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Table of Contents

A Note on Citations and Plagiarism ................................................................................................ 4


Plagiarism ............................................................................................................................................................ 4

1. Observation ................................................................................................................................ 5
Observation......................................................................................................................................................... 5
Judgments and generalizations vs. concrete descriptions ............................................................................................................ 5
Descriptive Vocabulary for the 5 Senses. ....................................................................................................... 6
Figurative Language ........................................................................................................................................... 6

2. Tone........................................................................................................................................... 7
What is Tone? ..................................................................................................................................................... 7
Formal and Informal Tone ................................................................................................................................................................ 7

3. The Paragraph ........................................................................................................................... 8


The Parts of a Paragraph ................................................................................................................................... 8
From Details to Generalizations ...................................................................................................................... 8
Details: Types and Order ................................................................................................................................. 9
The Power of Facts and Statistics .................................................................................................................................................... 9
Ordering Details in a Paragraph ....................................................................................................................................................... 9
Topic Sentences................................................................................................................................................ 10
Topic Sentence Errors...................................................................................................................................................................... 10
Unrelated Ideas .................................................................................................................................................................................. 10
Ask yourself the following questions about the paragraphs you write: ................................................................................... 10

4. Descriptive Paragraphs: People, Places, and Things ................................................................... 11


The General Characteristics of Descriptive Paragraphs ............................................................................. 11
Descriptions of Things .................................................................................................................................... 11
Combining all the ingredients of a good description. ................................................................................................................. 12
Descriptions of Places ..................................................................................................................................... 12
Descriptions of People .................................................................................................................................... 13
Who is the person you are describing? .......................................................................................................................................... 13
The order of description .................................................................................................................................................................. 13

5. The Narrative Paragraph ......................................................................................................... 14


What are Narratives?........................................................................................................................................ 14
The Elements of Narrative in More Detail .................................................................................................. 15
Descriptions ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 15
The Central Character ...................................................................................................................................................................... 15
The Character's Adventure .............................................................................................................................................................. 15
Dialogue .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 15

6. The Informative Paragraph ....................................................................................................... 16


Types of Informative Writing......................................................................................................................... 16
Process Analysis – Step-by-step instructional .............................................................................................. 16
Chronological and Sequential Transitions .................................................................................................................................... 17
Process Analysis – Advisory ........................................................................................................................... 18
Comparison/Contrast Paragraphs ................................................................................................................. 19
Criteria for comparing and contrasting. ........................................................................................................................................ 19
Words for showing comparisons and contrasts .......................................................................................................................... 19
1
The topic sentences, generalizations, and details of comparison/contrast paragraphs. ....................................................... 20
Definition Paragraphs ...................................................................................................................................... 21
Formal Definitions ............................................................................................................................................................................ 21
Informal Definitions. ........................................................................................................................................................................ 21
The Paragraph Structure of Informal Definitions....................................................................................................................... 22
Definitions can contain descriptions and other kinds of writing ............................................................................................. 22
Cause-and-Effect Paragraphs ......................................................................................................................... 23
Informative, Persuasive, and Speculative Cause-and-Effect Writing and Topics ................................................................. 23
The Structure of Cause-and-effect Paragraphs ............................................................................................................................ 23
Sample Paragraph .............................................................................................................................................................................. 24
Transition Words Signaling Cause and Effect ............................................................................................................................. 24

7. What is an Essay? History, Definition, Structure..................................................................... 25


The History of the Essay ................................................................................................................................ 25
The Definition of the Essay ........................................................................................................................... 25
The Structure of the Five-Paragraph Essay.................................................................................................. 26
The Five-Paragraph Essay ............................................................................................................................................................... 26

8. What is an Essay? The Four Purposes & 12 Types ................................................................ 27


The Four Purposes........................................................................................................................................... 27
The 12 Types of Essays ................................................................................................................................... 28

9. How to Write an Essay ............................................................................................................ 29


What is a “good topic”? .................................................................................................................................. 29
Topics are born from the real world ............................................................................................................. 29
Habit: The enemy of observation ................................................................................................................................................. 29
The 12 Questions for Generating Ideas ........................................................................................................................................ 30

10. Working on The Thesis Statement .......................................................................................... 31


The First Thesis ................................................................................................................................................ 31
Evolving the First Thesis ................................................................................................................................ 31
The Final Thesis Statement ............................................................................................................................ 31
The 12 Types of Theses .................................................................................................................................. 32
The 12 Types of Thesis Statements: Subjects and Predicates .................................................................................................. 32
Review of the Observation-to-Thesis Process............................................................................................. 33

11. The Introduction and Conclusion ............................................................................................. 34


The Role of the Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 34
1. The Introduction Catches the Reader’s Attention and Sets the Tone ........................................................................... 34
2. The Introduction Identifies the Topic and Provides Background Information ........................................................... 35
3. The Introduction Reveals the Wider Issues at Stake and Says Why the Topic Matters.............................................. 36
4. The Introduction Ends with the Thesis............................................................................................................................... 37
Introduction Checklist...................................................................................................................................................................... 37
The Conclusion ................................................................................................................................................ 37
Conclusion Checklist ........................................................................................................................................................................ 38
Frames: Returning to the Question Raised in the Beginning ................................................................... 38
Three Typical Frames ....................................................................................................................................................................... 39

12. Sample Essay and Analysis: The Creation of the World .......................................................... 40
Essay Analysis: The Creation of the Illumination ...................................................................................... 42

Appendix 1: From Words to Sentences........................................................................................... 43


Elementary Grammar: What is an Independent Clause? .......................................................................... 43

Appendix 2: Joining Sentences ...................................................................................................... 44


2
Joining Clauses with Coordinating Conjunctions........................................................................................ 44
Coordinating Conjunctions Used within One Independent Clause ........................................................................................ 44
Coordinating Conjunctions Should Not Start Sentences ........................................................................................................... 44
Joining Clauses with Subordinating Conjunctions ...................................................................................... 45
Joining Clauses with Transitional Expressions ............................................................................................ 46
Joining Clauses with the Semicolon .............................................................................................................. 46
Review: The Four Ways of Joining Clauses ................................................................................................ 47

Appendix 3: Using Grammar for Style ......................................................................................... 48


Emphasis in Coordinated and Subordinated Sentences ............................................................................................................. 48
Periodic and Cumulative Sentences ............................................................................................................................................... 48
Other Suggestions ............................................................................................................................................................................. 48

Appendix 4: Writing Skills Formatting and Citations .................................................................. 49


Lesson 6: The Informative Paragraph ............................................................................................ 52
The Types of Informative Writing ................................................................................................................ 52
Process Analysis – Step-by-step instructional .............................................................................................................................. 52
Chronological and Sequential Transitions .................................................................................................................................... 54
Process Analysis – Advisory............................................................................................................................................................ 55

3
A Note on Citations and Plagiarism
Always cite the sources that you use. If you research a topic and come across text that you want to use
in your essay, then always remember to cite the original source. Put whatever language you borrow in
quotes and footnote the quote (Alt + Ctrl + F).
A small number will appear next to the quote and on the bottom of the page, like in the example
below. Include the following information in the footnote:
Author’s last name, first name. “Title of Article.” Name of Website. Web. Day Month Year of access. <URL>.
Example:
“Dark colored leaves and flowers in shades of red work together to make a moody display.” 1

Plagiarism
Using text from outside sources without citations constitutes plagiarism. Plagiarism is theft. Signing
one’s name to someone else’s words constitutes a serious violation of university policy and carries
equally serious consequences.

1 Greenthumb, Marigold. "Landscaping and Colors." Fine Gardening. Web. 7 Jan 2018. <finegardening.com/landscaping>
4
1. Observation
The beginning is the most important part of the work. –Plato.
The human world has two sides. One side is the material world which can be sensed with the five
senses (sight, sound, smell, touch, and taste); the other side is the world of ideas, such as freedom, justice,
and fate. In essays, we describe the material world, and we define ideas and concepts. We cannot describe
ideas because ideas leave no traces of physical sensations. Only material objects—people, places, and
things—can be sensed with the five senses and described. This chapter covers observation; the next
chapter covers paragraph structure; and chapter 3 puts observations together with paragraph structure
to get descriptive paragraphs. From there we will move on to essays.

Observation
The purpose of a description is to recreate the image of an object in mind of the reader. The writer
stands between the object and the reader and goes back and forth transferring observations. A good
writer, then, is a good observer.
Observation comes down to asking oneself, over and over again, What do I see (or sense)? Often
what we notice first in a scene are the “loudest” details: a blue car passing, a dog barking, a big building
across the street with many balconies. If we keep observing, however, we soon pick up on smaller,
quieter details, and some of these details begin to form a pattern. What do I see? A man in a chair,
smoking, watching television; beside him, a woman talking on the phone. What do I see? A breezy
Sunday in spring. What do I see? A child with a drawing, trying to get the woman's attention. What do I
see? An older woman cooking in the kitchen. We realize: It’s a typical family on a Sunday morning.
Most details are just facts. They are what they are, like a stone lying on the sidewalk. Leave these
out of your descriptions. Other details, however, suggest a story: a tree planted by a great-grandfather,
a seashell in a poem, or even a stone on the sidewalk painted blue. Leave these details in. To be good
observer, you have to hunt through all of the meaningless facts to get to the details that fit into a story
like a piece in a puzzle. It is the story that fills them, retroactively, with meaning and feeling.
Exercise 1. Observe the classroom and make a list of everything you sense. Compare your details with
the details others have noticed. What do you think accounts for the similarities and differences?
Judgments and generalizations vs. concrete descriptions
Judgments and generalizations are the enemies of description. Good, beautiful, and nice are judgments,
not descriptions. “The movie was boring” evaluates; it does not describe. Likewise, thing literally refers to
every thing in the world. It leaves the reader asking, What thing? Trace such judgments and
generalizations back to the concrete sensory details that caused them. If you think something is
beautiful, say what exactly makes it beautiful: color, shape, design? You do not have to remove the
word beautiful from your description, just add the details that support that judgment. Compare:
A. The food had many ingredients, looked beautiful, and tasted good.
B. The chicken sandwich was filled with tender bits of sizzling grilled chicken, tucked inside a bunch of thinly
sliced fresh lettuce, drizzled with lemon juice, and tightly wrapped in fresh-baked pita bread smeared with a
layer of tangy aioli.
Notice that sentence (A) contains no sensory details. Beautiful and good are judgments. It is not possible
to sense “beautiful" and “good” because they have no material existence. Things, too, is so general that it
is meaningless: everything is a thing. By contrast, sentence (B) is a word sandwich. It is filled with a
variety of physical sensations: bits of sizzling chicken; a bunch of thinly sliced lettuce; and fresh-baked
pita bread. Precise vocabulary and detailed observations like these are tasty to the imagination.
Exercise 2. Replace the vague language below with concrete details and specific language.
Some time ago, we went out of town for vacation. We stayed at a nice hotel. It had a restaurant that served
very good food. I liked our rooms because everything was right, and the service was nice, too. The first
morning there, my brother and I went outside. It was so beautiful, the place! There were many exciting things,
and we did them! At night we went out to a new place. I will remember everything always!

5
Descriptive Vocabulary for the 5 Senses.
Sensory vocabulary. A large vocabulary of Adjectives dedicated to sensations is essential to
descriptions. Below are words commonly used to describe sights, smells, textures, tastes, and sounds 1:
Sight:
o Shapes: Oval, angular, steep, bulbous, narrow, curly, rugged, fuzzy, hollow, graceful, flat.
o Sizes: Colossal, minute, epic, paltry, petite, towering, strapping, scrawny, brawny.
o Colors: Scarlet, tangerine, Tuscan yellow, olive, moss, turquoise, cobalt, eggplant, iris.
Smell, touch, taste, and sound:
o Smells: Floral, pungent, spicy, earthy, clean, fishy, musty, wispy, loamy, light, or redolent.
o Textures (Touch): Soft, dry, gelatinous, metallic, shiny, wooden, hatched, flakey, barbed, dusty.
o Tastes: Fiery, chocolatey, robust, acidic, oily, watery, savory, gooey, nutty, sugary, and minty.
o Sounds: Shrill, baritone, faint, buzzing, bubbly, muffled, melodious, gentle, or thumping.
Things can also slosh, clink, smack, rustle, fizz, lilt, trill, and ping.
Exercise 3. Spend a little time outside—at the mall, the metro, park, or just a busy street—and make a
list of the sensations you experience in five columns: sights, smells, tastes, textures, and sounds.
Writing Assignment. Write a description of the place you experienced.

Figurative Language
Figurative language is the use of language in a nonliteral way: The wings of the butterfly were like Chinese
paper spotted with watercolors. Two common types of figurative language are metaphors and similes, which
compare two things. Similes use like or as in the comparison: flat like lavash. Metaphors compare
directly: All the world's a stage; Time is money; The brain is a computer . Metaphors are more powerful than
similes because they are instant and direct. Another type of figurative language is personification, which
gives human qualities to things or ideas, such as “Opportunity knocks but once.” Compare:
o The lake was beautiful during sunset.
o The sun scattered a thousand flames across the lake.
In the example above, the sun is personified, and the light that it scatters is compared to flames. This
vivid description replaces beautiful in the first sentence, which is a judgment, not a description. Used in
the right places, figurative language brings descriptions to life and adds meaning to them: Big as a
Himalayan mountain, slow as a three-toed sloth, fast as a falcon. Figurative language can also be used to very
quickly describe things in a few short words: he's a tank; the problem is a brick wall; he has a nose like toucan.
Figurative language that has been overused loses its effectiveness, however. It becomes clichéd.
The city is a museum under the open sky; Aram is as smart as Einstein; He is a square: these ideas were once
new and exciting but are now commonplace. Avoid such clichés, or revive them by adding new details,
such as: the city is a free museum under the open sky; Aram is as smart as Einstein's teacher.

Exercise 4. Fill in the left blank with the following qualities and the right blank with a simile: round,
shrill, floral, soft, oily, fiery, scrawny, blue, sugary, bubbly. Examples: As square as printer paper.
Wide like an oil-spill.
As ____________ as _____________. ____________ like ___________.
Exercise 5. Fill in the blank with a metaphor. Example: The snowflakes are ballerinas.
Love is ___________________________. A good book is ____________________.
Exam Week is ______________________. My friend is ______________________.
Exercise 6. Take the list of details of your classroom that you made for exercise 1 and provide a
metaphor or simile for each item. Read your favorite ones aloud.
Writing Assignment. Describe in a paragraph a strange looking animal, like a Jerboa, Saiga Antelope, or
Axolotl. You can also describe a child's room, a doctor's office, or your favorite teacher in school..

1 Googling words for shapes/sounds/tastes and so on will yield hundreds of other such words describing sensations.
6
2. Tone
The tone of an essay is the emotion that comes through the writing, sometimes explicitly, sometimes
implicitly. Readers sense this emotion when reading, and they react to it. Therefore, before starting to
write, it is a good idea to make a conscious decision about what the tone of the writing will be.

What is Tone?
Like a role that an actor assumes on stage, writers assume a persona when they write, sometimes without
knowing it. They leave clues in the writing that help readers create a picture of who they are: serious or
emotional, cynical or naive, sad or happy, mysterious, diplomatic and so on. Based on this impression,
readers decide how to interpret what the author says and even whether they want to keep reading. Like
Aristotle says in his discussion of ethos 3, readers tend to believe those writers they perceive to be
educated, rational, and level-headed.
Formal and Informal Tone
The most consequential distinction between tones is that between formal and informal. The formal
tone is used with serious topics when writing to professionals who expect solid arguments founded on
sober reasoning. Formal essays keep an emotional distance and persuade with facts and statistics.
They have a steady focus and a tight structure, and they get directly to proving their point. Formal
essays tend to use Latinate words, and they avoid colloquialisms and contractions, such as won’t. They
also abstain from the first person point of view, opting instead for the third person he, she, or one.
By contrast, informal essays have a casual tone. They are looser in their structure; use shorter
sentences and simpler grammar; and they do not necessarily avoid emotions and creativity. They can
be objective, but they are objective in a conversational way. Their language often contains
colloquialisms and figures of speech, which they use for rhetorical effect. If formal essays sound like
textbooks, informal essays sound like conversations with friends and acquaintances.
To those who prefer a serious tone, informal writing can seem childish; to those who prefer a
conversational tone, formal writing many seem pretentious and stuffy. The choice depends on the
topic and the purpose of writing, as well. The formal and informal tones are not mutually exclusive,
however. It is possible to have an essay that has a distinct emotional tone and uses language creatively
and, at the same time, makes a technically sound argument based on solid facts and reasoning.
Technicality
If your audience is not familiar with your essay topic, then define the relevant technical terms and
concepts and provide them with background information to the topic. If they are familiar with the
topic, however, or if the topic is not technical, then you can proceed directly to the main points.

