Fruit & Vegetables

FRUIT AND VEGETABLES –
YOUR DIETARY ESSENTIALS

The International Year of Fruits and Vegetables 2021
Background paper
Fruit and vegetables –
your dietary essentials
The International Year of

Fruits and Vegetables, 2021
background paper
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

Rome, 2020
Required citation:
FAO. 2020. Fruit and vegetables – your dietary essentials. The International Year of Fruits and Vegetables, 2021, background
paper. Rome. https://doi.org/10.4060/cb2395en
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Contents
Acknowledgements ............................... iv
Foreword .................................................. v
1 4
Fruit and vegetables Markets and value chains
Essential for healthy lives ......1 Responding to health-

conscious consumers .......... 35
2 5
Good for you Nothing to lose
Health and nutrition Quality, safety, loss and

benefits ...................................9 waste ..................................... 45
3 6
Growing green Food for thought
Sustainable production ....... 17 Issues for action ................... 59
7
References ........................... 63
iii
Acknowledgements
T
his publication was prepared by a Chapter 5: Rosa Rolle (Lead),
multidisciplinary team of the Food Dirk Schulz.
and Agriculture Organization of
the United Nations (FAO), under the Chapter 6: Rosa Rolle (Lead),
overall direction of Marcela Villarreal, Kayo Takenoshita.
Director of FAO’s Partnerships and UN
Collaboration Division. The primary Thanks are also owed to ElMamoun
conceptualization and coordination Amrouk, Marco Artavia, Cosimo
of this publication were led by Kayo Avesani, Pablo Garcia Campos,
Takenoshita, Teodor Dosa, Rosa Rolle Elena Ilie, Chikelu Mba, Georgios
and Makiko Taguchi in consultation Mermigkas, Mayling Flores Rojas
with the members of the Secretariat and Florence Tartanac for their
of the International Year of Fruits and valuable contributions in preparing
Vegetables 2021 in FAO. and finalizing the technical inputs for
the publication.
The drafting of this publication was
made possible with substantial FAO gratefully acknowledges the
technical contributions from: valuable feedback received from
the external technical reviewers: Dr
Chapter 1: Rosa Rolle (Lead), Siobhan Marzella Wüstefeld (World Health
Kelly, Makiko Taguchi, Kayo Takenoshita. Organization), Mr Yacob Ahmad
(International Tropical Fruits Network)
Chapter 2: Maria Antonia Tuazon and Prof. Dr Yüksel Tüzel (International
(Lead), Megan Harrison. Society for Horticultural Science).
Chapter 3: Makiko Taguchi Sincere gratitude is extended to Paul

(Lead), Fenton Beed, Sara Hassan, Mundy for editing and graphic design.
Bruno Telemans.
Chapter 4: Siobhan Kelly (Lead), Sabine

