Submitted By: CBSE Roll No.

SANSKRITI SINGH
XII
S No. Topics Page No.

1
Acknowledgement 2

2 Certificate 3

3 Introduction 4

4 Historical Perspective 5-6

5 Immunity and its Type 7-12

6 The Immune System 13-16

7 Working of Immune System 17-20

8 Disorders 21-22

9 Immunization 23-24

10 Immunotherapy 25

11 Conclusion 26

12 Bibliography 27

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 Acknowledgement

I take this opportunity to express my profound

gratitude and deep regards to my teacher Ms
Shailja Dwivedi and for her exemplary guidance, and
constant encouragement throughout the course of this
project. It helped me in doing a lot of Research and
I came to know about a lot of things related to this
topic The blessing, help and guidance given by them
time to time shall carry me a long way in the journey
of life on which I am about to embark. Secondly, I
would also like to thank my parents and friends who
helped me a lot in finalizing this project within the
limited time frame.

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 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that this “Biology Investigatory Project “on

the topic“IMMUNITY” has beensuccessfully completed by
Sanskriti Singh of class XII-D2 underthe guidance of Ms.
Shailja Dwivedi in particular fulfillment of Central Board
of.Secondary,Education.(CBSE) leading. to award of annual
examination of the year 2022-23.

Ms. Aruna Acharya Ms. Deepali Sareen

HOD Biology PGT Biology

Ms. Shailja Dwivedi External Examiner

PGT Biology

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In biology, immunity is the capability of multicellular organisms to
resist harmful microorganisms. Immunity involves both specific
and nonspecific components. The nonspecific components act as
barriers or eliminators of a wide range of pathogens irrespective
of their antigenic make-up. Other components of the immune
system adapt themselves to each new disease encountered and
can generate pathogen-specific immunity.
Immunity is a complex biological system that can recognize and
tolerate whatever belongs to the self, and to recognize and reject
what is foreign (non-self).
Immunity is an extensive topic, worthy of an encyclopaedia of its
own.
The word ‘immunity’ derives from the Latin immunitas, the legal
status of Roman city-states granted immunity from paying
tributes to Rome or to individuals freed from municipal duties;
the root munis referring to change and (ex)changeable goods.

• Two main function is-

➢ Recognition
➢ Response

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Earliest written reference to the phenomenon of immunity can be traced
back to Thucydides, the great historian of the Peloponnesian War.
The case was Plague in Athens, in 430 BC
The first recorded attempts to induce immunity deliberately were
performed by the Chinese and Turks in the 15th century.
Various reports suggested that the dried crusts derived from smallpox
pustules were either inhaled into the nostrils or inserted in to the small
cuts in the skin
• 1880’s- Metchnikoff discovered phagocytic cells that ingest
microbes and particles
cells conferred immunity
• 1890- von Behring and Kita Sato discovered blood sera could
transfer immunity
liquid of blood conferred immunity
• 1930’s – early techniques made it easier to study humoral elements
[than cellular ones.
-discovery of active component of blood – gamma globulin
“protein”
• 1950’s – discovery of T and B cells

Later discoveries linked lymphocytes to both cellular and humoral

immunity

Early 1900’s- Landsteiner revealed antibody could be produced vs. most

any organic compound
Last 20 years- Antibody specificity reveals unlimited range of reactivity –
also to newly synthesized chem

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 • The Study of Immune System
• Latin Word immunis= “exempt”
• Earliest Written Reference was Thucydides 430 BC
• Pasteur Was First to Successfully Apply Vaccination

Innate immunity refers to an immediate or early antigen-nonspecific

defense mechanism that are present in a host since birth without being
induced and are designed to react and/or eliminate any antigen. This is the
immunity one is born with.

The innate immune responses involve:

o physical barriers
o chemicals - lysozyme, bile salts, sebum, HCl acid, etc
o cells that release inflammatory mediators
o phagocytic cells
o natural killer cells
o humoral factors - complement proteins, acute phase
proteins, and cytokines.
1) Mechanical barriers - Intact skin - Mucous coat - Mucous secretion -
Blinking reflex and tears - The hair at the nares - Coughing and sneezing
reflex
2) Chemical & biochemical inhibitors - Sweet and sebaceous secretion
- Hydrolytic enzymes in saliva - HCl of the stomach - Proteolytic enzyme in
small intestine - Lysozyme in tears - Acidic pH in the adult vagina
3) Normal bacterial flora - Competition for essential nutrients -
Production of inhibitory substances.