Exercise 1. Decide on the proper tone (formal or informal) and level of technicality
(low/medium/high) for the following essays.
Ex: (formal/medium technicality) An essay for a respected newspaper about a current event.
1. ___________________An essay for the school newspaper evaluating a new film.
2. ___________________An essay for older people explaining how to use a computer.
3. ___________________An essay for tourists about cool places to visit around Yerevan.
4. ___________________An essay written for a contest to be judged by university professors.
5. ___________________A narrative about a trip to the sea that the whole family will remember.
6. ___________________An argumentative essay in a newspaper trying to convince people to vote.
7. ___________________An explanation of why and how bees make honey for young students.
8. ___________________An essay about Spitak earthquake survivors 30 years on in a magazine.
9. ___________________An essay about eating disorders and depression in a teen magazine.
10. ___________________A comparison between Yerevan and Tbilisi in a political journal.

3 ethos (character), pathos (emotion), and logos (logic) are the three modes of persuasion.
7
3. The Paragraph
The desire to write grows with writing. –Erasmus.
A paragraph is division of writing that is, on average, about 100-200 words long. Each paragraph is
centered around one main idea. The first line of a paragraph is always indented, spaced a centimeter or
two into the text with the Tab key or the space key on the keyboard. The indentation makes it clear to
readers that a new idea is beginning. Some writers and publishers also add a space between paragraphs
for the same purpose of separating ideas into convenient units.

The Parts of a Paragraph


Paragraphs have three parts: The topic-sentence, generalizations, and details. The topic-sentence
summarizes the main idea of the paragraph. Generalizations divide the main idea into parts. Details
support the generalizations with specific statements. The paragraph below demonstrates this division:

The Mountains, Forests, and Valleys of Armenia


Armenia is a topographically 4 varied country. Over three-quarters of its 30,000 square kilometers is covered
by mountain ranges. More than 25 of its mountains peak above 2000 meters, such as Mount Aragatz, Arai
Ler, and Achkasar. In between and across these mountains are small forests that are home to wild boars,
leopards, and bearded goats. Shikahogh is one such forest reserve. In the middle of the country, the fertile
valley of Ararat stretches from Yerevan into historic Armenia. Over 40% of Armenia's food is produced here
in the rich soil, fresh water, and hot sun of the valley: pomegranates, apricots, walnuts, chestnuts, apples,
pears and many other kinds of fruits and vegetables.

The following outline divides the paragraph above into its topic sentence, generalizations, and details.
1. Topic sentence: Armenia is a topographically varied country.
a. Generalization 1: Armenia has many mountains.
i. Details: Aragatz, Arai Ler, Achkasar.
b. Generalization 2. In between and across these mountains are forests.
i. Details: Shikahogh.
c. Generalization 3: In the middle of the country, the fertile valley of Ararat stretches....
i. Details: Over 40% of Armenia's food is produced here.
Notice that the grammatical subject of the topic sentence is Armenia, and the predicate is a topographically
varied country. Every sentence in the paragraph is either directly or indirectly concerned about Armenia
being a topographically varied country. Generalizations support that idea, and the facts and details support
the generalizations. This is the standard structure of all paragraphs.

From Details to Generalizations


Sometimes, when we look out into the world, we notice that certain details repeat, forming a pattern.
Based on these observations, we form opinions or generalizations. Generalizations explain the details.
For example, we look around the classroom and notice that most of the students have long hair; based
on this observation of a pattern, we generalize that “long hair is popular with students in the classroom.” The
generalizations in paragraphs are made up of just such observations of patterns.
Here is another example:
The first Armenian kings began ruling with the Ervandunis in 570 BC. A short while later, Armenia was cited in
the Behistun inscriptions of Iran, and Xenophon wrote of Alexander's passage through Armenia. There
followed a long, albeit broken, line of kings extending past the first millennium.
Based on the details in the paragraph, you can make the generalization that Armenia is a country with a
long history.
Writing Assignment. Write a paragraph like the one above about the topography of a place other than
Armenia, such as Italy, India, or Hawaii.

4 topography – n. the surface features of a region, like mountains, lakes, valleys, and so on.
8
Details: Types and Order
Details are concrete and specific; generalizations are abstract and general. Details support
generalizations as concrete examples of them. For example, “Fasting has many benefits” is a
generalization. Examples that support it are the following: fasting promotes the secretion of human
growth hormone, it slows down the aging process, and it lowers the levels of bad cholesterols. Most
generalizations require facts and examples to support them. Try to get into the habit of following your
generalizations with details that back them up.
The following are common types of facts and examples:
o Descriptions: “The wedding was booming with music and blooming with flowers and smoke.”
“At twilight, one side of the sky was icy black, and the other side was a warm orange.”
o Historical details: Personal: “My father taught me how to ride a bike in our yard when I was 5.”
Objective: “Poison gas and flamethrowers were used for the first time in World War I.”
o Facts: “In Switzerland, it is illegal to own just one guinea pig, because they get lonely.”
o Statistics: “Eighty percent of new restaurants close within 5 years of opening.”
o Quotes: “The journalist H. L. Mencken said, ‘Democracy is the art of running the circus from
the monkey cage.’”
o Behaviors/traits: “She was humble and attentive and did not have a Facebook account.”
o Examples: “You can get around Yerevan using the metro, minibuses, or taxis, or you can bike.”
“Dolmas, steak, and sushi are just a few of the many types of food available in Yerevan.”
Exercise 1. Provide at least three types of details for each of the following topics: Clothing stores, the
Yerevan Zoo, being famous, ice cream, and statues.
Example: Chairs.
o Description: It was a leaf green chair with a deep seat, firm cushioning all around, and a stiff backrest.
o Historical: Chairs were used in Ancient Egypt, Greece, and Rome.
o Fact: Chair styles in Europe changed with changes in men's and women's fashion.
o Statistic: People who spend most of their time sitting have a 90% greater risk of heart attack.
o Quote: Henry Thoreau wrote, “I had three chairs in my house; one for solitude, two for friendship,
three for society.”
o Traits: The Office chair usually swivels and has wheels and adjustable height.
o Examples: Three very different kinds of chairs are the Farthingale, the Shaker, and the Electric.
The Power of Facts and Statistics
If you want to convince your readers, use facts and statistics to support your arguments. Notice how
actual evidence makes the following argument convincing:
According to the World Health Organization, about 30 million people are injured and 1.2 million people die in traffic
accidents every year; one in four traffic accidents is caused by cell-phones; and texting drivers are 20 times more
likely to cause an accident. Driving while using a cell-phone is quite reckless.

Ordering Details in a Paragraph


Readers understand paragraphs faster when the details in the paragraphs follow a pattern. There are
many ways to order the details of a paragraph. The following are common ways of ordering.
1. Chronological. If the paragraph is about an event, then it can be arranged in chronological
order, in the order of time. This is how narratives are arranged.
2. Spatial. A description can be arranged spatially: top-to-bottom, outside-in, front-to-back, or
from the point of view of a movie camera moving through a place.
3. Importance. From the least important to the most important, or the other way around.
4. Generality. From the most general to the most specific, or from specific to general. For
example, a paragraph can start with a car accident, move to a discussion of drinking as the
cause, and end with a discussion of drinking and driving in general.

Writing Assignment. Write a paragraph about Brusov students. First, identify the topic in the topic
sentence. Next, make three generalizations about Brusov students and follow the generalizations with
supporting facts and examples.
9
Topic Sentences
The first sentence of the paragraph, the topic-sentence summarizes the main idea of the paragraph.
The main idea is what all of the generalizations and details of a paragraph are about. For example, the
topic sentence Exercise is good for health can be broken down into two generalizations: Exercise improves
heart and lung function, and exercise promotes muscle strength.
In the paragraph below, the topic sentence is underlined, and the generalizations are in italics.
Details supporting the generalizations make up the rest of the paragraph. Notice the relationship
between the topic sentence and the generalizations.
Lawlessness prevailed near archeological sites in Anatolia in the 19th century. Bandits repeatedly attacked and
murdered archeologists from the early 1800s. In 1829, they killed Friedrich Schulz and his party at a site near
Adamakert. Rosch was killed a few years later trying to copy the Kelishin stele. Bandits were not the only
danger, however. Locals regularly plundered newly discovered sites and sold the artefacts on the black market. In 1875, they
plundered the ruins of an Urartian fortress and sold the artefacts to Europeans collectors.
Topic Sentence Errors
Topic sentences summarize the main idea, but they do not do any of the following:
 Address the reader directly: “In this paragraph, I am going to tell you...”
 Quote someone else. Quotes are fine inside the paragraph but not as topic sentences.
 State simple facts. “Water freezes at 0 degrees,” for example, cannot be broken down into
generalizations. It is a simple, brute fact about the world.
Unrelated Ideas
All of the sentences of a paragraph must be related to the topic sentence. Unrelated ideas should be
removed. Compare the statements below, for example. The first statement mixes up the author's likes,
dislikes, and plans with the main idea of the sentence. The second statement is clear and to-the-point.
1. I am now going to tell you about my favorite philosopher Heraclitus.
2. Heraclitus was a philosopher.
Exercise 2. Cross-out the sentences that do not belong in the paragraph below.
I am going to tell you about movies. Movies are films. Movies are the most popular art form today. They
are seen in theaters all over the world. For example, the Batman movies were shown in over 4,000 theaters
worldwide. I did not go when they showed “Batman” here because I like romances. In 2016, about 1.2 billion
tickets were sold in the United States; China and India had even higher ticket sales. There is a lot of pollution
in these countries. Every year, movies make about $40 billion. “Kung Fu Panada 3” made $143 million. I
thought “Kung Fu Panda 2” was better. “Zootopia” made twice as much as “Kung Fu Panda 3.”

Exercise 3. Write topic sentences that summarize each of the following groups of generalizations.
1. Cigarette smoking causes cancers. Smoking causes emphysema. Smoking causes heart attacks.
2. Potato chips contain unhealthy oils. Potato chips are expensive. Potato chips are fattening.
3. Village life is calm. It is inexpensive. Fresh food is available in villages. Villages have clean air.
4. Riding bikes comes naturally. Falling from a bike is usually not dangerous. Bicycles reduce traffic.
5. Cars consume lots of fossil fuels. Cars produce pollution. Car accidents cause serious injuries.
Writing Assignment. Observe the older generation in detail. What are their tastes in clothes, music, and
television shows? What conclusion can you come to about them based on your observations? Write a
paragraph about your observations (details), the generalizations they support, and your conclusion
(topic sentence). Try the same exercise with university lecturers, doctors, and other professionals.
Ask yourself the following questions about the paragraphs you write:
o Does the topic sentence summarize the content of the paragraph?
o Is the topic sentence broken down into smaller, provable generalizations?
o Does each detail support, prove, explain or provide an example of the generalizations?
Test Preparation. Be ready to define, provide examples of, and distinguish between topic sentences,
generalizations, and (the various types of) details. Know the average length of a standard paragraph,
what an indentation is, and what a topic sentence should not do.

10
4. Descriptive Paragraphs: People, Places, and Things
The mind is not a vessel to be filled but a fire to be kindled. –Plutarch.

Glitter City Amusement Park


Glitter City Amusement Park is a tourist trap. Every few meters, there is something to buy. The main gate is in the
shape of a gaping maw, wherein guests deposit the overpriced entrance fee, which buys them the privilege of spending
more money inside. Not 20 meters into the park is a store selling t-shirts, coffee mugs, and keychains that proudly
declare, I Love Glitter City Amusement Park. Nearby is a booth selling fried bread sprinkled with sugar; beside it is another
selling ice cream; and beside that is yet another booth selling popcorn. Circulating about are an army of photographers
who take pictures of the guests without asking, then try to sell them back to the guests. The park would be tolerable were
it not so overcrowded and claustrophobic. The parking lot is an epic 5 lake of concrete stretching over several acres.
Bright yellow lines painted on the ground direct the newly arrived, disoriented guests to the station where a trolley driven
by a clown takes them to the main gate. The whole process takes about 30 minutes. The guests are then herded into a
line that snakes back and forth for about half a kilometer and then drops them into a pit of flushed consumers where
there is hardly room to turn one's neck. From there, the process of separating the tourist from his money begins.
What are the parts of the descriptive paragraph above? What is the main idea of the paragraph and what details support it?

The General Characteristics of Descriptive Paragraphs


The topic sentence of a descriptive paragraph identifies the person, place, or thing being described, and
then it makes a general statement about it, him, or her. The topic sentence summarizes all of the
qualities that the rest of the paragraph will discuss in detail.
In the example above, the topic sentence names Glitter City Amusement Park as the subject, and the
predicate of the sentence states that the amusement park is a “tourist trap.” Two generalizations follow
the topic sentence, and these are underlined. As you can see, most of the paragraph is made up of
details (about the stores, the photographer, the parking lot, and so on) which support the
generalizations. The details prove exactly why and in what way Glitter City Amusement Park is a tourist
trap. The last sentence restates the topic sentence in different words. as the main gate, the stores, the
photographers, the parking lot, and so on. Such descriptive details are the key to bringing places to life
and giving them a meaning.
In the sections that follow, we will discuss technique for describing things, places, and people.

Descriptions of Things
In the previous lesson, we reviewed figurative language and words for describing sensations. Another
quality of good descriptions is exact identification.
When describing a thing, first identify it exactly. Find the exact word that names the type of thing,
specifically. If describing a car, for example, name the kind of car that it is, such as a limousine, a
station wagon, or a barchetta. Identifying a thing exactly means differentiating it from all the other
things in the same class: the type of flower, type of horse, type of hairstyle, and so on.
Precisely identifying nouns is easy to do nowadays with internet search engines. If you are
describing a hat, for example, do an image search on Google for “types of hats” to retrieve the trilby, beret,
boater, top hat, cowboy hat, bobble, and so on. An online thesaurus does the same thing for verbs.
Exercise 1. Find at least 5 specific types of the following things: Horses, beards, umbrella handles,
deciduous trees, jackets, hairstyles for men and women, shoes, pink gemstones, and jellyfish.
Example: Handbags: The clutch, minaudiere, hobo, satchel, tote, bucket, sling backpack, bowler.
Exercise2. Find synonyms for the following actions: walk, run, eat, describe, think, essay.
Example: Laugh: chuckle, guffaw, chortle, grin, snort, giggle, and snicker.

5 epic – adj. of unusually great size.


11
Combining all the ingredients of a good description.
We now have all of the main ingredients for a good description:
A good description = Exact identification + sensory details (lesson 6) + figurative language (lesson 6).
See how dramatically the following sentence changes with the addition of these ingredients:
A man in a hat walked a dog.
With exact identification:
A man in trilby walked a beagle.
With sensory detail:
A tall man in an emerald trilby walked a panting beagle.
With figurative language:
A tall man in an emerald trilby walked a panting beagle on a mission.
Exercise 3. Revise the sentences below in three stages. First, precisely identify the nouns and verbs.
Example: The road went through the forest. ----> The country lane wound through the alpine forest. Add sensory
details: The thin country lane wound slowly through the browning alpine forest. Finally, add figurative language:
The thin country lane wound slowly through the browning alpine forest like a gray snake through a pile of autumn leaves.
1. The park had different kinds of plant life.
2. The house was beautiful.
3. The room contained furniture and pictures on the walls.
4. The cat caught the mouse and ate it.
5. She looked through her sunglasses at the chair.
Writing Assignment: Describe your favorite thing using specific nouns, sensory details, and figurative
language. The thing could anything: jacket, watch, shoes, or anything else you like.

Descriptions of Places
Places have moods. Some houses feel haunted; other houses feel light and happy. Abandoned prisons
exude an eerie feeling, as if the prisoners have left behind their suffering, while abandoned factories
echo with the power of giant machines. Try to capture these moods with carefully chosen details. For
example, a tranquil lake might be described as tucked away in the woods and surrounded by old trees
and moss-covered boulders. There might be cones of light shining through the leaves unto the surface
of the water, undisturbed and still like a mirror. A person there might feel wet leaves cool to the touch,
smell the earthy scent of loam, and hear the sound of breezes blowing through the leaves.
Remember to order the details you use in a logical pattern. You can order them according to size,
or intensity, or generality. Or you can order them according to the way a person would see them, first
from far away, then closer and closer, then from inside. For example, you could begin the description
of a house from the outside of the house, then go in through the front door, move down the entrance
corridor, through each of the rooms, and emerge out the back door to the yard, as if you were looking
through the eyes of a person walking through the house. Such a logical order would be easy to follow.
What is the order of the details in the paragraph below and what feelings do they evoke?