Altendorf, Pascal Liu, Costanza Rizzo,
Pilar Santacoloma.
iv
Foreword
T
he United Nations has declared prices for quality products make fruits
2021 as the International Year and vegetables inaccessible to many,
of Fruits and Vegetables. The especially in developing countries.
Year aims to raise awareness of the Some areas of the world face limited
nutritional and health benefits of availability and access to these foods.
consuming more fruits and vegetables
as part of a diversified, balanced and Fruits and vegetables are highly
healthy diet and lifestyle as well as to perishable products, and this can cause
direct policy attention to reducing loss high levels of food loss and waste at
and waste of these highly perishable every step of the value chain, starting
produce items. at the farms. Given that many fruits
and vegetables are consumed raw or
When we think of healthy eating, the uncooked, they may also pose a risk for
first food items that often come to mind foodborne illnesses linked to pathogen
are fruits and vegetables – colourful, contamination and food safety risks
vitamin-, mineral- and fibre-rich, they due to chemical contamination.
are vital for the proper functioning
of the human body. The benefits of Therefore, it is crucial to look at the fruit
consuming fruits and vegetables as and vegetable sector holistically as an
part of a nutritious diet are vast. Fresh integral part of the food system, going
produce items are not only beneficial beyond nutritional benefits, and to also
to consumers, but they also benefit the examine their social, economic, and
food system. The fruit and vegetable environmental benefits. Different actors
sector contributes to increasing can contribute to making fruits and
biodiversity, generating environmental vegetables more accessible, affordable
sustainability, and improving the and available. Investing in the cold
livelihoods of farmers and employees chain, research and development, and
operating along the value chains. digital innovation can help improve the
sector substantially.
Low availability, due to challenges
in production (for example, labour This publication seeks to draw attention
intensity), transport and trade, and high to actions and systematic approaches
v
that must be taken throughout the fruit This publication will help to stimulate
and vegetables food system to ensure an interesting discussion about the
their safety for consumption and to fruit and vegetable sector for the
deliver better nutritional outcomes and observance of the International Year
healthy diets for all. and beyond.
QU Dongyu
FAO Director-General
vi
Fruit and vegetables
Essential for healthy lives 1
G
reen, yellow, orange, red or Yet most of us do not eat enough fruit
purple: fruit and vegetables keep and vegetables. The World Health
us healthy and add variety, taste Organization (WHO) recommends
and texture to our diets. Even if you eat consuming at least 400 g each day
rice or bread every day, you probably to reap their health and nutrition
vary the types of fruit and vegetables benefits. In 2017, some 3.9 million
you consume. A monotonous diet is deaths worldwide were attributable to
not only unhealthy for humans: it is not eating enough fruit and vegetables
also unhealthy for the planet because (WHO, 2019). Insufficient intake of fruit
it can result in monocultures and a loss and vegetables is estimated to cause
of biodiversity. around 14 percent of deaths from
gastro-intestinal cancer worldwide,
about 11 percent of those due to
ischemic heart disease, and about
9 percent of those caused by stroke
(Afshin et al., 2019).
2021 is the International Year

of Fruits and Vegetables
In declaring 2021 as the International
Year of Fruits and Vegetables,
the United Nations (UN) General
Assembly aims to raise awareness of
the nutritional and health benefits
© FAO/ James Hill
of fruit and vegetables and their

contribution to a balanced and healthy
diet and lifestyle. It also hopes to draw
attention to the need to reduce losses
and waste in the fruit and vegetable
1
z The UN Declaration on
Rights of Peasants and Other
People Working in Rural Areas
(UNHRC, 2018).
z The UN Decade of Family Farming

2019–2028 (UN, 2018).
z WHO’s Global Strategy on Diet,

Physical Activity and Health
© FAO/ Alessia Pierdomenico
(WHO, 2004).
The diverse range and characteristics

of fresh fruit and vegetables and their
inherently perishable nature warrants
specific attention to their conditions of
production, agronomic management,
pest and disease control, harvesting
techniques and postharvest handling
systems. The UN General Assembly’s
sector (UN, 2020) while delivering resolution also highlights various
better on environmental outcomes. cross-cutting issues and factors to be
Action is needed at the country addressed during the International
level to increase the production and Year of Fruits and Vegetables.
consumption of fruit and vegetables
and make them more economically Small-scale producers. Fruit and
accessible to consumers, while vegetables are grown by small-scale
generating economic, social and producers around the world, either
environmental benefits in line with the for their own use or for sale. Small-
Sustainable Development Goals. scale producers supply the fruit and
vegetable requirements of mass
The International Year of Fruits and markets in most developing countries.
Vegetables complements several Such farmers each produce relatively
other international initiatives that also low volumes, leading to problems with
support the Sustainable Development reliability and quality. Nevertheless,
Goals that address nutrition, there are clear opportunities for
consumption, health as well as small- improvements in these areas.
scale family farmer issues:
Technologies. Technology and
z The Rome Declaration on innovation are required at all stages in
Nutrition and the Framework for the fruit and vegetable supply chain,
Action (FAO and WHO, 2014). from production to consumption,
to improve both quality and output.
z The UN Decade of Action on Improvements can range from
Nutrition (2016–2025) (UN, 2016). simple farm-level technologies and
2 Fruit and vegetables – your dietary essentials