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Adaptive (acquired) immunity refers to antigen specific induced
defense mechanisms that take several days to develop and are designed to
react and/or eliminate a specific antigen. This is the immunity one acquires
during life.
(Adaptive immunity is found exclusively in vertebrates)

The Adaptive immune responses involve:

▪ antigen-presenting cells (APCs) such as macrophages and
dendritic cells;
▪ the activation and proliferation of antigen-specific B
lymphocytes;
▪ the activation and proliferation of antigen-specific T
Lymphocytes;
▪ the production of antibody molecules, cytotoxic
Lymphocytes (CTLs), and cytokines.

Types of Acquired Immunity (On the basis of effector molecules)

Humoral immunity:
Humoral or antibody mediated immunity (AMI) is characterized by the
production of antigen specific immunoglobulin molecules, called as
‘antibodies’, induced in response to an antigen and is mediated by B
lymphocytes. Antibodies primarily defend against extracellular pathogens
and toxins. Humoral immunity is so named because it involves substances
found in the humors, or body fluids.

Antibody:
Y-shaped structure with variable Fab regions at tips that bind antigen

• Stem of Y (Fc) is constant region, not involved in antigen recognition

• 5 classes of antibodies in mammals – IgG, IgA, IgM, IgD, and IgE
Antibodies recognize epitopes on the surface of antigens

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• Antigens may be recognized by more than one antibody when more
than one epitope exists
• The antigen-binding site can accommodate soluble macromolecules in
their native state

 Cell-mediated immunity:
Cell-mediated immunity (CMI) involves the activation of antigen-specific
cells, such as CTLs and macrophages, which destroys the cells harboring
antigen. Cellular immunity primarily defends against intracellular
pathogens, multicellular parasites, transplanted tissue, and cancer cells.

T cells recognize antigen as peptide presented by MHC molecules

• Antigenic peptides are processed intracellularly from pathogen and
tumor proteins and transported to the cell surface bound to MHC/HLA
molecule

Site of infection determines nature of the immune response

• Extracellular pathogens do not invade host cells: humoral (antibody

mediated) immunity
• Intracellular pathogens invade host cells to divide and reproduce: cell
mediated immunity

Primary and Secondary Immune Responses

• Antigens X and Y Responses induce the production of different

antibodies (a reflection of specificity)
• The secondary response to antigen X is more rapid and larger than the
primary response (illustrating memory) and is different from the primary
response to antigen Y (again reflecting specificity)
• Antibody levels decline with time after each immunization

The body relies on the adaptive immune system and immunological

memory to provide immunity and prevent recurrent infections with the

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same illness. This can also be taken advantage of within medicine through
things such as vaccinations.

The various ways in which immunity is developed are generally split

into ‘active’ (i.e. due to the body’s own immune response and immune
cells) and ‘passive’ (i.e. as a result of antibodies) immunity. This article will
consider the different types of immunity and finally, their roles within the
immune system.

Active immunity is when the body’s own immune system mounts

an adaptive immune response following direct exposure to a disease
organism or antigen. It can develop either naturally or artificially.

Active immunity, in contrast to passive immunity, takes time to develop

but is long-lasting as it produces memory lymphocytes that recognise the
disease and promptly produce the antibodies needed to fight it.

Natural
Generally speaking, natural active immunity happens after infection with
the actual disease. Exposure to the pathogen and the subsequent
immune response produce memory cells that can recognise and rapidly
respond to the pathogenic agent on re-exposure.

Artificial
Vaccination can artificially stimulate active immunity. In brief, this is
where the body is exposed to a dead or weakened form of
the pathogen, which, though unable to mount an infection, still activates
the adaptive immune response and memory cell formation.