Black Monastery
A series of peaks along a mountain range pierced the sky in central Tavush, and beside a crest next to one of them stood
the black monastery, in a clearing, like a monolith 6. It was built by a local prince in memory of his son who died from the
plague in the year 1377. From the outside, it looked black, for its stone was carved out of a rare kind of black tuff from a
quarry hidden in a maze of trails through the mountains. Inside, it was cool, at first, and dim, until slowly the thin shafts
of light beaming in through the narrow windows grew progressively more intense and lent the interior space a holy glow.
The church had been abandoned centuries ago, but it felt alive. Underneath the absolute silence, liturgies resonated from
centuries past, and a faint odor of frankincense 7 wafted into the crystal air, as if emanating from the bones of the church.

Exercise 1. Describe the house of a person you know. Use details to bring out the mood of the place.
Writing Assignment . In a paragraph, describe the most beautiful room that you have ever seen.

6 monolith – n. a monument formed of a single block of stone.


7 frankincense – n. aromatic gum resin burned in a censer.
12
Descriptions of People
This is how Mark Twain describes King Henry VIII:
Before him, at a little distance, reclined a very large and very fat man, with a wide, pulpy face, and a stern expression.
His large head was very grey; and his whiskers, which he wore only around his face, like a frame, were grey also. His
clothing was of rich stuff, but old, and slightly frayed in places. One of his swollen legs had a pillow under it, and
was wrapped in bandages. This stern-countenanced invalid was the dread Henry VIII
On the one hand, Twain describes the king as “very large and very fat,” someone used to eating, drinking,
and giving orders. On the other hand, he also describes the king as old and worn out, with his
bandaged leg on a pillow. The reader pictures a big and powerful man who is also sick. By putting
power and weakness next to one another, Twain captures the essence of the man, that which makes him
who he is. Thus, he brings him to life: This stern-countenanced invalid was the dread Henry VIII.
Who is the person you are describing?
To describe a person well, you must know them well. Ask the following questions about the
person you are describing: What life changing experiences have they had? What accomplishments
have they had in business, education, family, and what failures? What things make them upset, excited,
or happy? How do they relate to other people? Who are they close to? Do they walk, talk, or express
themselves in a special way? Do they have habitual ways of doing things? Details such as these are
excellent for descriptions. The following vocabulary will help you think about and describe people and
personalities.
Personality traits
o Positive: Humble, alert, creative, sane, mature, perceptive, stoic, wise, loveable, educated,
decisive, charming, prudent, incorruptible, kind, logical, punctual, serious, clean, peaceful,
intelligent, faithful, courageous, hopeful, assertive, diligent.
o Neutral: Folksy, proud, cerebral, glamorous, enigmatic, competitive, businesslike, casual,
formal, experimental, hypnotic, mystical, obedient, stoic, outspoken, intense, hurried.
o Negative: Self-indulgent, entitled, incurious, pretentious, lazy, weak, vacuous, infantile,
neglectful, fawning, unrealistic, irresponsible, sadistic, messy, tasteless, suspicious, resentful,
stupid, petty, narcissistic, sadistic, fickle, uncaring, greedy, crude, cynical, dull.
Faces
o The basic emotions: Joy, sadness, anger, fear, calmness, surprise, disgust, pity, love.
o Facial expressions: Grave, doubtful, thoughtful, absent, brooding, cheeky, bug eyed, tense,
confused, sullen, glowing, blinking, dour, glaring, pained, pallid, shamefaced, quizzical.
o Face shapes: Oval, oblong, triangular, inverted triangular, square, diamond, round, rectangular.
o Noses: Rounded, pointed, hooked, upturned, narrow, square, fleshy, aquiline, droopy.
o Lips: full lips, thin lips, downturned lips, thin upper/lower lip, round lips.
o Eyes: Wide-set/close-set, round, downturned, upturned, almond, hooded, protruding.
Walking and Talking
o Qualities of voice: honeyed, croaky, gravelly, nasal, shrill, strangled, wheezy, gruff, silvery.
o Ways of talking: Whisper, mumble, grunt, crack, boom, blurt, yammer, drone, lecture, shriek.
o Ways of walking: Lurch, prowl, waddle, careen, saunter, amble, limp, stroll, meander, parade.

The order of description


In the topic sentence of a paragraph describing a person, identify the person and make a general
statement about him or her. Then begin with a physical description, providing details about
appearance, age, and so on. Only then move on to the person's character. Beginning with a physical
description in this way gives readers a mental picture to which they can attach abstract details, such as
life experiences, psychological traits, character, loves and hates, goals, and so on.

Writing Assignment: Describe in a paragraph a person who has inspired you in your life. Remember to
have a topic sentence, generalizations, and plenty of details.

13
5. The Narrative Paragraph
It is the heart which inspires eloquence. –Quintillian.

What are Narratives?


Paragraphs that tell a story are called narrative paragraphs. Narrative paragraphs are non-fiction stories
that are usually taken from the writer’s personal life, and they often end with an important life-lesson.
We are familiar with stories through movies. Although movie narratives are fictional and essay
narratives are non-fiction, they are often organized in the same way. The main difference is that movie
stories are told through pictures, while written narratives are told through words. If you can imagine
your story as a short film, you will have a simple structure for a good narrative. So let’s take a look at
the ingredients that go into writing narratives (and making movies).
1. Narratives are usually written in the 1st person (“I”) or 3rd person (“he, she, it”) and in the
present or the past tense. The first-person point of view and the present tense draw the reader
into the story make it emotionally more vivid; the third-person and the past tense move the
reader further away from the story.
2. Narratives are centered around a main character. This central character is described in enough
detail to be easily imaginable, and he or she is given a strong desire for something, such as love,
victory, success. This desire will drive the story.
3. Narratives organize events chronologically. The events are the adventures that the central
character has as he pursues what he wants. During these adventures, there are setbacks,
moments of doubt, insights into life, misdirections, lucky breaks, dialogues, and so on, until the
character either finally fails (tragedy) or succeeds (comedy).
4. Narratives end with an important lesson learned about life.

The Cold Winter


Now that you know all of the main ingredients, see if you can spot them in the following paragraph.

The Cold Winter


One morning last winter I learned the true meaning of "freezing cold." I woke up in the morning to gray clouds
above and gray ice below. Icicles perched on the bare branches where the birds used to perch in the summer. Even the
air felt frozen as I cracked opened the window to get a taste of Winter. My eyes glanced at the street below, empty and
quiet, without kids, without even dogs or cats. Suddenly a car went skidding past across the frozen street. I saw the
driver inside, eyes wide open in terror, staring at the scene of his death a few meters ahead. His fingers were clenched
around the steering wheel as the car kept sliding down the street like an ice cube on a marble top. After what seemed
like an eternity, the car finally hit a snow bank and stopped. There was a pause. The driver bent his head down on the
steering wheel and breathed a sigh of relief. I was relieved, too. After a moment, I turned away from the scene and put
the kettle on for some hot tea. I was grateful that I was warm. There was a lot of work to be done.

“The Cold Winter” is a narrative paragraph, for several reasons. First, the paragraph has a main
character. In this case, the character is an Everyman, without many specific personality traits. All we
know is that the winter cold makes the narrator feel a little gloomy and miss summer. Because the
character is so simple and has an emotion that is common for people during winter, many readers can
relate to him. The second characteristic that makes it a narrative is the chronological order of events.
The paragraph starts with the narrator waking up, looking outside, and thinking about the summer. It
then progresses through the events that happen next as the narrator opens the window and looks at the
street below: someone skids across the ice and almost has a serious accident, the driver and narrator
feel relief, then the narrator turns away and feels grateful. All of these things happen in chronological
order. Finally, at the end of the story, there is a lesson learned: just being warm and alive makes it a
good day. Thus, narratives have a character experiencing events in chronological order and learning a
lesson. And, as we see in “The Cold Winter,” what characters want and the lessons they learn don’t
necessarily have to be intense; they can be quite subtle.

14
Exercise 5.1. Pick three numbers from 1 to 7 and make a story out of the corresponding story elements
in the three columns. For example, 2, 4, 7 would be: Ashot the taxi driver meets his soulmate and
learns to always charge the cell-phone battery. Write the story in 3rd person.
Character Event Lesson learned
1 Ashot, a taxi driver who loves his Starts hearing a loud whistling Always stay humble.
job and keeps his taxi clean. sound in left ear.
2 Varduhi, a worried 20-something. Wins a trip to China for two. Don't think too far ahead.
3 Anahit, a young photographer. Is arrested for terrorism. Think positive.
4 Yeranuhi, a great-grandmother. Meets soulmate. Don't trust everyone.
5 Hrand, a member of an Gets a strange call from one Always charge the cell-phone
Armenian rock band. claiming to be an old friend. battery.
6 Marshal, a used-car salesman Cooks at home for the first Make plans for the future.
from Moscow. time.
7 Olya, a vegetarian yoga teacher. Opens a shawerma stand. Make friends with neighbors

The Elements of Narrative in More Detail


Descriptions
Narratives are an excellent opportunity to use everything you have learned about writing descriptions to
bring to life your characters and the setting. The better the detail, the more realistic your story will be.
The Central Character
Readers read stories because they identify with or care for the central character. Aside from providing
a good physical description, the narrative should let the reader know what the central character wants.
Usually, what people want is some variety of love, power, or security. Readers automatically
understand these common human desires and relate to them. Showing the circumstances under which
these desires are born is more challenging and takes a degree of psychological insight.
Exercise 5.2. Take a person you know and base a central character on him or her. First, describe the
character physically, then give him or her a history, and using this history talk about what he or she
wants. So, for example, a person who has lived in the desert her whole life might want to see snow.
The Character's Adventure
The central character's desire is the engine that drives the narrative forward. The feeling of adventure
and discovery in the story comes from the character continually overcoming obstacles to try to get what
he wants. In action/adventure stories, for example, the character wants to stay alive, but dangerous
things keep happening to him. He almost dies, repeatedly. In romances, the couple want to be together,
but misunderstandings continuously pull them apart. In murder mysteries, the detective wants to solve
the mystery, but the solution evades him and the clues arrive one piece at a time.
Exercise 5.3. Put your character from Exercise 5.2 through an adventure.
Dialogue
Dialogue adds real-time action to the narrative and allows readers to hear the way the characters speak.
Remember that people speak in grammatically incorrect sentences, and writers usually correct these, but
not to the point of changing the way the characters sound.
Exercise 5.4. How does your character speak? Write a dialogue between your character and a
supporting character about a topic that has to do with what the main character wants.
Writing Assignment. Write a narrative paragraph about an experience that you have had that has taught
you an important lesson about life. Alternatively, you could use one of the quotes that start the
chapters in this book as a life lesson that invented characters learn in the course of a story.
Test preparation: Remember that narrative paragraphs can be written in the 1st or 3rd person, past or
present test; involve a main character who wants something; organize events chronologically; and
always end with a lesson learned.
15
6. The Informative Paragraph
One should aim not at being possible to understand but at being impossible to misunderstand. –Quintillian.
Let us remember the four rhetorical modes: description, narration, persuasion, and exposition. In this
chapter, we will discuss exposition, which is commonly known as informative or explanatory writing.

Types of Informative Writing


Informative writing helps readers understand things by explaining them and providing information
about them. Informative paragraphs basically teach. For example, an expository paragraph about
computers will explain to someone who is not familiar with computers what a computer is. To do this,
it might, for example, define the word “computer”; use an analogy to explain what it does; discuss the
history of computers; compare and contrast it with other electronic devices and classify it; talk about why it
is useful and what one can do with it, its causes and effects; explain how to use it in a step-by-step process;
discuss what to look for when buying a computer; and so on. Thus, informative paragraphs:
1. Discuss causes and effects
2. Compare and contrast
3. Provide Analogies
4. Analyze processes
5. Classify
6. Define
Each of these logical techniques helps readers understand something about what is being
explained. Different topics are better with different approaches. You must fit the right topic to the
right approach. Let us begin with process analysis.

Process Analysis – Step-by-step instructional


A process is a series of steps that lead to a final goal; analysis is the breakdown of a whole into its
parts. 8 Process analysis, then, is the breakdown of a process into its parts, which are then arranged in
chronological order 9 and explained in a paragraph. Any process made up of steps that lead to a
desirable goal is suitable as a topic for a process analysis paragraph. Such processes and topics include
making a sandwich, planning a wedding, building a house, putting on makeup, driving a car, and so on.
Like all paragraphs, process analysis paragraphs have three parts: topic sentences, generalizations,
and details. The topic sentence names the process that is to be analyzed. Sometimes it also mentions
the benefits of carrying out the process. The generalizations name and describe each step in the
process, and the details provide additional information about each step.
In the process analysis paragraph below, the topic sentence is underlined and the generalizations
are in italics, followed by details. Notice, too, that the paragraph directly addresses the reader with a
“you” and is written in the imperative mood. This is the convention for process analysis writing.
You can make a sandwich in a few easy steps. First, take two slices of bread. Bread, like rice, potatoes, and other staple
foods, tends to go well with almost everything, so you can use any kind of bread. You can also use a large piece of
flatbread, like lavash. Next, place your favorite ingredients into the bread. Cheese is a popular ingredient, such as Swiss,
mozzarella, or feta cheese. Meats, too, are also popular, like chicken, beef, or ham. If you use both ingredients,
make sure you match the meat with cheese, because not all cheeses go with all meats. Swiss cheese tends to go with
meats, for example, but feta does not. Add vegetables, like tomatoes, lettuce, onions, tarragon, or garden cress. Tomatoes and
lettuce go with almost everything; onions are advisable if you are not going to breath on anyone afterward; and
tarragon and garden cress go with cheeses. Add vinegar and olive oil, salt and pepper, and spread some mayonnaise and mustard
on the remaining bread, if you want to add a little richness and tanginess to balance out the flavor. Finally, place the second
slice on top, or wrap up everything up if you are using lavash, and enjoy!

8 If we were to analyze the word “analysis,” itself, we would break it down into the prefix “ana-” and the Greek “lysis,” akin
to the Armenian լուծել, which together mean “to dissolve” or to “break down into parts.”
9
Narratives, too, are arranged in chronological order, as you may have noticed, but the two are very
different. Narratives are about events that have already happened; process analysis paragraphs are
written to guide events that are planned to happen in the future.
16
Exercise 1.
In the process analysis paragraph below, double underline the topic sentence, underline the
generalizations, and put a circle around the groups of details that support the generalizations.
For tastier, tangier, and healthier bread, use a homemade sourdough starter instead of store-bought yeast to bake
bread at home. First, gather your materials: a medium sized glass jar, a wooden spoon, bread flour, and water. You
can use a regular metallic spoon, too, but a wooden one is easier because it will not crack the glass when mixing.
Once you have your materials, spoon into the jar 100 grams of flour along with 100 grams of water and mix. If you
don’t have a scale with which to weigh the water and the flour, don’t worry. Just put a small cup of flour into the
jar, then add small amounts of water and mix until you reach the consistency of oatmeal or harissa. Next, cover the
jar and set it aside. If you use a lid, make sure you put a hole in the lid so that any gasses that build up inside the jar
can escape; otherwise, the jar might crack. Of course, you can also put the lid on the jar very loosely, allowing the
gasses to escape from the side, but then you will have to remember not to tighten the lid every time. I think it is
easier to just put a hole in it. Now all you have to do is wait for a day or two. When you start seeing bubbles in the
mixture and the wheat starts smelling a little sour—congratulations—you have grown an active yeast colony. From
now on, your job will be to keep it alive. You do that by feeding it equal amounts of flour and water (100 grams)
every day. If the starter gets too large, then pour it out. Just keep 100 grams of the original starter and add the fresh
flour and water to it. In about three weeks, you will be able to make bread with your all-natural homemade sourdough
starter.
Chronological and Sequential Transitions
Process analysis paragraphs, as we have seen, show the reader how to do something, and they are made
up of several steps arranged in chronological order. In order to show the reader what comes first, what
comes next, and what follows, we use transitional words or phrases signaling changes in time, such as,
first, next, and finally. There are other kinds of transitional phrases, showing contrast, emphasis, changes
in location, and so on, but those that show changes in time and sequence are particularly relevant for
process analysis paragraphs.

