at
an average relative humidity of 70% (Mallick 1994). The comfort range provides an indication of tolerance to higher
temperature and relative humidity than the international standards. Therefore, thermal comfort scales developed in the
colder regions of the western world is not completely applicable for Dhaka (Mallick 1994). Figure 3 shows the comfort
conditions of people living in residential housing in Dhaka, identified based on the analysis of air temperature, radiant
temperature, air velocity and relative humidity values by Mallick (Mallick 1994) using the Bedford scale (Bedford 1936)
and ASHRAE scale, which depicts comfort in higher temperatures than the international standards.

Figure 3: Summer comfort zone for urban housing of Dhaka, Bangladesh. Source: (Mallick 1994)

4.0 URBANIZATION, CLIMATE CHANGE AND URBAN HEAT ISLAND IN DHAKA, BANGLADESH
Elevated air temperature is observed in high density urban areas as compared to the nearby area (Caprio et al. 1997).
The temperature of an urban area can be even 11℃ higher than the surrounding countryside (ASHRAE 1974).
According to the Long-Term Climate Risk Index (CRI) 2021, Bangladesh is the 7th most affected country (Figure 4)
from 2000 to 2019 (Eckstein et al. 2021), though its contribution to the climate change is insignificant. In naturally
RESILIENT CITY
Physical, Social, and Economic Perspectives

ventilated buildings, which is very common in Dhaka city, a comfortable outdoor urban environment can play an
extremely favorable role in creating comfortable indoor environments (Mallick 1994). In the outdoor spaces of Dhaka,
a preference for shaded spaces and exposure to air flow have been observed (Mohamed and Srinavin 2002).

Figure 4: World Map of the Global Climate Risk Index 2000-2019, where Bangladesh (marked) is among 1-10. Source: (Climate
Risk Index 2021)

Dhaka is experiencing a very high expansion and urbanization growth rate, far greater than the other cities of
Bangladesh (BBS 2013; Corner and Dewan 2013), as it attracts over 300,000 to 400,000 new migrants each year (BBS
2013). UHI effect is a common phenomenon in tropical cities like Dhaka because of the rapid migration to cities and
the increasing number of buildings. Though people in these regions tend to tolerate both higher temperatures with
higher levels of relative humidity (Mallick 1994), the UHI effects have a considerable effect on the occupant’s thermal
comfort perception and performance and well-being. According to the World Bank (2000), the risk associated to human
health in tropical developing countries is one of the salient risks of climate change. Therefore, it is vital to observe the
climate and UHI effects in Dhaka City.

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has reported in their fourth assessment report that global surface
temperature increased 0.74 ± 0.18 °C during the 100 years ending in 2005 and noted that the rise of mean annual
temperature is predicted to be 3.3 °C per century (IPCC 2007). Again, in the sixth assessment report IPCC has reported
that the average global temperatures will continue to rise and could increase by 5.7°C by the end of this century as
compared to 1850-1900 (IPCC 2021), which is a much higher value than the previous prediction. Consequently, the
land surface will continue to warm more than the ocean surface. The Arctic will continue to warm more than global
surface temperature. Every additional 0.5°C rise in temperature amplifies the intensity and frequency of heatwaves,
heavy precipitation, and droughts. Several studies have been carried out on the trend of climate change in climatic
parameters over Bangladesh. Chowdhury and Debsharma (1992) and Mia (2003) pointed out that temperature has
risen by using historical data of some selected meteorological station (Figure 5). Parathasarathy, et al. (1987) and
Divya and Mehritra (1995) reported mean annual temperature of Bangladesh has increased during the period of 1895-
1980 by 0.31°C over the past two decades. Karmakar and Shrestha (2000) using the 1961-1990 data for Bangladesh
projected an annual mean maximum temperature rise of 0.4 °C and 0.73 °C, by the year of 2050 and 2100 respectively.
Nigar et al, (2017) have showed that the ground-based data obtained from Agargaon meteorological monitoring station
in Dhaka indicate the rising trend of average yearly temperature in Dhaka City (Figure 6).