The main advantage of vaccination is that it avoids the need for an active
infection to confer immunity which can be fatal in some diseases.
However, some pathogens change their antigen structure over time
(particularly viruses), enabling them to evade immunological memory.
This might necessitate re-vaccination such as the case with the influenza
virus vaccine.

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Passive immunity relies on antibodies rather than memory cells. In brief,
It involves the introduction of ready-made antibodies to a non-immune
individual. Passive immunity is short-lived (because there are no memory

cells) but beneficial where there is a high risk of infection, and the body is
unable to develop its own immune response or synthesize its’ own
antibodies. It can also alleviate the symptoms of some diseases and treat
certain infections that have no available vaccine (e.g., Ebola virus).

Furthermore, they can be used prophylactically

in immunodeficient patients and where there is insufficient time for the
body to develop its own immune response. for example, antivenom
serum for poisoning.

Natural
Passive immunity can be passed down in the form of IgG from mother to
foetus. IgG is the only antibody subtype that can cross the placenta and
subsequently provides protection for 4 to 6 months after birth.

After that, maternal antibodies are gradually degraded as the infant’s

immune system continues to develop until it reaches maturity at around
5 years of ageing antibodies present in breast milk can also transfer
passive immunity.

IgA coats the gastrointestinal tract of the infant, protecting against

bacterial infections until the new-born’s immune system is mature
enough to produce its own antibodies.

This immunity is short-lived, and vaccination is required shortly after birth

to prevent diseases such as tuberculosis and hepatitis B.

Artificial
IgG antibody transfer can provide artificial passive immunity.These can be
through several ways:

• Human or animal blood products – serum or plasma

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 • Pooled human immunoglobulin – intravenous, subcutaneous or
intramuscular immunoglobulin from immunized donors or those
recovering from the disease.
• Monoclonal antibodies

The protection conferred is immediate but temporary.

Furthermore, as the body does not develop memory cells, the patient is
at risk of disease relapse or re-infection unless they develop active
immunity.

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the immune system keeps a record of every microbe it has ever defeated,
in types of white blood cells (B- and T-lymphocytes) known as memory
cells. This means it can recognise and destroy the microbe quickly if it
enters the body again, before it can multiply and make you feel sick.

Some infections, like the flu and the common cold, have to be fought
many times because so many different viruses or strains of the same type
of virus can cause these illnesses. Catching a cold or flu from one virus
does not give you immunity against the others.

The main parts of the immune system are:

• white blood cells

• antibodies
• complement system
• lymphatic system
• spleen
• bone marrow
• thymus.

White blood cells

White blood cells are the key players in your immune system. They are
made in your bone marrow and are part of the lymphatic system.

White blood cells move through blood and tissue throughout your body,
looking for foreign invaders (microbes) such as bacteria, viruses, parasites
and fungi. When they find them, they launch an immune attack?

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White blood cells include lymphocytes (such as B-cells, T-cells and natural
killer cells), and many other types of immune cells.

Antibodies
Antibodies help the body to fight microbes or the toxins (poisons) they
produce. They do this by recognising substances called antigens on the
surface of the microbe, or in the chemicals they produce, which mark the
microbe or toxin as being foreign. The antibodies then mark these
antigens for destruction. There are many cells, proteins and chemicals
involved in this attack.

Complement system
The complement system is made up of proteins whose actions
complement the work done by antibodies.

Lymphatic system
The lymphatic system is a network of delicate tubes throughout the body.
The main roles of the lymphatic system are to:

• manage the fluid levels in the body

• react to bacteria
• deal with cancer cells
• deal with cell products that otherwise would result in disease or
disorders
• absorb some of the fats in our diet from the intestine.

The lymphatic system is made up of:

• lymph nodes (also called lymph glands) -- which trap microbes

• lymph vessels -- tubes that carry lymph, the colorless fluid that
bathes your body's tissues and contains infection-fighting white
blood cells
• white blood cells (lymphocytes).

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Spleen
The spleen is a blood-filtering organ that removes microbes and destroys
old or damaged red blood cells. It also makes disease-fighting

components of the immune system (including antibodies and

lymphocytes).

Bone marrow
Bone marrow is the spongy tissue found inside your bones. It produces
the red blood cells our bodies need to carry oxygen, the white blood cells
we use to fight infection, and the platelets we need to help our blood
clot.