Chronological Transitions
Before, after, at first, finally, in the meantime, later, meanwhile, next, now, then, at the same time

Sequential Transitions
First...then...now...next...finally.
First...second...third...

Exercise 2. Go back to the paragraphs above or to process analysis paragraphs that you have written
and circle the transitional words and phrases. Can you replace them with other words?

Exercise 3. Fill in the blanks below with chronological or sequential transitions.


To build a house, ____________ you need to find the right land for it. ____________, you can begin
designing the house. ____________ you are done finding the right land for the house and have come
designed it, you can begin digging the ground. ____________ pour the concrete for the foundation of
the house. ____________, put in the plumbing and electricity. __________, set up the frame of the
house and walls. And, ____________, install the fixtures and there you have it—a brand new house.

Writing Assignment
Write a process analysis paragraph on something that you know how to do, or any of the following
topics: researching scholarships on the internet, making dolmas, or any skill that you are familiar with.

17
Process Analysis – Advisory
The kind of process analysis writing discussed above that gives step-by-step instructions is called
instructional process analysis. There is another kind of process analysis writing which is advisory.
Operating a sewing machine requires step-by-step instructions; raising a child calls for discussion of
information and advice. Making jewelry out of epoxy requires step-by-step instructions; buying a house
entails advice. Again, a person who wants to raise children the right way needs information, like why
children throw temper tantrums, how to talk to them and calm them down, if and when to punish
them, and so on; a step-by-step instruction manual would not help them. It is clear, then, that the
difference between the two types of process analysis is that one involves concrete steps in
chronological order, while the other involves information and discussion.
In the advisory type of process analysis paragraph, the topic sentence identifies the process to be
discussed and states the benefits of mastering the process or comments on how easy or hard it is to
carry out. The generalizations then provide the necessary information and advice, and the details that
follow discuss the generalizations further, narrowing them down and making them more precise. The
following paragraph is about quitting watching television.
Living without television can be difficult if you have become accustomed to it, but it can be done, and it can be
immensely rewarding. Consider that television totally distorts your view of reality. The characters that are shown in TV-
shows are usually very clearly divided into those who are good and those who are evil. But in real life, people usually
have a propensity for good and evil. The world and what it means are simple and obvious on TV, but the real world
is far more complex—and interesting. If you watch too much TV, the ideas that you develop of the world will be
tinged with ideas you have picked up from TV-shows. Be aware, however, that watching TV causes brain changes and stopping
watching TV brings about panic and depression in some people, but these negative feelings go away in a few days. Television shows
play on people’s emotions, causing the release of large amounts of feel-good hormones called endorphins in the
brain. People who watch TV a lot become used to these endorphins and experience withdrawal symptoms, like drug
addicts, when they stop. In time, however, their brains get back used to normal levels of endorphins and regular life
becomes enjoyable again. The trick to kicking the TV habit is to immediately turn your attention to doing something else the minute
you get the urge to watch TV. Exercise, or go for a walk in the clear open air; talk to friends and family; learning how to
do something challenging, like making jewelry at home, building a radio, or program computers; , clean up and
organize your living space; write a book about your life; or take care of whatever it is that has been bothering you.
There are a million things that you could do. The point is, the time you save when you stop watching TV is your
free time to do with whatever you want and to become the person that you have always wanted to be.

Exercise 4. Write an advisory process analysis paragraph about how to introduce your
boyfriend/girlfriend to your parents.

Writing Assignment. Write a process analysis paragraph about how to eat healthy, how to find time for
exercise in a busy day, how to know whether you are in love, how to plan a wedding, or another topic
that interests you.

How to Make a Swing With No Rope or Board or Nails

First grow a moustache


A hundred inches long,
Then loop it over a hick'ry limb
(Make sure the limb is strong).
Now pull yourself up off the ground
And wait until the spring--
Then swing!

-Shel Silverstein

18
Comparison/Contrast Paragraphs
Another way to inform a reader about a thing or idea is to compare or contrast it with something else.
To compare means to find similarities; to contrast means to find differences. If two things are
different, it is their similarities that are informative. For example, the similarities between mice and
humans is fascinating. If two things are similar, like lemons and limes, it is their differences that are
informative. Many things can be meaningfully compared and contrasted. However, if two things are
from totally different classes, like an elephant and a light bulb, they cannot be meaningfully compared
at all.
Criteria for comparing and contrasting.
When we compare and contrast, we always use criteria, or a set of standards. We often compare cars in
terms of fuel efficiency, comfort, and looks, for example. We compare restaurants based on their food,
ambience, and service. Take the example of mice and humans.
Comparison Criteria
Apples taste sweet. Oranges also taste sweet. Taste.
Apples are round, and so are oranges. Shape.
Apples and oranges are both fruit. Biological class.

Criteria are also used for contrasting things. Take the streets Tumanyan and Abovyan:
Contrast Criteria
Tumanyan has a northwesterly orientation; by contrast, Abovyan has Orientation.
a northeasterly one.
Abovyan connects to Republic Square. However, tumanyan Connection to squares.
connects to Freedom Square.
Abovyan passes close to two metro stops, but Tumanyan is not close Proximity to the metro.
to the metro.

Exercise 1.
Decide whether the following are 1) comparisons or contrasts and 2) what criteria they represent.
Example: “Lions eat meat, while giraffes eat only leaves.” This sentence is 1) a contrast between lions
and giraffes and 2) uses the criteria of feeding habits.
1. Tigers and cows are both mammals.
2. Parrots are more colorful than eagles.
3. Ladas are more fuel efficient than Dodge trucks.
4. Skateboards and bicycles are both manually operated.
5. Lavash is a flatbread like the pita bread.
Words for showing comparisons and contrasts
Notice that the comparisons and contrasts above use words that show that two things are the same
(both, like, and) or different (by contrast, however, but, more than). Here are a few more of such words.
Words used to show comparison
as, just as, alike, like, likewise, in the same way, also, similarly, too, both, and.

Words used to show contrast


Whereas, while, even if, still, but, however, nevertheless, though, unlike, yet, more/less than.

Exercise 2. Add the appropriate comparison or contrast word in the following sentences.
1. Tea and coffee ________ contain caffeine. __________, coffee contains more caffeine than tea.
2. The Earth is hot, _______ the moon is hotter. _______, they are both cooler than Venus.
3. _________ dinosaurs and birds have similar joints and sleep in the same position, dinosaurs are
extinct, ________ birds are not..
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The topic sentences, generalizations, and details of comparison/contrast paragraphs.
The topic sentences of comparison/contrast paragraphs identify the topic of the paragraph and say
whether a comparison or a contrast is to follow. A topic sentence for a paragraph about apples and
oranges, for example, would say something like “Apples and oranges are quite similar,” signaling that a
comparison between apples and oranges is to follow.
The generalizations of topic sentences are the same as the criteria used to compare or contrast the
items. For example, “Apples and oranges both taste sweet,” is a criteria used for comparing apples and
oranges, and it can also serve as a generalization in a paragraph.
The details that follow the generalizations support the generalizations with examples, facts, and
evidence. The following sentence provides details that logically follow the generalization, “Apples and
oranges both taste sweet”: “It is possible to make sugar out of apples. For their part, oranges were bred to be sweeter and
tastier by humans 2000 years ago when they crossed a mandarin with a pomelo.”
Again, the topic sentence states the items and whether a comparison or a contrast is to follow; the
generalizations are the criteria for the comparison/contrast; and the details support the generalizations.
If we turned the contrast between Tumanyan street and Abovyan street above into a paragraph, then, it
might look something like this:
Abovyan Street and Tumanyan Street are two streets in downtown Yerevan that are very different from one
another. Tumanyan has a northwesterly orientation, while Abovyan has a northeasterly one. For that reason, they both cross
Northern Avenue, but at different angles and at different places, and one gets a little more light during sunrise, and
the other during sunset. Abovyan connects to Republic Square, but Tumanyan connects to Freedom Square. These are the two
main squares of downtown Yerevan, and because tourists go to the squares to see them, the streets connected to
them tend to have many restaurants and cafes. Finally, Abovyan travels along the metro route, but Tumanyan cuts across it.
Consequently, you could just as well use the metro to travel the same path as Abovyan, but if you wanted to cross
town from the Moscow Cinema to Brusov University, you would have to either walk or take a taxi. Abovyan and
Tumanyan are both downtown streets, but they are very different in their orientation, connection to main squares,
and transportation possibilities.

In class exercise. Compare/contrast two movies by the same director, men and women, two types of
dolma, or Yerevan and Gyumri.

Writing Assignment. Compare/contrast two painting by the same painter, Armenia before and after
independence, having a job and attending university, or the feelings of love and hate.

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Definition Paragraphs
There are two kinds of definitions: Formal and informal.
Formal Definitions
Formal definitions are dictionary definitions. Dictionaries define words by taking the category (the
genus) of the thing that the word refers to and then differentiating the thing from all the other things in
that category. To put it in another way, a formal definition starts by identifying the club that a thing
belongs to and then points out how it is different from all the other members of that club. For
example, a horse fits into the club of mammals, and it is different from all the other mammals in that it is
large, has hooves, short hair and a mane, and is domesticated for work or riding. Therefore, the formal
definition of a horse is “a large hoofed mammal, having short hair and a mane, domesticated for work
and riding.” The only time you would write a formal definition is when you are using a difficult word
that your reader might not understand, and, in such a situation, one or two sentences would be enough.

In-class Exercise 1. Without looking at a dictionary, identify the genus (club) each noun below belongs
to, differentiate it from the others in that genus. Write your formal definition, and, after you are done,
compare it to a dictionary definition. Example: T-shirt. Club: Garment. Difference: Short sleeved,
simple, without a collar. Formal definition: A simple short-sleeved garment without a collar.

Genus Difference from others in the same genus.


Coffee
Medal
Chef
Smile
Blossom
Signature
Princess
Violin
Pyramid
Language

Informal Definitions.
There are words—like happiness, freedom, and love—that are interesting in themselves and one can go
on talking about them. These kinds of words are good for informal definitions. They tend to have
subjective definitions along with their literal definitions, different people define them in different ways,
and they tend to be rich with associations and connotations.
Informal definitions are not like dictionary definitions. They do not follow the genus/difference
pattern. Instead, one discusses all the thoughts, ideas, feelings, and history that one associates with the
word. It is possible to write informal definitions of concrete (such as eyeglasses) as well as abstract (such
as freedom) nouns.
There are many examples of informal definitions of concrete nouns. Cell-phone is a concrete noun.
An informal definition of cell-phone may be, a device used for keeping the owner answerable to everyone who has his
number 24 hours a day. Another example is horse. Horse is a concrete noun. Formally, it is a large hoofed
mammal, but informally a horse is also culturally associated with strength and beauty. In an informal
definition of a horse, then, strength and beauty would be the generalizations, and the details that would
follow would give examples of and describe the qualities make a horse strong and beautiful. Finally,
writing technically means to record words so that they can be read and understood. But, informally,
writing is also a way of understanding the world, of finding out about oneself, and of creating entire
worlds. If you wanted to write an informal definition paragraph about the word writing, then you would
use these or other generalizations about writing in your paragraph.
Abstract nouns are more difficult to define than concrete nouns because they belong to the world
of thoughts and feelings and cannot be sensed. Consequently, they can be easily misunderstood, and it

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is for that reason that they often require informal definitions. Freedom, for example, is an abstract noun
that is used in so many different ways that it is capable of definitions that are actually contradictory.
For some, freedom means being able to do whatever they want, whenever they want, in whatever amount
they want. For others, freedom means taking responsibility, restricting their ability to do what they want,
becoming more disciplined and powerful as a result, and gaining freedom that way. Thus, like many
abstract nouns, freedom requires a lengthy discussion to be properly understood. Love, too, is a very
abstract noun. It takes an informal definition to point out the qualities of love, try to explain them, and
understand what the word means.

Exercise 2. Add a fourth column to Exercise 1 above and inside it write the qualities that you would
write about in an informal definition of the word.

The Paragraph Structure of Informal Definitions


The topic sentence of a definition paragraph first identifies the word that is being defined. Next, it
either says that a definition of it is to follow, or it proceeds to a quick, short definition right there. So,
for example, if the word being defined is “horse,” the topic sentence could be, among numerous other
possibilities, either of the following:
• A horse is so much more than a four-footed animal.
• A horse is strength and beauty.
The generalizations of a definition paragraph are the qualities that the writer has chosen to define the
word. Continuing with the example of “horse,” we can sight the following generalizations:
• A horse is powerful like a white star, ready to explode.
• A horse is the harmony of heaven captured in the world as beauty.
Subsequent details explain, describe, support, or exemplify the generalizations. Notice the relationship
between the details, generalizations (in italics), and topic sentence (underlined) below:
A “horse” is strength and beauty. Its power is concentrated inside itself, like a white star ready to explode. It can accelerate to
the speed of a car in matter of seconds, and it can reach speeds in excess of 60 kph, carrying 500kg of muscle on
nothing but perfect coordination. And, although it is far more likely to run away, it can also kick with the strength
of a battering ram, sending the average-sized person meters into the air. A horse is the harmony of heaven captured in the
world as beauty. As it gallops, its mane flows into the wind in long strands along its powerful neck. All of its muscular
limbs contract, thrust, and hang momentarily idle, only to draw up more energy from its abdomen and burst out
again, in an integrated system of motions more precise than a machine’s. Even standing still, with its massive body
suspended on proportionately segmented legs, its seems like architecture of the Divine. Strength and beauty wedded
together, the horse is the perfect marriage between heaven and earth.

Definitions can contain descriptions and other kinds of writing


Notice that this definition paragraph about the horse contains descriptions along with informative
facts. Definitions often bring together different types of writing. What makes them definitions and not
descriptions, or narrations, or any other kind of writing is that they all have the same purpose—to
define one and the same word.

Writing Assignment. Write an informal definition of sanity, witch, selflessness, blood, youth, sunflower
seeds, God, soulmate, or troll.

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Cause-and-Effect Paragraphs
To ask “Why?” is to ask for a cause. We explain the world by noticing causes and effects. We say one
event, like feeling nervous, is related to another event, drinking too much coffee, causally. The words
we use signal a causal relationship: Aram is feeling nervous because he drank too much coffee.
Drinking coffee → feeling nervous. This is one link in the causal chain. We can continue causal
chains backwards or forwards, indefinitely. Aram drank too much coffee because he was bored, and he was bored
because he had not planned his day. Or, in the other direction, we can say, Because Aram was feeling nervous, he
could not sleep, and because he could not sleep, he decided to read a book, and the book changed his life. The chain
would look like this:
Aram failed to plan his day → became bored → drank too much coffee → felt nervous → could not sleep →
read a book → Aram’s life changed.
So can we say that Aram’s life change because he failed to plan his day? In a sense, we can say that, but
it would not be very convincing because it is too far from the effect. In general, the nearer the cause is
to the effect, the clearer and more convincing it is. It is more convincing that Aram’s life was changed
by a book than by failing to plan his day.
Another aspect to consider about causal chains is that every event has more than one cause; it has
multiple causes. A ball slides down a table because it is round, the surfaces are smooth, the table is
inclined, gravity, and because someone pushed it. Out of all of these causes, the most significant one is
that someone pushed it because humans choose things and thereby accept responsibility for the causal
chains that they start. Out of an infinite number of causes, a few are chosen as the most significant.
Exercise 1. Take one of the following events and make up a cause-and-effect chain that goes five steps
into the future and five steps into the past: Jumping out of an airplane, walking in the rain, running out
of food. Which seem the most convincing?

Informative, Persuasive, and Speculative Cause-and-Effect Writing and Topics


To say that water freezes when it is cooled to 0 degrees is to state a fact about the causal relation
between temperature and water. If the causes and effects that we write about are facts like this, then the
writing is informative. It is informative to say that water freezes when it cools to 0 degrees Celsius.
If the causes and effects that we talk about are not facts, however, then the paragraphs are
persuasive paragraphs, not informative ones. For example, the statement, “Expensive universities produce
smarter students,” is not a fact but an argument, because there is no evidence to support the idea that a
good education makes people more intelligent. It is not a fact about the world.
Cause-and-effect writing about the future, or about an alternative past, is speculative writing, which
is also a type of persuasive writing. For example, a paragraph that discusses what the world might have
been like if the Mongols and the Turks had not invaded Armenia would be a speculative paragraph.
Events that have a clear cause or a clear effect are usually good topics for cause-and-effect
paragraphs. Even better are events that have both a clear cause and a clear effect, because then both
can be discussed. Historical events usually fall under this category. World War II had multiple
important causes and multiple important effects. However, causes or effects alone provide enough to
write about, such as the causes of cancer or the effects of too much coffee.