practices to more sophisticated digital What are fruit and vegetables?
innovations that help assure the
safety and quality of fresh produce There is no widely accepted definition
as it moves along the supply chain. for either fruit or vegetables.
Innovative approaches such as public– The definition agreed to for the
private partnerships can help generate International Year of Fruits and
growth and development in the sector. Vegetables is as follows.
Income and employment. Fruit and Fruit and vegetables are considered
vegetables tend to be worth more edible parts of plants (e.g., seed-
per kilogram than other types of food bearing structures, flowers, buds,
(animal products are an exception). leaves, stems, shoots and roots), either
However, they may also require more cultivated or harvested wild, in their
labour than for many other types raw state or in a minimally processed
of food. This offers opportunities form. Excluded are the following:
for actors throughout the chain to
generate employment and income. z Starchy roots and tubers such
as cassava, potato, sweet potato
Gender and youth. Women produce and yams (although leaves of
much of the world’s fresh produce, these plants are consumed
and they are often responsible for the as vegetables) .
harvesting, marketing and processing.
As consumers, they often choose what z Dry grain legumes (pulses) unless
items to buy and how to cook them. harvested when immature.
But women face disadvantages at all
stages in the chain – as producers in z Cereals including maize (corn),
their ability to access land, inputs and unless harvested when immature.
advice, as entrepreneurs in getting
finance to develop their businesses,
as workers in terms of fair payment
for their work, and as consumers
in terms of education about food
and nutrition. The high value of fruit
and vegetables and the potential for
innovation open exciting opportunities
for young people to become involved
in production and other aspects of the
value chain.
© FAO/Maxim Zmeyev
Policy. Food policies tend to be tailored

to the needs of staple crops. Fruit
and vegetables have been relatively
neglected in terms of policy attention,
funding, research and extension, and
support for agribusinesses.
r n e e es ssen f r e es 3
Box 1. Sustainable Development Goals related to fruit and vegetables
SDGs 2 3
Health benefits of fruit and vegetables
Harness the goodness
Fruit and vegetables have multiple health benefits. They strengthen the immune
system, combat malnutrition and help prevent non-communicable diseases.
SDGs 2 3
Diversified diet and a healthy lifestyle
Live by it, a diverse diet
Adequate amounts of fruit and vegetables should be consumed daily as part of
a diversified and healthy diet.
SDGs 2 8 12 13 14 15
Food loss and waste
Respect food from farm to table
Fruit and vegetables are worth more than their price. Maintaining their
quality and assuring their safety across the supply chain, from production
to consumption, reduces losses and waste and increases their availability
for consumption.
Innovate, cultivate, reduce food loss and waste
Innovation, improved technologies and infrastructure are critical to increase the
efficiency and productivity within fruit and vegetable supply chains to reduce
loss and waste.
SDGs 1 2 12 15
Sustainable value chains
Foster sustainability
Sustainable and inclusive value chains can help increase production, and help
to enhance the availability, safety, affordability and equitable access to fruit and
vegetables to foster economic, social, and environmental sustainability.
SDGs 1 2 3 4 5 8 11 12 15
Highlighting the role of family farmers
Growing prosperity
Cultivating fruit and vegetables contributes to a better quality of life for family
farmers and their communities. It generates income, creates livelihoods,
improves food security and nutrition, and enhances resilience through
sustainably managed local resources and increased agrobiodiversity.

z Nuts, seeds and oilseeds such (such as green beans) must be cooked
as coconuts, walnuts and before they are eaten.
sunflower seeds.
The International Year of Fruits
z Medicinal or herbal plants and and Vegetables focuses on fresh
spices, unless used as vegetables. produce or minimally processed
products. It nonetheless recognizes
z Stimulants such as tea, cacao that the processed forms of fruit and
and coffee. vegetables are important for farmers’
livelihoods and incomes, trade, food
z Processed and ultra-processed security and nutrition. Some varieties
products made from fruit and are grown specifically to be sold as
vegetables such as alcoholic fresh produce; others are destined
beverages (e.g. wine, spirits), from the start for the processing plant.
plant-based meat substitutes, or Still others may go either way: they are
fruit and vegetable products with sorted and graded before sale: the best
added ingredients (e.g., packed fruit items are sold fresh (which typically
juices, ketchup). fetches the highest prices), while the
rest goes for processing.
Minimally processed fruit and
vegetables have undergone Many types of fruit and vegetables are
procedures such as washing, sorting, processed to increase their shelf-life,
trimming, peeling, slicing or chopping year-round availability, or to increase
that do not affect their fresh-like their value. Minimal processing (see
quality (Gil and Kader, 2008). Minimally above) retains the inherent properties
processed food retains most of its of the produce. Full processing, on
inherent physical, chemical, sensory the other hand, may include juicing,
and nutritional properties. Many such fermentation, pickling, or canning in
foods are as nutritious as the food in brine, juices or syrups.
its unprocessed form (Parrish, 2014).
Examples include sliced fruit, bagged
fruit, vegetable salads, and frozen and
dried fruit and vegetables.
Fresh versus processed