Thymus
The thymus filters and monitors your blood content. It produces the
white blood cells called T-lymphocytes.

As well as the immune system, the body has several other ways to defend
itself against microbes, including:

• skin - a waterproof barrier that secretes oil with bacteria-killing

properties
• lungs - mucous in the lungs (phlegm) traps foreign particles, and
small hairs (cilia) wave the mucous upwards so it can be coughed
out
• digestive tract - the mucous lining contains antibodies, and the
acid in the stomach can kill most microbes
• other defenses - body fluids like skin oil, saliva and tears contain
anti-bacterial enzymes that help reduce the risk of infection. The
constant flushing of the urinary tract and the bowel also helps.

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A rise in body temperature, or fever, can happen with some infections.
This is actually an immune system response. A rise in temperature can kill
some microbes. Fever also triggers the body's repair process.

Fevers have both positive and negative effects on infection and bodily
functions

POSITIVE
• it indicates a reaction to infection
• stimulate phagocytosis
• slow bacterial growth
• increases body temperature beyond the tolerance of some bacteria
• decreases blood iron levels

NEGATIVE

• extreme heat => enzyme denaturation and interruption of normal

biochemical reactions > 39° C (103°F) is dangerous > 41°C (105°F)
could be fatal and requires medical attention

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It is common for people to have an over- or underactive immune system.
Overactivity of the immune system can take many forms, including:

• allergic diseases - where the immune system makes an overly

strong response to allergens. Allergic diseases are very common.
They include allergies to foods, medications or stinging insects,
anaphylaxis (life-threatening allergy), hay fever (allergic rhinitis),
sinus disease, asthma, hives (urticaria), dermatitis and eczema
• autoimmune diseases - where the immune system mounts a
response against normal components of the body. Autoimmune
diseases range from common to rare. They include multiple
sclerosis, autoimmune thyroid disease, type 1 diabetes, systemic
lupus erythematosus, rheumatoid arthritis and systemic vasculitis.

Underactivity of the immune system, also called immunodeficiency, can:

• be inherited - examples of these conditions include primary

immunodeficiency diseases such as common variable
immunodeficiency (CVID), x-linked severe combined
immunodeficiency (SCID) and complement deficiencies
• arise as a result of medical treatment - this can occur due to
medications such as corticosteroids or chemotherapy
• be caused by another disease - such as HIV/AIDS or certain types of
cancer.

An underactive immune system does not function correctly and makes

people vulnerable to infections. It can be life threatening in severe cases.

People who have had an organ transplant need immunosuppression

treatment to prevent the body from attacking the transplanted organ.

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As long as your immune system is running smoothly, you don’t notice that
it’s there. But if it stops working properly – because it’s weak or can't
fight particularly aggressive germs – you get ill. Germs that your body has
never encountered before are also likely to make you ill. Some germs will
only make you ill the first time you come into contact with them. These
include childhood diseases like chickenpox.

Without an immune system, we would have no way to fight harmful

things that enter our body from the outside or harmful changes that
occur inside our body. The main tasks of the body’s immune system are
• to fight disease-causing germs (pathogens) like bacteria, viruses,
parasites or fungi, and to remove them from the body,
• to recognize and neutralize harmful substances from the
environment, and
• to fight disease-causing changes in the body, such as cancer cells.

The immune system can be activated by a lot of different things that the
body doesn’t recognize as its own. These are called antigens. Examples of
antigens include the proteins on the surfaces of bacteria, fungi and
viruses. When these antigens attach to special receptors on the immune
cells (immune system cells), a whole series of processes are triggered in
the body. Once the body has come into contact with a disease-causing
germ for the first time, it usually stores information about the germ and
how to fight it.
Then, if it comes into contact with the germ again, it recognizes the germ
straight away and can start fighting it faster.
The body’s own cells have proteins on their surface, too. But those
proteins don’t usually trigger the immune system to fight the cells.
Sometimes the immune system mistakenly thinks that the body's own
cells are foreign cells. It then attacks healthy, harmless cells in the body.
This is known as an autoimmune response.