The Structure of Cause-and-effect Paragraphs


The topic sentence of a cause-and-effect paragraph identifies the main topic and mentions the main
causes, effects, or both, depending on the writing situation and author’s goals. The following are all
examples of acceptable topic sentences for cause-and-effect paragraphs:
1. The internet both helps and harms developing minds.
2. The Ozone layer protects the Earth in many ways.
3. Cats purr for different reasons.
4. Caused by hormonal changes, pimples disrupt the lives of teenagers.
5. Armenia joined the Soviet Union for different reasons, and it determined the nation’s fate.

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The generalizations of cause-and-effect paragraphs focus on one cause or one effect. For example, if
the topic sentence is “Cats purr for different reasons,” the following would be valid generalizations:
• Cats purr when they are happy.
• Cats purr to stimulate bone growth.
• Cats purr to influence humans.
The details of cause-and-effect paragraphs support the generalizations. For example, if the
generalization states that “cats purr to influence humans,” the following details would support it:
• University of Sussex researchers have discovered that the purr of a cat contains a sound that is
at the same frequency as that of a human baby’s cry. At least one researcher explains it as a
case of cats exploiting the tendency of humans to respond to babies crying.
In short, as in all paragraphs, the details are real world facts that support the generalizations that
support the topic sentence, which is the reason that the topic sentence summarizes the paragraph.

Exercise 2. Create a topic sentence, three generalization, and details supporting the generalizations for
the following topics: studying all night for modules; smoking; learning a foreign language.
Topic sentence:________________________________________________________________.
Generalization 1:_______________________________________________________________.
Details supporting Gen. 1:________________________________________________________.
Follow with Generalizations 2 and 3.

Sample Paragraph
The topic sentence (underlined), generalizations (italicized), and details are noted in the sample cause-
and-effect paragraph below, written as a narrative. The first generalization is about causes, while the
generalizations that follow are about effects.
Waking up with the sun changed everything. Last year, my life was not going too well, and I needed a change. I had been
looking for a job for a long time, without any success, and at school, my grades were just average. All the stress from
work and school made me depressed, and the only relief I found was to stay up all night on facebook. Of course,
that just made everything worse. I would wake up tired, fail to pay attention in class, and return home confused and
frustrated. I argued with people all the time because I was always in a bad mood. Something needed to happen.
One day, everything changed when a breeze blowing from the sun put a thought in my head: Sleep early, wake early. The first time I
tried it, I was super tired, but I felt strangely good at the same time because I knew I had done something right. The
second time was much easier, and by the third time up I woke up at 6 in the morning, I was ready to do something
with my extra time, so I prepared for the day’s classes. It was a whole new experience to walk into class prepared. I felt
confident and actually wanted the teacher to call on me. I answered all the questions in class and took notes on
everything the teacher said. Pretty soon, I was at the top of one of my classes. My mood began to change because things
were going right in my life—and the goodness spread. I quit watching television and facebook and used that time for more
productive things. I took on more responsibility and people began to rely upon me. My life was no longer a boat
drifting into the ocean, but it had a purpose, planned out every morning when I woke up at 6 AM. Looking back, I
believe it must have been the sun asking me to say hello every morning.

Transition Words Signaling Cause and Effect


The following are transition words that signal cause and effect. Some of these words are used within
independent clauses, some of them are used between independent clauses.
Cause: Because, for, as, since, due to, for the reason that, thanks to.
Effect: So, thus, therefore, thereby, accordingly, hence, so that, consequently, as a result, in the end.

Writing Assignment: Write a cause-and-effect paragraph about the causes, effects, or both of: Getting
married in Armenia, getting divorced in Armenia, the lack of affordable housing for married couples in
Armenia, living with in-laws after marriage, going to college in Armenia.

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7. What is an Essay? History, Definition, Structure
I quote others only in order the better to express myself. – Michel de Montaigne

The History of the Essay


Writing helps us find the truth. We put our thoughts into words on
paper, we read what we have written, and we reflect upon it. We
ask ourselves, “Is it true?” In order to answer the question, we look
for evidence, consider opposing points of view, and review the
structure of our arguments. Thus, we test—or assay 1—our ideas and
decide whether they are true.
The first person to do this, publicly, was Michel de Montaigne.
He collected his writings in a book called Essays 2 (1580), saying, “I
am myself the matter of my book.” His contemporaries
disapproved. They believed that personal ideas were not important
enough to publish. However, in time, important authors came to
value personal opinions and essays began to thrive as a genre 3.
Four centuries later, essays are quite popular. Many important
writers have written essays, giving the genre a rich history. Websites
collect and publish essays; institutions organize essay contests;
scholars communicate their ideas in the form of essays; and
universities require applicants to submit essays as a part of their
admission applications.
There are good reasons for the essay’s popularity. It is short
and direct, an economical way to express an opinion. It is logical
enough to be intuitive, yet flexible enough to accommodate
different styles. And it has an immediately recognizable structure, Cover of Locke's 1689 Essay Concerning Human
which we will discuss in detail in the next chapter. Understanding.

The Definition of the Essay


Essays are:
• short
• personal
• nonfictional
• structured
Essays tend to be about 500 to 5,000 words in length. Essays for the Writing Skills courses should be
from 600 to 1500 words, shorter in the beginning of the course and longer as the course progresses
(unless your teacher tells you otherwise).
Essays are often personal, in the sense that they contain the author’s personal opinion, expressed in
the author’s personal style. This distinguishes essays from purely scientific writing that deals with
nothing but facts. However, even though essays are often personal, they are also always nonfictional.
They have to do with the real world and real events. They are not written to entertain, like stories are,
but to inform or persuade.
Essays are structured. They are divisible into parts, and these parts follow one another in a certain
order. They always contain only one main idea, which is summarized in the thesis statement, located at
the end of the introductory paragraph. The main idea is broken down and discussed in more detail in
the body paragraphs, which follow the introduction. A conclusion ends the essay.
Putting all these characteristics together gives us the definition of the essay: An essay is a short,
structured piece of non-fiction writing that is often subjective in its opinions or style.

1 assay – vb. to test or evaluate [from Old French essai; see essay]
2 essay – French for to try.
3 genre – n. a category, kind, or class of literary or artistic work, such as lyric poetry, epic, short story, and so on.

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The Structure of the Five-Paragraph Essay

The Five-Paragraph Essay


The heart of the five-paragraph essay is the thesis statement. The thesis statement is located at the end
of the introductory paragraph, and it summarizes what the whole essay is about. All of the thinking,
explaining, and proving that goes on in the body paragraphs circulates back to the thesis statement like
blood circulates back to the heart.
The paragraphs between the introduction and conclusion are the body paragraphs. 4 The body
paragraphs have a specific purpose: to discuss the thesis statement in more detail. This means that the
topic sentence of each body paragraph externally supports the thesis statement and internally summarizes
all of the generalizations and details of the paragraph. In this way, the topic sentence connects the
ideas of the paragraph to the thesis statement.
The introduction and the conclusion of the essay, even though they are at opposite ends, have a
similar function. They put the topic itself into context and talk about why it is important. Some
introductions try to connect the topic to the life of the readers and in that way stimulate interest in the
essay. More formal introductions often focus on what scholars have said about the topic in the past.
Concluding paragraphs usually summarize the main points and talk about “what it all means”; that is to
say, they look at the topic from a distance, from a vantage point high up, and make a final judgment.

4Even though it is called the “five-paragraph” essay, the number of body paragraphs can vary widely in essays. For
practical purposes, however, we will stick to three body paragraphs per essay.
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8. What is an Essay? The Four Purposes & 12 Types
Reasoning comes as naturally to man as flying to birds – Quintillian
There are 12 types of essays, grouped into four purposes.
The Four Purposes
The purpose of any essay is to describe, narrate, inform, or persuade:
Descriptive essays describe the physical appearance of things.
Narrative essays tell a story about a real experience that teaches a lesson.
Informative or Expository essays explain things. They teach. They classify big groups, define difficult
concepts, and so on. For example, the statement, The Lycanidae butterflies are divided into the following classes:
the blues, the coppers, the harvesters, and the hairstreaks, is informative, it classifies. And an essay that
discusses what the word “awful” meant in the 14th century would be an example of a definition essay.
Persuasive essays try to change the reader's mind or get him to take an action. They often, but not
always, contain words like should and ought in their thesis statements. The following statement is
persuasive in form: The idea that beauty is an ultimate value should not be taught in schools. Whether persuasive
statements actually end up persuading depends on whether they are supported by evidence and sound
reasoning—the pillars of the Scientific Method 1. Anything else is sophistry 2.

Exercise 1. Determine whether the sentences below are meant to be (P) persuasive, (I) informative, (N)
narrative, or (D) descriptive.
1. ___The school should have a place for students to spend time when they are not in class.
2. ___Everyone knows that Lusin lavash is the best flatbread.
3. ___Food poisoning is usually caused by e coli bacteria or salmonella.
4. ___More than 17,000 kids go to the hospital each year because the television set falls on them.
5. ___Glass frogs have transparent skin through which their organs and beating hearts are visible.
6. ___The experience I had hiking around Sevan lake change my life.
7. ___Inside Out is an entertaining animated film that is worth watching.
8. ___The mountain-top flower was small, with crimson petals and an orange pistil.
9. ___It is a fact that Politician X is the best choice for parliament.
10. ___The actor was horrible and played Richard III as a ridiculous combination of Quasimodo and a
gangster.
Exercise 2. Pick one of the following topics and write a descriptive, then a narrative, then an
informative, and finally a persuasive statement about them. Topics: Bears, speeding in a car, the statue
of Mashtots, the potato, salesmen, flour, the walnut tree, fingernail polish, parks, restaurants.
Example: Bears.
Descriptive: Bears are usually big, brown, with sharp claws, and they like eating honey.
Narrative: When I saw a bear in the woods, I took a deep breath and backed up slowly.
Informative: Bears usually do not attack humans unless they have a reason to.
Persuasive: The habitats of bears in the forest should be protected.
Writing Assignment. Write a paragraph that describes the music coming from a karaoke bar, narrates a
story about going to a karaoke bar, tries to persuade its owner to lower the volume of the music, or
informs about what karaoke bars are. For extra credit, do all four.

1 The Scientific Method is a method of investigation that has been used in the natural sciences since about the 17th century.
The technological progress of the modern world is partly, if not wholly, the result of it. The method includes the following
steps: First a problem is identified and information is gathered about it. This information is then used to formulate a
possible solution, called a hypothesis. The hypothesis is tested in an experiment, and if it passes the test, it is considered true.
If the experiment proves the hypothesis false, however, then it is dropped and a new hypothesis must be formulated.
2 Sophistry is a kind of persuasive writing that presents itself as informative writing. It presents opinions in a way that makes

them sound like facts. It is common in discussions around controversial topics. Some defend sophistry by saying that there
are no truths, only points of view. The question is an ancient philosophical one. There is, however, a real difference
between ideas that meet the rigorous standards of the Scientific Method and ideas that do not. Ideas that are supported by
hard evidence and sound logic are probably true; those that lack evidence and contain faulty reasoning are false.
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The 12 Types of Essays
There is one kind of descriptive essay, one kind of narrative essay, three types of persuasive essays, and
seven types of informative essays. This adds up to a total of 12 types of essays. Below is a list of all 12
types of essays, along with a brief definition and an example of a topic written from that point of view.
1. Descriptive essays describe a material thing. The colors of Dilijan in the fall are breathtaking.
2. Narrative essays tell a story. The experience of hiking in Dilijan last summer taught me to be prepared.
3. Persuasive essays.
i. Arguments directly argue a point. Mining should not be allowed in Dilijan.
ii. Evaluations judge the worth of something. Dilijan is the ideal place to have a wedding.
iii. Problem-solution essays establish a problem and propose the best solution.
In order to reduce pollution in Dilijan, all of its factories should be inspected and updated.
4. Informative essays.
i. Cause/effect essays discuss causes, or effects, or both. Tourism has had many effects on
Dilijan, most of them positive.
ii. Process analysis essays discuss how to do something. Touring Dilijan is easy to do.
iii. Classifications divide a big group up into parts. Dilijan’s ecosystem falls into five categories.
iv. Definitions define a subtle or difficult word. The meaning of “Dilijan.”
v. Comparison/Contrast essays compare two different, or contrast two similar, things.
Dilijan today is different and the same as the Dilijan of the Soviet period.
vi. Claim and support essays make a claim and support it with evidence.
The quality of life in Dilijan has improved over the last 10 years.
vii. Analogy essays compare an unfamiliar or difficult concept with a familiar one.
Remote areas in Dilijan are like unexplored planets.
Exercise 3. Read the statements below and identify which of the 12 types of approaches it best reflects.
1. It is remarkable in what diverse ways the word “joy” is understood.
2. The new Benedict Cumberbatch film is so-so.
3. My grandmother tells a story of when she was young during the war.
4. The government should concentrate on space exploration.
5. It was a big painting, painted in warm colors, with all of the figures painted realistically.
6. You can operate a sewing machine in five easy steps.
7. Minibus drivers fall into one of three categories: angry, talking on cell-phones, or asleep.
8. Filtering tap-water removes much of the chlorine but not the minerals.
9. Coding for computers is like speaking an alien language made of numbers.
10. The economic problem can be solved through cooperation.
11. The number of spices used in Armenian cooking has increased over the last decade.
12. The Armenian Yeraz has bigger doors, a heavier frame, and a smaller engine than the
average Korean minibus.
Exercise 4. Pick one of the following topics and write 12 types of statements about it. Use the
statements about Dilijan above as examples. Topics: Yerevan, movie theaters, love, exercising.
Writing Assignment. Which of the 12 approaches do you think would be best for writing about
daydreaming? Pick one of the approaches and write a paragraph about daydreaming.
Test Review. In a test, you should be able to answer the following questions.
1. What are the distinguishing characteristics of the essay?
2. What are the differences between body, introductory, and concluding paragraphs?
3. What is the thesis statement, where is it located in an essay, and what is its job?
4. What four purposes can an essay have?
5. What are the types of informative essays?
6. What are the types of persuasive essays?
7. In what kind of essay would a writer relate a story about an experience that taught him an
important lesson?
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9. How to Write an Essay
We are what we repeatedly do. Excellence, then, is not an act but a habit. - Aristotle.

What is a “good topic”?


In subjective terms, a good topic is a topic in which you, yourself, are interested. A good topic is also
one you can write about adequately within the length limits of your essay.
In objective terms, research on the reading habits of people on the internet shows that most
readers are interested in the following topics: personal stories; how-to guides; advice about improving
family and social life; and insightful articles into finance, politics, and history. Notice that the first topic
corresponds to the Narrative, the second to Process Analysis, the third to Problem-Solution, and the
fourth to Informative-type essays, such as cause-and-effect, classification, and so on.
Exercise 1. Pick one of the following demographic groups and make a list of the topics you think they
would be interested in: Your parents and their friends; your grandparents and their friends; your
teachers and lecturers; people in their 80s who have lived in a village their entire lives; Tibetan monks.