Figure 5: Trend in surface air temperatures for Bangladesh. Figure 6: Average yearly temperature of Dhaka City.
Source: (Bangladesh Met Department, 2010) Source: (Nigar et al, 2017)

Studies of Mridha (2002) and Hossain and Nooruddin (1993) have showed the difference between the temperature of
Dhaka City and the rural area were around 0.4-0.5 ℃ during 1961-1990, which is much higher in recent times. Thus,
the UHI effect is getting worse in Dhaka with time (Mridha 2002, Hossain and Nooruddin 1993). The rising temperatures
is currently a growing environmental concern for Dhaka. Figure 7 shows the temperature trends during the last 60 years
(1950-2010), based on observed data of BMD (2011), where both the maximum and minimum temperatures follow
upward trends, making the average day temperature rising.
 RESILIENT CITY
Physical, Social, and Economic Perspectives

Figure 7: Temporal variation of annual maximum temperature (Left) and Minimum (Right) of Bangladesh during 1950-2010.
Source: (Bangladesh Meteorological Department, 2011)

Figure 8 shows the monthly mean maximum and minimum temperature profile, for four-time spans; 1950-1980, 1981-
1990, 1991-2000, and 2001-2011. It is evident that the annual average temperature of Dhaka is increasing with time,
which is consistent with the regional data of Bangladesh. According to the investigation done by Hossain and Nooruddin
(1993), the relative humidity in adjacent rural areas of Dhaka city is higher and it generally decreases towards city
center (Mridha 2002). In addition to this, relative humidity has been found to be inversely related with the prevailing
temperature, thus increase of temperature reduces the level relative humidity in a given situation, if all other conditions
remain same (Mridha 2002). Figure 9 shows a decreasing trend in relative humidity in Dhaka city than the previous
decades, which is again an environmental concern. The projected magnitudes of these impacts appear to be substantial
in the case of Bangladesh and have the potential to threaten the very existence of a large percentage of population,
either by causing death and damage or by affecting livelihoods (Huq 2001).

Figure 8: Monthly Mean Maximum and Minimum Air Figure 9: Monthly Relative Humidity and annual variation
temperature profile for the year 1950-1980, 1981-1990, 1991- during 1950-2011. Source: (Bangladesh Meteorological
2000, and 2001-2011. Source: (Bangladesh Meteorological Department, Dhaka, 2012)
Department, Dhaka, 2012)

5.0 FACTORS CAUSING THE URBAN HEAT ISLAND EFFECTS IN BANGLADESH

The world’s total urban area has expanded by 168% between 2001 and 2018, with the highest growth rates in Asia and
Africa (Huang, Huang, Wen, & Li, 2021). Cities and their inhabitants have become key drivers of global environmental
change (Grimmond, 2007) due to a significant increase in human-created impervious areas around the globe (Gong et
al., 2020). Urban expansion substantially alters natural surfaces, resulting in a range of environmental effects (Girardet,
2020). The difference in temperature between the urban and surrounding rural areas is possibly the most visible effect
associated with the urbanisation process and is mainly due to increased human activities (Heisler & Brazel, 2010).
Similar results have been found in the context of Bangladesh (Eckstein, Künzel, Sch¨afer, & Winges, 2019). Kotharkar,
Ramesh, and Bagade (2018), in a critical review of existing research, demonstrated that baseline data about UHIs of
Bangladesh cities is clearly lacking. However, recently the urban warming has been recognised as an important issue
affecting these large urban areas. Due to an ever- increasing population, Bangladesh has experienced a substantial
reduction of existing natural surface (such as forest and agricultural lands), and an associated expansion in urban land
(Rai, Zhang, Paudel, Li, & Khanal, 2017). The urban population of the country grew from 22.5M in 1990 to 60M in 2019
(World Bank 2000; BBS, 2012), with resultant environmental issues in the major cities, including a sharp increase in
RESILIENT CITY
Physical, Social, and Economic Perspectives

observed temperatures (Kant, Azim, & Mitra, 2018). The trend of increasingly elevated temperatures in Dhaka city is
projected to increase, and continuous hot spell periods may become more common (Mourshed, 2011).