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Phagocytosis
The engulfment, digestion, and subsequent processing of microorganisms
by macrophages and neutrophils
1) Chemotaxis & attachment:
a- Attraction by chemotactic substances (microbes,
damaged tissues)
b- Attachment by receptors on surfaces of phagocytes
Ingestion:
* Phagocyte pseudopodia surround organism forming phagosome.
* Opsinins and co-factors enhance phagocytosis
* Fusion with phagocyte granules and release digestive, toxic contents.

Killing (two microbicidal routes)

a- Oxygen depended system (powerful microbicidal agents) Oxygen
converted to superoxide, anion, hydrogen peroxide, activated oxygen
and hydroxyl radicals.
b- Oxygen-independent system (anaerobic conditions) Digestion and
killing by lysozyme. Lactoferrin, low pH, cationic proteins and
hydrolytic and proteolytic enzymes
Inflammation
Inflammation a response to tissue damage at site of inflammation:
tissue damage and complement activation cause release of chemotactic
molecules
Activated phagocytes migrate across vessel walls and along concentration
gradient to inflammatory site

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Immunoglobulins (commonly known as antibodies) are used to treat
people who are unable to make enough of their own, or whose
antibodies do not work properly. This treatment is known as
immunoglobulin therapy.

Until recently, immunoglobulin therapy is mostly involved delivery of

immunoglobulins through a drip into the vein – known as intravenous
immunoglobulin (IVIg) therapy. Now, subcutaneous immunoglobulin
(SCIg) can be delivered into the fatty tissue under the skin, which may
offer benefits for some patients. This is known as subcutaneous infusion
or SCIg therapy.

Subcutaneous immunoglobulin is similar to intravenous immunoglobulin.

It is made from plasma – the liquid part of blood containing important
proteins like antibodies.

Immune system disorders

Because the immune system is so complex, there are many potential ways in which it
can go wrong. Types of immune disorder fall into three categories:

Immunodeficiencies
These arise when one or more parts of the immune system do not
function. Immunodeficiencies can be caused in a number of ways,
including age, obesity, and alcoholism. In developing
countries, malnutrition is a common cause. AIDS is an example of an
acquired immunodeficiency.

In some cases, immunodeficiencies can be inherited, for instance, in

chronic granulomatous disease where phagocytes do not function
properly.

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Autoimmunity

In autoimmune conditions, the immune system mistakenly targets

healthy cells, rather than foreign pathogens or faulty cells. In this
scenario, they cannot distinguish self from non-self.

Autoimmune diseases include celiac disease, type 1 diabetes, rheumatoid

arthritis, and Graves’ disease.

Hypersensitivity

With hypersensitivity, the immune system overreacts in a way that

damages healthy tissue. An example is anaphylactic shock where the
body responds to an allergen so strongly that it can be life-threatening.

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 works by copying the body's natural immune response. A
vaccine (a small amount of a specially treated virus, bacterium or toxin) is
injected into the body Immunization is the process of becoming protected
against a disease. But it can also mean the same thing as vaccination,
which is getting a vaccine to become protected against a disease.

The body then makes antibodies to it. If a vaccinated person is exposed

to the actual virus, bacterium or toxin, they won't get sick because their
body will recognise it and know how to attack it successfully.

Vaccinations are available against many diseases, including measles and

tetanus. The immunisations you may need are decided by your health,
age, lifestyle and occupation.

• Health - some health conditions or factors may make you more

vulnerable to vaccine-preventable diseases. For example, premature
birth, asthma, diabetes, heart, lung, spleen or kidney conditions,
Down syndrome and HIV will mean you may benefit from additional
or more frequent immunisations
•
• Age - at different ages you need protection from different vaccine-
preventable diseases.
•
• Lifestyle - lifestyle choices can have an impact on your
immunisation needs. Travelling overseas to certain places, planning
a family, sexual activity, smoking, and playing contact sport that
may expose you directly to someone else's blood, will mean you
may benefit from additional or more frequent immunisations
•
• Occupation - you are likely to need extra immunisations, or need
to have them more often, if you work in an occupation that exposes
you to vaccine-preventable diseases or puts you into contact with

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 •
• people who are more susceptible to problems from vaccine-
preventable diseases (such as babies or young children, pregnant
women, the elderly, and people with chronic or acute health
conditions).
• For example, if you work in aged care, childcare, healthcare,
emergency services or sewerage repair and maintenance, discuss
your immunisation needs with your doctor. Some employers help
with the cost of relevant vaccinations for their employees.
• Pathogens are altered so that they maintain their antigenicity while
losing their virulence
• Vaccination induces primary antibody and cellular immune
responses
• Memory cells proliferate rapidly in secondary immune responses
induced in natural infection

Community immunity, or herd immunity, is the idea that vaccines

can help keep communities healthy.