Topics are born from the real world


Topic are born out of observation. Don’t wait for a topic to pop into your mind out of nowhere; go
out and look for it in the world. What you observe will raise questions, suggest ideas, and eventually
become the evidence supporting your arguments. For example, if you want to write about a restaurant,
go to the restaurant and make observations about the menu, the dishes, the quality of service, the
atmosphere, and so on. If you want to write about a historical event, make observations of historical
facts gathered from books, such as eyewitness accounts of the event, the social and historical context,
scholars’ opinions about what the event means, and so on. Both kinds of observations, of facts in the
real world and facts in books, are used in essays.
A detective gathers evidence to solve a crime and presents it to the judge, who judges whether it
proves guilt; in the same way, an essayist gathers evidence to prove a Truth (thesis statement) and
presents it to the reader, who judges whether it really amounts to a Truth. Without evidence, without
observation, there is no Truth. For example, we say, “The test was difficult.” Our friends ask, “Why?”
They want evidence. We provide the evidence and prove our Truth: “There was not enough time to finish
the test, all the questions required full answers, and there were questions from the beginning of the year.” With these
details, we demonstrate that the test was difficult.
Habit: The enemy of observation
Observation has an enemy: Habit. Repetitive experiences cause the mind to settle into a routine. It
comes to notice only those things it needs to notice in order finish its tasks, and it shuts out everything
else. To break out of such habits, we must slow down and pay
attention. Do not race through the essay, because that will force
your mind turn to habitual thinking to finish the job. Take time to
notice the details, name the things that you notice, and ask
questions, such as the following, called Reporter’s Questions, etc.:
• Who? What? Where? When? Why? How?
• Are there details that are repeated? Do they fit into a pattern?
• What are the key concepts and how are they defined?
• Are there surprising similarities between things that are different?
• Are there surprising differences between things that are similar?
Ask the Reporter’s Questions of the drawing of the boy to the left,
which will help you notice the details in the drawing. Ask, for
example: Who is the boy? Where is he going? Why is he carrying
an apple? How is he dressed? What do the details suggest about
the world he lives in? What other details do you notice and what
do they mean?
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The 12 Questions for Generating Ideas
If no ideas pop into your mind, you can turn to the 12 Types of Essays and use them to generate ideas.
Ask the following questions while studying the evidence you have gathered about your topic:
1. Description: What does it physically look like?
2. Narration: Is there an interesting personal story I can tell about it?
3. Argumentation: Is it a controversial issue I can make an argument about?
4. Evaluation: Do I want to recommend it to other people?
5. Problem-solution: Does it involve a problem that I have a solution to?
6. Cause-and-effect: What causes it and what effects does it have?
7. Process analysis: Can I explain how to do it?
8. Classification: Can it be divided up into smaller groups?
9. Definition: What does it mean?
10. Comparison/Contrast: Can I compare it to other things of its kind?
11. Claim and evidence: Does the evidence clearly demonstrate a truth about it?
12. Analogy: Is there an analogy that makes it easily understandable?

Exercise. Study the drawing by Norman Rockwell below and apply all the techniques that you have
learned for generating ideas to it. First, as the Reporter’s Questions, then ask the 12 Questions.

The 12 questions don’t only work on paintings, they work on concepts and ideas as well. Take, for
example, the concept “forest.” Here are the 12 questions applied to the concept:
1. Description. What does a forest look/sound/smell/feel/taste like?
2. Narration. Can I tell a meaningful personal story about a forest that taught me a lesson?
3. Argumentation. What are controversial issues related to forests? Do I support a side?
4. Evaluation. What painting, film, music about forests is good or bad? What hiking-trails or tours are good or bad?
5. Problem-solution. What problems do forests face or cause, if any, and what solutions can I offer?
6. Claim and evidence. What do the facts and statistics tell us about forests?
7. Cause-effect. Forests, or things inside forests, are caused by, or effect, what other things?
8. Process analysis. What forest-related activities, such as camping, can I explain how to do?
9. Classification. Into what smaller groups can I divide forests (or parts of them)?
10. Definition. What important forest-related words, such as preservation or conservation, can I define?
11. Analogy. What complicated forest-related issue can I explain through an analogy?
12. Comparison/contrast. What things related to forests, like logging, hiking, or flora, can I compare and contrast?
Exercise. Apply the 12 Question to the following topics: advertisements, dignity, art, diplomas, faith.
Not all 12 will apply to all the topics.

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10. Working on The Thesis Statement
No eulogy is due to him who simply does his duty and nothing more. –St. Augustine.

The First Thesis


Once you observe in detail what you want to write about and come to a conclusion about it, turn it into
a First Thesis. A First thesis is a preliminary thesis that you can work on to later turn into a strong
thesis. Put your idea into the following form:
The topic of the essay + your opinion about it.
For example, let’s say that you are writing an evaluative essay about a restaurant called Saryan’s.
Thinking back to your dinner there, you remember several details: the waiter was friendly, the coffee
was cold, the decorations were gaudy, but the music was not too loud, and the bill was not too
expensive. Here is a good first thesis for the essay, with the topic of the essay in a square and the
opinion underlined:
Saryan restaurant is strong in some aspects, weak in others, and ultimately average, like its cost.
This would make a good First Thesis. Remember: The subject of most thesis statements is the topic
of the essay, and the predicate is the opinion (or information) expressed about it.

Evolving the First Thesis


First Theses are a good starting point, but you need to test them to make sure that they can withstand
criticism. A good way to do this is through the contradiction method.

The Contradiction Method


Once you come up with a First Thesis, criticize it from the perspective of a person who would disagree
with you. Look for faults, and when you find one, incorporate it into a new thesis. By testing your
statements in this way, you will make them stronger. Fewer people will be able to find fault with them
because you will have already found them.
Let us return to the example of the evaluation essay about Saryan restaurant. Say you visit the
restaurant on a Saturday and find out that on that day it serves an exceptionally delicious ghapama. This
new discovery contradicts the original thesis that the restaurant is average: no average restaurant could
serve such delicious ghapama. So what do you do? You incorporate the new information into your
thesis and write a new one, like this:
Saryan restaurant is average for the cost, except on Mondays, when it serves a little bit of bliss.
The new thesis is not only more accurate but more specific and interesting. 1

The Final Thesis Statement


The Final Thesis statement answers two questions that help the reader understand the essay:
• What is the main topic of the essay? (The content, usually the subject of the statement).
• Which of the 12 types of essays is to follow? (The form or logical structure of the essay).
We have already seen how the topic of the essay and the subject of the thesis are often the same. The
predicate of the thesis statement often reflects the structure of the essay. Opinions are of 12 types.

1 The Evolving Thesis Essay: This process of asserting a thesis, contradicting it, and then rewriting it with the contradictions
incorporated into it can be turned into an essay itself. In such an essay, the First Thesis is placed in the introduction, the
Final Thesis in the conclusion, and the intellectual journey from one thesis to the other recorded in the body paragraphs.
This Evolving Thesis type essay is different from the Traditional essay that we are studying in this book. If the thesis
statement of the Traditional essay states the detective’s solution to the crime, so to speak, and the rest of the essay simply
demonstrates the truth of that solution, then the Evolving Thesis essay records the thinking process of the detective as he
solves the crime.
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The 12 Types of Theses
We have said that the predicate of a thesis statement contains the opinion of the writer (or information)
about the topic of the essay. It happens that human opinions can only be of 12 types—the same 12
types that essays are divided into—and each of these has its own kind of thesis statement. For
example, if the topic of the essay is butterflies, and the author’s opinion is that genetically engineered
crops are killing them, then it is clearly an argumentative essay; accordingly, the predicate of the thesis
statement will be an argumentative type predicate.
Whenever you are writing a thesis statement, then, make the subject the same as the topic and
make the predicate correspond to one of the 12 types of essays. You will have to memorize the 12
types of thesis statements and determine which one of them best suits your opinion about the subject.

The 12 Types of Thesis Statements: Subjects and Predicates


In Descriptive essays, the grammatical subject of the thesis statement is the topic of the essay, whether it
is a person, place, or thing. The predicate of the descriptive thesis statement provides a general
description of the person, place, or thing. All three examples below are descriptive thesis statements.
• Person: Tigran Metz was a tall and physically imposing man, with hundreds of scars all over his body.
• Place: Yerevan is a large city laid out in the shape of a circle with rays shooting out like solar flares.
• Thing: Botticelli's “The Virgin Adoring the Child” contains various shades of pinks and blues.
In Narrative essays, the grammatical subject sometimes names the event and other times names the
person experiencing the event, usually “I.” The predicate often contains the lesson that the person
learned from the experience. The two varieties are below:
• I learned from participating in the revolution that there first needed to take place a revolution inside of me.
• Participating in the revolution taught me that there first needed to take place a revolution inside of me.
In Persuasive essays, the thesis statement states the issue (subject) and the author's position on it
(predicate). Argumentative and problem-solution thesis statements often contain ought or should.
• Argumentative: The university should include a course in Naregatsi in its curriculum.
• Problem-Solution: Public transportation workers ought to undergo yearly fitness tests to avoid accidents.
• Evaluation: The new coffee shop on Tumanyan serves the tastiest crepes in Yerevan and is very affordable.
In Informative essays, the subject of the thesis statement names what is to be explained and the predicate
signals the type of explanation. Here are a few examples:
• Definition: “Freedom” is a context-dependent word whose meaning changes with the person using it.
• Classification: The students at this college can be classified as scholars, slackers 2, and fashionistas 3.
• Comparison/Contrast: Structural linguistics differs from traditional linguistics in its conception of the sign,
its distinction between langue and parole, and its insistence on a synchronic treatment of language.
• Cause/effect: Breathing deeply with the diaphragm decreases stress and lowers blood pressure and heart rate.
• Process Analysis: Choosing the right principles to live by can set one's life on the right track.
• Claim and evidence: Contemporary political propaganda masquerades as common sense.
• Analogy: The internet is like television with an infinite number of channels.

Exercise 5. Consider the thesis statements on this page, which are in italics. What could the topic
sentences of the paragraphs that follow them reasonably be?
Test Review. In a test, you should be able to answer the following questions.
1. In a thesis about trees, what will the subject of the thesis statement often state?
2. What does the predicate of the thesis statement indicate?
3. What kind of thesis statement is the following: Yerevan should devote some of its streets to bicycle traffic.

2 slacker – a person who evades work.


3 fashionista – a person who closely follows fashion trends.
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The following checklists will help you determine whether you have a strong thesis.
The Weak Thesis Statement
Revise a thesis statements that is:
o Too broad (or too narrow): Automobiles are a common means of transportation.
Revised: Twentieth-century automobiles are an unsustainable common means of transportation.
o Obvious: Drunk driving is a serious problem.
Revised: Drunk driving accident rates are higher for certain countries, age groups, and times of day.
o A personal belief: One should eat a tablespoon of honey every day.
Revised: Scientific evidence supports the idea that honey has certain beneficial properties.
o A simple statement of fact: The population of Russia today is 143 million.
Revised: The population growth of Russia has intensified in the last few years for several reasons.
o Well-known conventional wisdom: Trust is important in a healthy relationship.
Revised: Couples who exhibit several traits in their communication habits report being happy.
o More than one claim: Students should not have required courses, and tuition should be cut.
Revised: Students should not have mandatory courses. Or: Tuition should be eliminated.
o About what the essay will do, instead of a claim: This essay will discuss Drummond's theories.
Revised: Drummond's revaluation of Darwinism was bold and keenly aware of the subtleties involved.
Exercise . State why the following thesis statements are weak.
1. This essay will discuss space exploration.
2. A knowledge of computers is useful in today's world.
3. Older people are safer drivers than teenagers because they drive slower and more cautiously.
4. Switzerland is the best country in the world.
5. A project is liable to fail if too many people work on it.
6. Everybody knows that exercising promotes health.
7. If I could, I would travel around the world by boat.
8. No matter what the problem, love will help you solve it.
9. Many people in the world are victims of racism.
10. I will introduce the topic of teaching and discuss why it is important in a society.

The Strong Thesis Statement


A strong thesis statement should be:
o A complete sentence. With a few exceptions, the grammatical subject of the thesis should
correspond to the topic of the essay, and the predicate should summarize the main idea and
signal the type of essay.
o Rich with meaning, but not too broad. If the claim in the thesis is obvious, there will be little to
talk about; if it is too broad, then the essay will only be able to cover a small part of it.
o One main idea. Every essay is about one topic.
o Specific in language. The word thing is a generalization; a crepe, however, is something specific.
Use specific language in the thesis, nouns as well as verbs.
Exercise . Rewrite the weak thesis statements from the previous exercise to make them stronger.

Review of the Observation-to-Thesis Process


Answer the following question about the process of formulating ideas about topics and turning them
into thesis statements for essays.
1. Coming up with a topic requires that the writer carefully do what?
2. What are the Reporter’s Questions? What are other questions you can ask about a topic?
3. What are a few of the 12 Questions for generating ideas?
4. What do the subject and predicate of the First Thesis contain?
5. How does the Contradiction Method work for evolving essays?
6. The opinion of the author in the thesis statement corresponds to what?
7. What are the characteristics of a strong thesis?
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11. The Introduction and Conclusion
Speech is a powerful master and achieves the most divine feats with the smallest and least evident body. It can stop fear,
relieve pain, create joy, and increase pity. –Gorgias.

The Role of the Introduction


Try to write the introduction after you have a thesis statement and are familiar with your topic. The
introduction performs the following functions:
1. Catches the reader’s attention and sets the tone.
2. Identifies the topic and provides background information, if necessary.
3. Points out the wider significance of the topic.
4. States the thesis.

1. The Introduction Catches the Reader’s Attention and Sets the Tone
The opening sentence of the essay is crucial because it is often the difference between an essay that is
read and one that is ignored. The opening sentence along with the sentences that follow set the tone of
the essay: humorous, serious, argumentative, neutral, and so on. The following are a variety of
effective ways to open an essay.
a) The Question. Questions are an effective way of opening an essay because readers become
invested in reading the essay once they start thinking about the answer. However, some questions can
also make the essay sound like an advertisement.
What is the best place to eat in the city on a Saturday night?
b) The Corrected Misconception. Disagreeing—with experts, society, or a particular person—is an
effective and common way to open an essay. State what you disagree with clearly and talk about why
the misconception poses a problem. Return to the question in the conclusion to frame the essay.
Remember, however, that even though challenging social norms automatically affords an essay the aura
of progressivism, the real value of an essay is in the solidity of the facts and arguments that it offers.
Most people think that food poisoning occurs mostly in fast food restaurants, but the truth is that
most food poisoning cases are in sit-down restaurants.
c) The Quotation. The right quotation can be an effective way of opening the essay, especially if the
author of the quote is a recognized authority.
Van Horne once said, “Cooking is like love: It should be entered into with abandon or not at all.”
d) The Fact or Statistic. Surprising facts and statistics are an effective way to catch attention.
Laboratory tests have shown that 10% of the chicken that enters the country is tainted with
salmonella, in spite of the State Food-Safety Service.
e) The Description. A vivid description with figurative language can pull readers into the essay.
The kabob lay across the hills of soft white rice like a locomotive, each glistening wagon charred
at the corners and leaking juice. A skinned tomato bled tangy red nectar into the plate, while butter
melted on the rice and stretched from one fluffy grain to the next. The aroma of the ensemble
rose with the saffron steam like the melody from a heady saz and made the hungry swoon.
f) The Definition. If the essay involves a difficult concept, define it at the opening. There are many
interesting ways to do this. For example, you can talk about how an expert has defined the concept,
discuss how it has been understood historically, or define it according to what it is not.
More than just the art of cooking, “gastronomy” has been defined as including an entire set of
rules and habits that define a way of life.
g) The Emotionally-charged Statement. The reader’s attention can be aggressively seized with a
shocking statement. Some readers might even forgive the emotional manipulation if the rest of the
essay delivers a solid argument.
How long will Yerevan allow its restaurants to poison its tourists?
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h) The Vivid Scenario. Sometimes describing a scene or a situation is the best way to start an essay,
especially if the scene is a familiar one.
After many years of hard work, a group of university students finally graduates from the university
and wants to celebrate. The group wants to rent a well-decorated hall at a good restaurant, hire a
DJ, and have a blast. But when they browse through the available options on the internet, they
find dozens of confusing offers. How do they pick the right hall for their graduation party?
i) The Illustration. An illustration of a key concept or situation that put readers immediately in the
middle of the action. In an essay about the difficulties faced by people in the restaurant business in
Armenia, for example, a description of a restauranteur in his office on a typical day would make an
excellent opening.
Sporting a clean shave and a baby blue shirt, Harut Hambardzumian is an up-and-coming
restauranteur in Yerevan. Today, he is on the phone with a truck driver who transports tomatoes
to his restaurant from just outside the city. The locally grown, sun-ripened tomatoes keep the
tourist buses returning to his restaurant. But there’s a problem. The truck has broken down on
the highway, and the tomatoes are spoiling in the heat. What is more, the mayonnaise has been
left out too long, and the chicken, imported all the way from Brazil, might be tainted. It is just
another day on the tightrope for Harut, balancing staying alive in the restaurant business with
keeping his customers happy—and healthy.
j) The Catalog. A list of examples is like a sledge-hammer of evidence that wakes readers up.
La Cucina, Cafe Vergano, Pizza di Roma, Bella Italia, Marco Polo, Mamma Mia, Napoli, Segafredo,
Verona, and Fresco Pizza—these are the Italian restaurants in the city; the list of restaurants that
do barbecue is three times longer.
k) The Analogy. If your essay is about a complicated unfamiliar topic, comparing it to a familiar
topic in an analogy might help your readers grasp it easily.
Running a big restaurant is like conducting an orchestra: Every night there is a new performance,
and every night everything has to be perfect. The head chef is the soloist, while the line cooks,
dishwashers, and the waiters are the supporting orchestra. Everyone has to be in position and
ready to do their jobs—at exactly the right time. And it is the job of the manager to conduct all
the different parts into a harmonious whole.
l) Background Information. Sometimes a little background information about your topic can
provide context and drama.
Up until 1991, Armenia was a part of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. It enjoyed stability,
and almost everyone enjoyed the bare necessities of life and a measure of security. The menus
were short, however, and all the restaurants were the same. But the Soviet Union collapsed,
Armenia experienced a disastrous earthquake, and the country plunged into a war with Azerbaijan.
For years, gas, electricity, and water were rationed, and life was hard. Things have changed again,
however. Armenia has overcome war, blockades, and instability to develop a capital city that
boasts several hundred restaurants. If you want to know what the enterprising spirit tastes like,
then try the sushi in Yerevan. It’s tastes as if the Pacific Ocean were next door.
m) Something Strange and Unexplained. A strange and unexplained thing, event, or truth gives
people pause because they want to explain it, like they would a pink elephant. Beginning an essay with
an anomaly thus attracts attention. Revisit it in the conclusion to create a frame for the essay.
The Armenian economy is far smaller that the economy of the United States, yet the menus in
Armenian restaurants are several times the size of those in American restaurants. Why is that?