There are two major types of UHI effects: a) the atmospheric urban heat island (AUHI), and b) the surface urban heat
island (SUHI). The type of UHI is based on the height above the ground at which the phenomenon is observed and
measured (Oke, 1982). To produce the baseline information about urban heat island intensity (SUHII) in the major cities
of Bangladesh, drivers and temporal trends in five major cities, time series diurnal (day/night) MODIS land surface
temperature (LST) data for the period 2000–2019 was used (Dewan et al 2021). Results indicated that annual average
daytime SUHII is greatest in Dhaka, (2.74°C), followed by Chittagong (1.92°C), Khulna (1.27°C), Sylhet (1.10°C) and
Rajshahi (0.74°C) (Figure 10). SUHII observed during the day was also greater than at night.

Figure 10: Average land surface temperature (LST) of 2019 in Dhaka Megacity and difference of urban and rural boundaries; a.
Day, b, Night. Black solid polygon is Dhaka Metropolitan Development Plan (DMDP) boundary and dashed line is the rural location.
Source: (Dewan et al. 2021)

According to Dewan et al (2021), the SUHII is mainly concentrated in the urban core, both during the day and at night
(Figure 11). The main urban core of Dhaka experiences values as high as 5°C, the SUHII values for the next largest
city, Chittagong, ranges from 2 to 3°C during the daytime. Therefore, Dhaka experiences the highest temperature rise.

Figure 11: Spatial pattern of surface urban heat island intensity (SUHII) in five cities of Bangladesh, averaged over 2000-2019.
Source: (Dewan et al. 2021)

The monthly surface urban heat island intensity (SUHII) of Dhaka is highest than all other cities of Bangladesh during
the summer season. Specially, it is extremely high in March and April, which is the most critical time of the year due to
the highest air temperature (Figure 12). Again, the Inter-annual day, night and day-night SUHII variability are shown in
Figure 13. The Dhaka daytime SUHII exhibits a notable increase in mean temperature from 2.20°C in 2000 to 3.18°C
in 2019. In contrast, the difference in SUHII during the day for other cities like, Khulna, Rajshahi and Sylhet is 0.57,
0.04 and 0.38°C, respectively, for that period. This suggests that Dhaka has experienced the greatest increase in
daytime SUHII (0.98°C). It is been identified that population (in terms of city size and surface cover), lack of greenness
and anthropogenic forcing were major factors affecting SUHII (Dewan et al. 2021).
 RESILIENT CITY
Physical, Social, and Economic Perspectives

Figure 12: Monthly surface urban heat island Figure 13: Variability of surface urban heat island
intensity (SUHII) in five major cities of Bangladesh, intensity (SUHII) in five major cities of Bangladesh,
2010-2019. Source: (Dewan et al. 2021) 2010-2019. Source: (Dewan et al. 2021)

Another study assessed the effects of urban heat island in Dhaka city, Bangladesh from 2002 to 2014 using remote
sensing techniques (Parvin and Abudu 2017). Land cover changes were characterized over the study period and the
resulting impacts created by these changes on the land surface temperatures were investigated. The land surface
temperature (LST), the radiative temperature of the land surface as measured in the direction of the remote sensor,
were evaluated and quantified based on different land cover types of Dhaka City (Parvin and Abudu 2017). Remarkable
change in land cover was observed in built-up areas, which increased by 21 percent of the total land area from 74.12
to 135.36 square kilometers in 2002 and 2014 respectively (Figure 14). The study also identified that land surface
temperature (Figure 15) increased throughout the study area.

Figure14: Land cover change map for Dhaka from 2002 Figure 15: Land Surface Temperature changes in Dhaka City
(A) to 2014 (B). Source: (Parvin and Abudu 2017). from 2014 (A) to 2002 (B). Source: (Parvin and Abudu 2017).

By investigating the temperature variation with land cover in Dhaka, Parvin and Abudu have identified a temperature
increase across all land cover types within 2002-2014, indicating significant UHI effects in the Dhaka city (Parvin and
Abudu 2017). It has been identified that the percentage of built-up area, bare-ground and water area have increased
from 2002 to 2014, however, only the percentage of land cover by vegetation is significantly decreased from about 48
to 14 percent (Figure 16), consequently, the temperature has also risen in the vegetated surface (Figure 17). Therefore,
the reduction of green and vegetated surface is one of the major reasons of the UHI effects in the Dhaka City. This
study has observed that the total area covered by built-up area increased by 61.24 square kilometers over a twelve-
year period from the 74.12 square kilometers observed in 2002. This increment is expected to continue over the next
decade with an increase in vegetation loss. Therefore, effective strategies such for urban greening is highly
recommended to curb the heating effects.