Normally, germs can travel quickly through a community and make a lot
of people sick. If enough people get sick, it can lead to an outbreak. But
when enough people are vaccinated against a certain disease, it's harder
for that disease to spread to others. This type of protection means that
the entire community is less likely to get the disease.

Community immunity is especially important for people who can't get

certain vaccines. For example, they may not be able to get a vaccine
because they have weakened immune systems. Others may be allergic to
certain vaccine ingredients. And new-born babies are too young to get
some vaccines. Community immunity can help to protect them all.

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The branch of medicine and the manifestation of conditions concerned
with immune responses associated with the production of disease.

• Immunopathology is the study of various diseases in which

humoral (body fluid) and cellular immune factors play a role in
causing pathological damage to cells, tissues, and the host. It
could be due to mismatch between pathogen and host species,
and often occurs when an animal pathogen infects a human
(e.g. avian flu leads to a cytokine storm which contributes to the
increased mortality rate).
• Defective or malfunctioning immune responses often lead to illness
or disease.

• Typically, immunopathologic conditions result from overactive

immune responses (known as hypersensitivity reactions) or an
inappropriate reaction to self (known as autoimmunity), in which
normally protective antibody or T cell immune mechanisms are
overactive or expressed against self antigens, respectively, resulting
in damage to cells or organs (In addition, immunopathology can
result from ineffective immune responses (known as
immunodeficiency).

Immune systems may become dysregulated and induce disease.

Examples of such diseases are rheumatoid arthritis; Netherton’s

syndrome; allergy; systemic lupus erythematosus; celiac disease

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Innate immunity is the first immunological, non-specific mechanism for
fighting against infections. This immune response is rapid, occurring
minutes or hours after aggression and is mediated by numerous cells
including phagocytes, mast cells, basophils and eosinophils, as well as the
complement system.
Adaptive immunity develops in conjunction with innate immunity to
eliminate infectious agents; it relies on the tightly regulated interplay
between T cells, APCs and B cells. A critical feature of adaptive immunity is
the development of immunologic memory or the ability of the system to
learn or record its experiences with various pathogens, leading to effective
and rapid immune responses upon subsequent exposure to the same or
similar pathogens.
There is a great deal of synergy between the adaptive immune system and
its innate counterpart, and defects in either system can lead to
immunopathological disorders, including autoimmune diseases,
immunodeficiencies and hypersensitivity reactions. The remainder of this
supplement will focus on the appropriate diagnosis, treatment and
management of some of these more prominent disorders, particularly
those associated with hypersensitivity reactions.

The immune system is incredibly complicated and utterly vital for our
survival. Several different systems and cell types work in perfect synchrony
(most of the time) throughout the body to fight off pathogens and clear up
dead cells.

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 https://www.accessscience.com/content/immunopathology/801440#:~:tex
t=Immunopathology%20is%20the%20study%20of,lead%20to%20illness%20
or%20disease.

https://medlineplus.gov/vaccines.html

https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/immunology-and-
microbiology/immunity#:~:text=Immunity%20can%20be%20defined%20as,fore
ign%20(non%2Dself).

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immunity_(medical)#Hybrid_immunity

https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/conditions-and-diseases/the-
immune-system

https://kidshealth.org/en/parents/immune.html

https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/320101#immune-system-
disorders

https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/320101#immune-system-
disorders

https://teachmephysiology.com/immune-system/immune-responses/types-of-
immunity/

https://www.bharatbiotech.com/blog/immunity-and-its-types/

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 Pasteur Observing Rabies
Vaccination

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