Exercise. Pick one of the following topics and write seven different kinds of openings for it: Khash, the
Yerevan Metro, friendship, street dogs, growing old, marketing strategies, the works of Dostoevsky.

2. The Introduction Identifies the Topic and Provides Background Information


To identify the topic simply means to say what it is, to name it, which is the first thing that we do when
we begin to talk about something. If the first few sentences do not do so, then somewhere in the
introductory paragraph clearly name what you are talking about. If the topic is a technical one that
your readers will not be familiar with, then provide a little bit of background information as well.

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Exercise. If you were writing an essay to an audience made up of your peers, about which or the
following topics would you provide background information, and what would that background
information be? Khash, the Yerevan Metro, friendship, street dogs, growing old, marketing strategies,
the works of Dostoevsky..

3. The Introduction Reveals the Wider Issues at Stake and Says Why the Topic Matters
After you identify the topic, talk about why it is important. Take a step back from your essay and ask
yourself, Why does this topic matter? If the topic is World War II, for example, ask, Why does World War II
matter? Because the world we live in today is the result of it. An essay is considered important when it
is connected to a wider issues or values that people care about, such as freedom, or family, or equality.
An essay’s connection to wider issues is not always immediately clear to the reader and needs to be
pointed out. For example, most readers will not immediately know why a topic such as The End of Net
Neutrality, about changes in internet law, matters. It will seem boring and uninteresting to them. But
when they learn that these changes in internet law could result in the internet slowing down, they will
become more interested in the topic, because most people value quick access to information. This
issue is, itself, connected to wider issues, such as freedom and democratic power. Topics thus gain
meaning when they are seen to be connected to bigger topics.
There are many 21st century issues that people all across the world care about. The following are
only a few:
• Globalization • Spirituality
• Technology • Evil
• Social media • Survival
• The family • Health
• Nature • Identity
• Love • Social engineering
An essay that helps readers engage such fundamental concerns helps them understand the world they
live in, which is about as profound an experience as can be expected from an essay.
Another way to arrive at a larger issue, a more direct and logical way, is to consider the broader
class to which your topic belongs, as in the genus to which the species belongs. For example, a horse is
a type of mammal is a type of animal is a type of living thing. You can always start with a discussion of
the broader class, move toward the specific topic, and end with the thesis statement about it.

Exercise: Go through the list of topics below and connect each one to larger issues. Then pick one of
the topics and write an introductory paragraph for it. The introductory paragraph should perform all of
the functions so far discussed: it should open with one of the methods discussed; it should identify the
topic and provide background information if necessary; and it should talk about why the topic is
important. It does not have to perform those functions in that particular order, however.
Example: Flower petals.
“To create a little flower is the labour of ages,” said William Blake [Quote opening]. Indeed, the function of flower
petals is far more sophisticated and exact than is usually realized [topic identification], and to consider them is an
exercise in appreciating the connection between form and function, not to mention beauty [connection of flower
petals to wider issues].
Topics:
• Noise • Barley
• Non-fat Desserts • Marketing Strategies
• Lightning • Dostoevsky
• Skiing • Barbie dolls
• Book-binding • Vegetarianism
• Smoking
• Bad eyesight

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4. The Introduction Ends with the Thesis
An introduction that catches the reader’s attention; identifies the topic and talks about why it is
important; and provides the necessary background information has only one more thing left to do,
which is to state the thesis.
The thesis is usually placed at the end of the introductory paragraph where it acts like the
culmination of the introduction: a reader must become interested in a topic, take in the necessary
background information, and consider the wider importance of a topic before he is able to fully
appreciate the thesis. It is, however, possible to place the thesis somewhere else in the paragraph, such
as at the beginning; nevertheless, for the sake of practice, in Writing Skills classes always place the thesis
at the end of the introductory paragraph, unless instructed otherwise.
Introduction Checklist
The following are common problems that introductory paragraphs have.
• Directly referring to the reader in the opening: “In this essay, I am going to tell you about...” or
some variation of this statement, which turns what should be a more objective and abstract
discussion personal and conversational.
• Apologizing to the reader for the topic, opinions, or quality of the evidence. This includes
reviewing the history of the writing of the essay, the problems encountered, and so on. Focus
on the topic.
• Starting the introduction from the origin of the topic. If the topic is social media, there is no
need to return to the invention of mathematics and trace its development, through computers,
to the internet and social media. Going back one step is far enough. In this case, starting from
the internet would be already too far back in most cases.
• Writing the entire essay in the introduction. Introduce the essay, do not write it in the first
paragraph. The purpose of the introduction is to catch the reader’s attention, give a little
background if necessary, connect the topic to a larger issue, and state the thesis. The main
points are for the body paragraphs.

Test Review
1. What are the four functions of the introduction?
2. What is the corrected misconception type of opening?
3. Name seven other types of openings.

The Conclusion
The main purpose of the conclusion is to provide a final judgment on the topic. What new things have
been learned through the essay? What do they suggest about the field of study, about what people
should do, or about the future of humanity? Writing an effective conclusion is sometimes as simple as
restating the thesis and commenting on it from the perspective of someone who has read the essay.
A good conclusion connects the topic to a larger issue. If this larger issue is the same one that is
mentioned in the introduction, then we say that the essay has a frame, which we will discuss in the next
section. A conclusion that connects the final judgment to a larger issue strengthens the essay. An easy
way to come up with a larger issue is to ask why the final judgment matters. Why does it matter, for
example, that a millionaire named William Jones was inspired by beauty and not by money? Does it
teach us something about wealth? Does it teach us something about beauty?
A number of other strategies can be used to close the essay as well. Quotes, descriptions,
scenarios, illustrations, and other strategies used for opening essay can be used to close them. The
ramifications of the final judgment may be pursued to their ultimate end and be used to speculate about
the future. If the final judgment is very radical, the conclusion can make a call for action, or, if the tone
of the essay is more meditative, the conclusion can close with a question that keeps readers thinking
about the topic, such as, “What does it tell us about art that even the wealthiest people in history return to it and,
through it, find the meaning of their lives?”

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Conclusion Checklist
The following are mistakes commonly made in the conclusion:
• Repeating the introduction or the thesis—verbatim. Repeating the main idea or the thesis is an
effective move, but not word-for-word. If nothing else, at least paraphrase it.
• Starting a completely new idea in the conclusion.
• Apologizing to the reader for the topic, opinions, or quality of the essay, or recounting the
history of writing the essay, the problems encountered, and so on. Focus only on the topic.
• Making a final judgment in the conclusion that contradicts or overlooks the thesis and the
points made in the essay. The conclusion is the place to affirm your main point, not call it into
question or look at it from a different point of view. Stick to your point of view and be
consistent.

Test Review Questions


1. What is the purpose of the Conclusion?
2. What is a typical characteristic of a good conclusion?
3. What are four strategies for closing an essay?

Frames: Returning to the Question Raised in the Beginning


When the conclusion of the essay returns to the wider issue discussed in the introduction, when it takes
up this question again in light of what has been learned in the body paragraphs, we say that the essay
has a frame. Again, if the introduction connects the topic to a wider issue and the conclusion returns to
this wider issue, then the essay has a frame. We call this a frame because the idea of the introduction
and conclusion surrounds the main points of the essay like a frame surrounds a painting, adding
another dimension of significance to it.
As an example, let us take the following introductory paragraph:
The prevailing theory about William Jones’s true motivations is that he was a materialist. Many have concluded that
he spent the millions he spent on his personal art collection only because it was a good investment. However, this
theory has failed to explain his seeming obsession with Renaissance statues and the donation of his entire collection
to a monastery. Another explanation is far more plausible. William Jones turned to the permanence he saw in beauty as a
way of escaping the tragic loss of his family.
The introduction clearly sets up the essay as correcting the misconception that William Jones was a
materialist. In reality, states the thesis, Jones was motivated by the permanence of beauty. Correcting a
Misconception is a type of frame.
Once the argument supporting the thesis has been made in the body paragraphs, the conclusion
returns to the prevailing theory about Jones mentioned in the introduction and say with more certainty
that it is wrong. It can then move on to talk about the ramifications of the new argument and suggest a
new understanding of the historical figure.
This is not the only way to frame this essay, however. It is possible to frame it with wider frame.
For example, we can frame it as a discussion about the idea that all millionaires are all materialistic and
write the introduction this way:
Are all millionaires all materialistic? Most people think that just because millionaires have millions of dollars, the
amount of joy they have spending their money is in the millions of units. This is what people think, but most people
are not millionaires. In fact, if history has an answer to this question, it is that millionaires are not all the same. For
instance, take Howard Hughes, who was an eccentric by many people’s standards. In the end, he became a recluse.
Or, better yet, take the case of William Jones. The prevailing theory about William Jones’s true motivations is...
This introduction would put the essay in a larger frame and connect it to the issue of the
psychology of millionaires, which is a wider topic than the topic of William Jones. We could use a
frame that is wider still. We could talk about the effect of money on desire, the construction of desire
in the modern period, compare desire in the modern period to desire in classical period, and so on and
on until, perhaps, we reached questions about God and the meaning of the universe. It all depends on
the topic and what we want to say. The important thing to note here is that, by connecting the topic to
a larger issue, we increase its importance.
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Three Typical Frames
• Corrected misconceptions. As mentioned, the corrected misconceptions frame is used often in
essays as well as in conversations. An essay that uses this frame introduces the misconceiver—
whether a person, an organization, an ideology, or an entire society—and the misconception in
the introduction. In the conclusion, the essay returns to the misconception and, this time,
corrects using the points that were made in the essay.
• The Expectations Frame. This is about your expectations. An essay that uses the expectations
frame opens with your expectations about something before you actually experienced it, and it
closes with your impressions after you experienced it. Did the experience meet your
expectations? What did you learn? Good candidates for this frame include monuments, tourist
destinations, museums, or people.
• The Historical Frame. Open with a history of the topic and close with speculations about it in the
future. Take barley, for example. Open with a short agricultural history of barley, then make
your point about it in the thesis. You could say, for example, that companies have been
genetically engineering it. Support your point in the body paragraphs. In the conclusion, return
to the history and speculate about barley’s future: can genetically engineered barley play the
same role in the future that it did in the past?

Test Review Questions


What is a “frame”?
What is a corrected misconceptions frame?
What is a expectations frame?
What is a historical frame?

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12. Sample Essay and Analysis: The Creation of the World
We must learn how to imitate Cicero from Cicero himself. Let us imitate him as he imitated others. –Erasmus.

The Creation of the Illumination

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Figure 1Malnazar, The Creation of the World, Isfahan, 1637-1638.

41
Essay Analysis: The Creation of the Illumination
Now that you have read the essay and compared it to the picture, let us consider it more closely,
identifying its parts and functions.
Which of the 12 types of essays that you have studied would you say that it is? It is true that it
begins with a comparison between films and writing, but the essay is not a comparison essay. The
comparison in the introductory paragraph is there to stimulate the interest of the reader and to open a
frame for the essay that the conclusion returns to and closes. The comparison is not the main focus of
the essay. The best way to identify the type of essay is through the thesis statement and the topic
sentences of the paragraphs. These make it clear that “The Creation of the Illumination” is mainly a
description essay with identifications, which often accompany descriptions.
If comparison was the main focus of the essay, then the thesis statement would indicate a
comparison. The thesis statement in The Creation of the Illumination, however, does not indicate a
comparison. It states: Malnazar’s Creation of the World is an illumination in 12 scenes portraying the creation
narrative that opens the Book of Genesis. There is no mention of a comparison with films in this thesis.
Instead, there is a general description. The grammatical subject is “Malnazar’s Creaion of the World.”
The grammatical predicate is a general description and identification of the grammatical subject: “an
illumination in 12 scenes portraying the creation narrative.”
If the essay was a comparison essay, the paragraph topic sentences, too, would suggest a
comparison or contrast, likely by stating criteria for comparison. Instead, each of the three topic
sentences in the essay suggests a description. Let us consider more closely these topic sentences and
the body paragraphs they summarize.
The topic sentence of the first body paragraph states, “What makes the Creation of the World an
illumination is the story that it tells and the gold leaf that covers the painting.” This paragraph contains
a description of the gold leaf as well as a description of the arrangement of the pictures on the page.
The topic sentence of the second paragraph states, “The creation of the world is told in six scene-
circles.” What follows the topic sentence is a description of the visual content of each circle, one by
one. The generalizations of this paragraph each identify and then provide visual details about
everything that is in the circles. The third topic sentence states, “The creation story ends at the bottom
right corner, and the story of Adam and Eve begins in the middle of the left side of the page.” The
paragraph describes the Adam and Eve scenes, focusing on the colors that are used and on the
postures of the figures and identifying what they signify. Thus, the essay is a description essay.
The conclusion of the essay returns to the comparison that opened the essay, this time with the
description of the painting in mind. Having read the body paragraphs, the reader has learned that the
illumination tells a story through scenes and can easily compare the scenes to those of films. The
conclusion also raises the question of Malnazar’s choice of scenes and affirms his role as directorial in
nature. Finally, the conclusion ends with an observation that many readers can relate to, and it opens
the door onto a wealth of ideas by inviting readers to consider the relationship between language and
the world.
Reread the essay with these observations in mind and familiarize yourself with the organization and
flow of the essay.

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Appendix 1: From Words to Sentences
Study the following sentence.
Seda likes flowers and books.
Can you name the parts of the sentence? Does it have a subject? Does it have a verb? Is it an independent clause?

Elementary Grammar: What is an Independent Clause?