Figure 16: Percentage of land cover in Dhaka City in Figure 17: Temperature variation for land cover in Dhaka
2002 and 2014. Source: (Parvin et al, 2017) City in 2002 and 2014. Source: (Parvin et al, 2017)

By the systematic review of this paper, it can be stated that the followings are some of the major contributing factors of
UHI effects in Dhaka City.
- Rapid urban migration to Dhaka City (in terms of city size and surface cover).
- Substantial reduction of existing natural vegetated surfaces, green area, vegetation is one of the major
reasons for the UHI effects in Dhaka.
RESILIENT CITY
Physical, Social, and Economic Perspectives

- Remarkable increase of built-up area in the land cover of the city by the dense urban expansion, significantly
altering the natural surfaces to impervious areas, which is causing amplified land surface temperature. A
significant rise in the percentage of built-up area and the bare-ground area has been observed, whereas only
the percentage of land cover by vegetation has been dramatically decreased.

An urban microclimate is the consequence of several parameters, such as the size of the city, orientation and width of
streets, density of the built-up area and the presence of parks, other green areas and water bodies. It can be controlled
through a careful arrangement of green parks, vegetations, waterbodies and urban blocks with mutual shading. Dhaka
is one of the fastest growing mega cities in the world that have been oversaturated with population and thriving further
for large scale developments to accommodate the huge influx of migrants. As a result, the overall city environment is
being worsened. Very little research has been conducted in this field based on Dhaka since this is still a quite new
concept among the local urban planners and climatologists. Ahmed (1995) has worked on approaches to bioclimatic
urban design with special reference to Dhaka where he studied influence of greenery on urban microclimate in the
context of Dhaka. His findings revealed that trees are quite effective for creating cooling effect through shading,
particularly east-west elongated canyons. In another study conducted on the urban canyon geometry of the Dhaka city
center area with respect to sky view factor, a positive relation between sky view factor and solar radiation was identified
irrespective of seasonal variation (Kakon and Nobuo, 2009). Parks and green spaces of Dhaka City are now converted
into urban habitats. Today, very few green areas exist within the city boundary as the reminiscence of past green glory
(Islam, 2002). Dhaka possesses only 0.12 acres of vegetated and open areas per thousand people. According to the
National Recreation and Park Association (NRPA) recommendations, a range between 6.25 and 10.5 acres of total
open space per thousand members of the population is needed. Planting of vegetation in urban areas is one of the
main strategies to mitigate the UHI effect since vegetation plays a significant role in regulating urban climate. Plants
can create an ‘oasis effect’ and mitigate the urban warming at both macro and micro-level through evapo-transpiration
(Wong, 2004). However, the Urban Heat Island effect is embedded in a complex climatic system influenced by several
factors such as population density, land use, land cover, altitude, proximity to sea and sea breezes (Lin 2008).
Therefore, it is challenging to isolate the contributions of various factoring agents. Multiple approaches and data such
as the use of GIS and Remote Sensing techniques, ground-based temperature measurements and geostatistical
analysis, etc. should be incorporated for further studies.

6.0 CONCLUSION
It is highly recommended to increase the percentage of the green spaces and vegetated surfaces to mitigate the UHI
effects of Dhaka. Bangladesh has a rich variety of flora that needs to be explored and a green database needs to be
formed by Government initiative that can act as a guideline for planners. In conclusion, this paper indicates that there
is urgent need for the city authority to implement measures to monitor and mitigate the UHI effects in Dhaka city. As a
next step of this research, several strategies for mitigating UHI will be simulated for new development in Dhaka city
and recommendations will be made for future expansion.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research is supported by the Penn State Department of Architecture. Software and equipment for this study is
provided by Ecology + Design (E+D) and the Hamer Center for Community Design.

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