The subject of a sentence is the person or thing performing the action. To find the subject, first find
the verb, then ask who is doing it. In the sentence above, the verb is likes. If we ask, “Who likes?” the
answer is Seda. Seda is the subject. Flowers and books are objects. The following are further examples:
o The soda is sweet. o She is tall.
Subject: Soda. Verb: is. Subject: She. Verb: is.
o We went to the lake. o Lilit grows tomatoes in the garden.
Subject: We. Verb: went. Subject: Lilit. Verb: grows.
A string of words that has a subject and a verb is a clause. If a clause can stand alone, it is called an
independent clause. For example, “Arpine rides a bicycle to school” is an independent clause because it has a
subject (Arpine) and a verb (rides). It t is not dependent on another sentence and can stand alone. All
of the sentences in the examples above are independent clauses.
If a clause cannot stand alone, it is called a dependent clause. A dependent clause has a subject and a
verb, but it cannot stand alone because it is part of another sentence. “Arpine rides a bicycle to school”
becomes a dependent clause if we attach a word like when to it. “When Arpine rides a bicycle to school”
cannot stand alone. It must attach to an independent clause in order to make sense: “When Arpine rides
a bike to school, she feels energized.” Lesson 3 will cover dependent clauses, but for now here are a few
more examples of them:
o If the soda is sweet... o ...although Ara drives a motorcycle.
o When we went to the lake... o ...until the harvest is over.
Unlike a clause, a phrase is a combination of words without a subject or a verb, such as “The girl on
the bicycle.” Within sentences, phrases can act as modifiers, prepositions, or nouns. By themselves,
however, they are grammatically incorrect and are called fragments. Here are other phrases:
o Swimming across the lake. o Over the mountains and far away.
o The ten-year-old boy on the chair. o Faster than a lightning bolt.
Exercise 1. Circle the subjects and verbs, and underline the independent clauses.
1. Anahit speaks Chinese. 6. When dolphins swim in the sea.
2. Because Ani likes music. 7. Walking home with my friend.
3. She was watching a movie. 8. Artak always talks about politics.
4. The big house on the hill. 9. I am.
5. Who will tell us the time? 10. An hour after the storm.
Exercise 2. Circle the subjects and verbs, and underline the independent clauses in Aesop's fable.
The Eagle and the Serpent
An Eagle swooped down upon a Serpent and seized it in his talons. The Eagle wanted to eat the Serpent,
but the Serpent was too quick for the Eagle and coiled around him. There followed a life-and-death struggle
between the two. A man who saw what happened came to the assistance of the Eagle. He succeeded in
freeing the Eagle from the Serpent and helping him escape. In revenge, the Serpent spat some of his poison
into the man's cup. Thirsty from the fight, the man was about to drink from his cup, when the Eagle
knocked it out of his hand and spilled its contents upon the ground.

43
Appendix 2: Joining Sentences
Circle the subjects and verbs, and underline the independent clauses in the following sentences.
1. Ani has a piano she does not know how to play it.
2. Seda's family grows fruit in their garden, they give the fruit to their friends and relatives.
3. Khajak broke his toy, so his mother comforted him.
How many independent clauses are there in each sentence? How are they joined?
Joining Clauses with Coordinating Conjunctions
Each of the three examples above is made of two independent clauses. The difference between them is
in the way they are joined. Sentences 1 and 2 are joined incorrectly.
o Sentence #1 is a run-on: two independent clauses are simply stuck together.
o Sentence #2 is a comma splice: two independent clauses are joined with a comma.
o Sentence #3 is correct. It joins two independent clauses with a comma and a coordinating
conjunction.
There are seven coordinating conjunctions: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so: “f.a.n.b.o.y.s.”
 And is the most common coordinating conjunction. It joins equivalent ideas.
 But and yet both signify contrast, but yet signifies a stronger contrast.
 For and so both signify causal relationships.
Fill in the blank in following sentence with different coordinating conjunctions and notice how the
meaning changes:
Shant is successful architect, ____________ he creates drawings of giant structures.
Here are a few more examples of coordinating conjunctions joining independent clauses with commas:
o We were getting hungry, so we stopped for a bite to eat.
o The building had an elevator, but they took the stairs.
o We can go to India, or we can go to Iran, but we cannot go to both countries this summer.
o It was 43 Celsius, yet they refused to turn on the air conditioner.
Coordinating Conjunctions Used within One Independent Clause
Consider the following sentence: Ani plays the piano and surfs the internet every day.
How many independent clauses does the sentence contain? One. There is only one subject,
“Ani”; therefore, the sentence forms only one independent clause. When there is only one subject,
coordinating conjunctions do not take a comma. Here are a few more examples of sentences that do not
need commas:
o The desert menu includes cake and ice cream.
o The restaurant is small but has very tasty food and is in a good location.
o The fox and the monkey made a deal but told no one about it.
Remember: Coordinating conjunctions take a comma when they join independent clauses, but they do
not take a comma when there is only one subject.
Coordinating Conjunctions Should Not Start Sentences
As a rule, coordinating conjunctions should not begin sentences, but this rule is sometimes ignored.
Avoid beginning sentences with coordinating conjunctions.
Exercise 1. Circle the coordinating conjunctions in the sentences below. Add commas if necessary.
1. Armen works with computers and spends time with his family.
2. Lily and Alenush got an A on the big test so they went out to celebrate
3. Anush took a month off from her job but all the work was easily done by her coworkers.
4. Ara lives in Hrazdan yet he drives to Yerevan every day for work.
5. Nare and Mariam studied at the university together but only Mariam stayed to get a PhD.
Exercise 2. Combine the following sentences using coordinating conjunctions.
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1. The kitchen closed at one o'clock. The customers stayed until three.
2. He knew many shortcuts through the city. He had lived there all his life.
3. He made a wooden chair. He gave it to his friend. His friend said he already had a chair.
4. Finnish is a difficult language. It takes a long time to learn it.
5. The river starts in the Taurus mountains. It flows all the way to the Persian Gulf.
6. The Ermine has very soft fur. It is hunted by poachers.
7. People driving cars scream at each other angrily. Bicycle riders smile and wave, “Hello!”
8. We can go to the zoo. We can go to the botanical garden.
9. Alice is buying a new dress. She has been invited to a wedding.
10. He built a house. He lived in it for the rest of his life.
Exercise 3. In which places in the fable by Aesop below can you combine sentences for a smoother
flow of words that is easier to read? Start with circling subjects and verbs, and underlining independent
clauses.
The Four Bulls and the Lion
A lion used to hunt in a field where four bulls used to live. The lion tried to attack them many times.
Whenever he came close to the bulls, they turned their tails toward one another. The bulls stood in a circle.
Whichever way the lion approached them, he was met by the horns of one of them. Eventually, the bulls
started arguing with one another. Each of them went off to graze alone in a separate part of the field. The
lion attacked them one by one. The lion ate all of the bulls.

Exercise 4. Edit the following paragraph. Combine or split sentences, add or remove punctuation, and
use the coordinating conjunctions that fit best. Several good solutions are possible for this exercise.
Chess is a good game. There is not very much to see it is not very spectacular. Football is a physically
energetic game there is a lot of running. There is a lot of kicking. There is a lot of jumping. I enjoy
watching it on television. It is visually exciting and it requires some thinking and planning as well. One can
play football in the morning. One can play chess at night.

Joining Clauses with Subordinating Conjunctions


All clauses have a subject and a verb, but only an independent clause can stand alone. Clauses that cannot
stand alone are called dependent clauses.
o Independent clause: I am happy. (can stand alone)
o Dependent clause: because I am happy. (cannot stand alone)

Exercise 5. Say whether the sentence is a dependent or independent clause.


1. If you take the metro today. 6. The painting looks good on the wall.
2. The sun will shine. 7. Unless we go shopping.
3. We decided to go to the lake. 8. Whereas fountain pens are complicated.
4. Because the weather was hot. 9. Spaghetti is easy to make.
5. As long as the music is playing. 10. Since walnut trees grow on this street.

A dependent clause cannot stand alone. It must be joined to an independent clause. A dependent
clause can be joined to an independent clause with a subordinating conjunction, such as because:
1. Because I am happy, I am laughing.
2. I am laughing, because I am happy.
3. I am laughing because I am happy.
As the examples show, there are three ways in which dependent and independent clauses can be joined
with a subordinating conjunction. If a dependent clause begins the sentence, like it does in (1) above,
then it is always followed by comma. If a dependent clause ends the sentence, like in cases 2 and 3,
then the comma can be placed after the independent clause (2), or it can be left out (3).

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There are many subordinating conjunctions. Here are a few of them.
Because, since, even if, so that, although, even though, though, whereas, even if, if only, unless, as if,
while, rather than, whether, after, as long as, as soon as, before, once, when, whenever, wherever
Which of the following is the correct way to join a dependent to an independent clause?
1. Even if the sun does not come out all day, we will keep hiking in the mountains.
2. We will keep hiking in the mountains even if the sun does not come out all day.
3. We will keep hiking in the mountains, even if the sun does not come out all day.
Answer: All three ways are correct.
Exercise 6. Pick the appropriate subordinating conjunction to join the pairs of sentences below. Use a
comma if necessary. Several of the sentences have more than one solution.
1. The lake is a 100 meters deep. Haik managed to swim to the bottom.
2. The bell rings at 12:20. We go out to get something to eat.
3. He rang the doorbell. He opened the door.
4. The music was playing. No one cared about the storm outside.
5. They bought expensive tickets to the show. They gave the tickets to their friends.
6. The clock starts ticking. There is no stopping it.
7. The book was old. Its pages were brittle.
8. The infants are vaccinated. They will not be immune to certain diseases.
9. Everyone got to the photo session on time. All of the pictures were taken quickly.
10. This road remains unpaved. No cars can travel on it.

Joining Clauses with Transitional Expressions


The following are transitional expressions.
also, however, otherwise, in addition, therefore, of course, in fact, nevertheless, certainly, indeed, for
example, thus, accordingly, after all, as a result, consequently, specifically, in other words, eventually,
finally, in short, hence, equally important, still, moreover, likewise, besides, in general, elsewhere.
Transitional expressions are useful because they can join two independent clauses together.
o The driver knew the city well; nevertheless, he called and asked for directions.
Notice that the two independent clauses are joined with a semicolon “;” and that there is a comma after
the transitional expression, nevertheless. Here are a few more examples of independent clauses joined by
transitional expressions and conjunctive adverbs.
o The paint was peeling and the floor was damaged; therefore, we renovated the house.
o Nareg has work to do on the computer; he would, otherwise, be playing chess.
o The building on Tumanyan street is old; it has a very strong foundation, however.

Joining Clauses with the Semicolon


Two related independent clauses can also be joined with a semicolon and nothing else.
o In Armenia they play the duduk; in Japan they play the shakuhachi.
Exercise 7. Combine the pairs of sentences below into one sentence using transitional expressions.
Experiment with different solutions.
1. The people planted thousands of new trees. A new forest will grow there.
2. The dogs liked to chase after cars. We locked the gates to keep them inside the yard.
3. The river near the village flooded. A big wall was built to protect the village.
4. The clothing stores only had blue suits. We ordered a green suit on the internet.
5. Lots of leaves fell into the swimming pool. It was Autumn, and the leaves were falling.

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Review: The Four Ways of Joining Clauses
We have studied four ways of joining clauses. We will now use them to join the clauses that we
introduced at the beginning of this chapter. The transitional elements have been placed in boxes.
1. Coordinating conjunctions join independent clauses with a comma:
a. Ani has a piano, but she does not know how to play it.
b. Seda's family grows fruit in their garden, and they give the fruit to their friends and relatives.
c. Khajak broke his toy, so his mother comforted him.
2. Subordinating conjunctions join dependent and independent clauses with or without a comma:
a. Ani has a piano, even though she does not know how to play it.
b. Because Seda's family grows fruit in their garden, they give the fruit to their friends and relatives.
c. When Khajak broke his toy, his mother comforted him.
3. Transitional elements join two independent clauses with a semicolon and a comma:
a. Ani has a piano; however, she does not know how to play it.
b. Seda's family grows fruit in their garden; as a result, they give the fruit to their friends and relatives.
c. Khajak broke his toy; his mother comforted him, of course.
4. A semicolon by itself joins two related independent clauses:
a. Ani has a piano; she does not know how to play it.
b. Seda's family grows fruit in their garden; they give the fruit to their friends and relatives.
c. Khajak broke his toy; so his mother comforted him.
Exercise 8. Edit the following fable from Aesop to fix the run-ons, fragments, and comma splices.
Combine sentences when necessary.
The Fox and Stork
The Fox was bored one day he thought of a way to amuse himself. The Fox invited the Stork to
dinner. The Fox. Served delicious soup for dinner. The fox served the soup in a very shallow dish, the
stork could not eat it. His bill (կտուց) was too long and narrow. All the Stork could do was wet the tip of
his bill, the Fox lapped up all the soup easily with his tongue.
The Stork did not like the trick he did not get angry. He invited the Fox to dinner. The Stork served
fish. It was served in a tall jar with a very narrow neck. The Stork stuck its bill through the neck. Ate the
delicious fish. The Fox could only sniff the appetizing odor. Only lick the outside of the jar. He got angry.
The Stork said, “Don't play tricks on others. If you can't stand the same treatment yourself.”

Grammar Test Preparation:


o Nouns and verbs.
o Phrases, dependent clauses, and independent clauses.
o Fragments, run-ons, and comma-splices.
Coordinating conjunctions, subordinating conjunctions, and transitional expressions.

47
Appendix 3: Using Grammar for Style
Emphasis in Coordinated and Subordinated Sentences
If you can recognize independent clauses, coordinate conjunctions, and subordinate conjunctions, then
you can change the structure of sentences to emphasize or de-emphasize ideas. In a coordinated
sentence, the second clause is emphasized:
1. I enjoy using fountain pens, but they are sometimes messy.
2. Fountain pens are sometimes messy, but I enjoy using them.
Even though they are saying the same thing, the two sentences emphasize different ideas. Sentence 1
focuses on the messiness of fountain pens, while sentence 2 focuses on the pleasure of using them. All
things being equal, someone who read the second sentence would have a more favorable opinion about
fountain pens than someone who read the first sentence.
The same rule about emphasis holds true when subordinating conjunctions join clauses; however,
in addition, the main clause of these sentences receives more emphasis than the dependent clause.
There are therefore two elements determining emphasis in subordinated sentences.
1. Although I like using fountain pens, they are messy.
2. Although fountain pens are messy, I like using them.
3. Fountain pens are messy, although I like using them
4. I like using fountain pens, although they are messy.
Sentences 1 and 2 strongly emphasize the thoughts “they are messy” and “I like using them,” respectively. In
sentences 3 and 4, the main clause competes with the end of the sentence for emphasis.
Periodic and Cumulative Sentences
Generally speaking, the basic unit of meaning in language is the sentence, the independent clause, a
subject and a predicate. Everything else in a sentence is a modifier, long or short. Consequently, there
are three basic ways to arrange a sentence with modifiers.
Either the subject, verb, and predicate come in the beginning and the modifiers follow: Clancey ran
away to join the circus, having taught himself to walk a tightrope strung from his parents’ house to an electricity pole, and
having improved enough to be able to fool his teacher into believing that he was a talented professional.
Or the subject verb and predicate can come at the end: Having taught himself to walk a tightrope strung
from his parents’ house to an electricity pole, and having improved enough to be able to fool his teacher into believing that
he was a talented professional, Clancey ran away to join the circus.
Or the modifiers are dispersed between the subjec, verb, and predicate: Clancey, having taught himself
to walk a tightrope strung between his parents’ house and a light pole, ran away, after he had improved enough to fool his
teacher into believing that he was a professional, to join the circus.
Other Suggestions
Strunk and White, who wrote The Elements of Style, which is probably the most widely used style manual
of the last century, have many other useful suggestions for making communication clearer, more
orderly, and precise. The following are classics in this regard.
• Change passive voice to active voice.
Passive: The holiday is celebrated every year.
Active: The natives celebrate the holiday every year.
• Change “to be” verbs to active verbs with objects:
“To be”: The new museum was an event that had a revolutionary effect on the lives of the locals.
Transitive verb: The new museum revolutionized the lives of the locals.
• Cut “there are” and “it is” and replace them with real subjects doing things.
“It is”: It is the case that there are about 500,000 pieces of space junk orbiting the planet Earth.
Identified Subject: About 500,000 pieces of space junk orbit the planet Earth.

48
Appendix 4: Writing Skills Formatting and Citations
The first box below contains the formatting specifications for all Writing Skills assignments; the second
box contains an example of an assignment formatted in this way.

Name:
Student Year, Major, Group:
Assignment date:
Class meeting days and periods:
Word Count:

[2 spaces]
Titles Centered. Prepositions, Articles, and Conjunctions Uncapitalized
[2 spaces]

Line spacing: Single. Font: Times New Roman, 12 pt.


Indent the beginning of a paragraph using the TAB key or 8 spaces.
Put two spaces after a period, one space after a comma.
Periods and commas go inside quotation marks. Colons and semicolons go outside quotes.

Example:

Ani Hambardzumyan
Year 3, Area Studies III
September 17, 2017
Thursdays 9:30-10:55
471 words

Example of a Title

The main text starts 2 lines below the title and is indented, usually with the “Tab” key. The
lines of the text are single-spaced. Technically, the lines should be double spaced, but we use
single-spacing to save paper. The font is Times New Roman, 12 point.
Notice that the period goes inside the quote: “Periods and commas go inside the quotes.”
Commas follow the same rule. However, colons and semicolons go outside quotes: She said, “I
would like a cup of coffee and desert”; her brother said, “I would prefer tea.”

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