Unlike most other categories of food,
fruit are normally eaten raw (uncooked
© FAO/Saul Palma
form): either whole (berries) or after

peeling them (oranges, bananas,
papayas and mangosteens). Many
types of vegetables are also often
eaten uncooked, as in salads. Some
External drivers
Globali- Income Population Political & Socio-

Climate Urbani-
zation & levels & growth & economic cultural
change zation
trade distribution migration contexts context
Food systems
Consumer
Agriculture and Food
behaviour and Diets
food supply chains environment
individual factors
• Food production • Food availability Choices in where and • Quantity

systems and physical what food to acquire, • Quality
• Storage and access (proximity) prepare, cook and eat, • Diversity
distribution • Food prices based on individual • Safety
• Processing and (aﬀordability) factors:
packaging • Promotion, • Income and
• Retail and advertising and purchasing power
marketing messaging • Information and
• Food quality and knowledge
safety • Conscious and
unconscious
preferences
Nutrition Other impacts

Policy and governance and health Social, economic,
outcomes environmental
Sustainable Development Goals
Figure 1. Food systems for healthy diets

Adapted from HLPE (2017), FAO (2020)

Sustainable Development Goals The Sustainable Development Goals
support making the food system
Fruit and vegetable production is more productive, environmentally
central to the livelihoods of many sustainable and resilient (Box 1). The
small-scale farmers. But it can damage elements of food systems – agriculture
the environment, including the soil, and food supply chains, food
water and biodiversity. Chemicals environments and consumer behaviour
used to ensure productivity and – require concerted action to ensure
protect the crop from pests may healthy diets are available, affordable,
pollute the environment. High levels accessible, safe, culturally acceptable
of food loss and waste result from and appealing to all. Opportunities are
poor handling and the perishability of needed throughout food systems to
fresh produce, reducing the efficiency improve diet and nutrition outcomes
and sustainability of the system with (HLPE, 2017). This food-systems
potentially negative impacts on the approach to better nutrition considers
environment and the natural resource the food systems in its totality, taking
base. Ensuring that fruit and vegetables into account all the elements, their
contribute more to nutrition and relationships and related effects
health requires more comprehensive (Figure 1).
and holistic approaches. The supply
of fresh produce must be made more Beyond their relevance to diets
efficient, inclusive and resilient (Box 1). and nutrition, food systems play
an important role in promoting
environmental sustainability (climate
change adaptation and mitigation,
Transforming the sector: biodiversity, soil and water degradation),
inclusivity (viability for smallholder
Adopting a food systems approach farmers, indigenous peoples, gender
It is widely accepted that our food equity) and productivity (increased
systems are increasingly detrimental production of nutritious foods,
to both human and planetary health. economic development).
Food systems are not delivering the
healthy diets needed for nourishment. Transforming the fruit and vegetable
They result in the increasing prevalence sector requires a holistic and
of all forms of malnutrition (stunting, comprehensive approach that looks at
wasting, overweight, and obesity), the interconnectivity between demand,
all of which are exacerbated by the supply, socio-economic development
current COVID-19 pandemic. Other and fruit and vegetable prices – a major
issues include rising populations and determinant of consumer behaviour.
consumption, increasing urbanization, Stronger linkages among the various
higher rates of non-communicable actors and stakeholders across the
disease (WHO, 2019), decreasing system are needed to integrate
arable land and water resources for sustainable practices in production,
agriculture, the effects of climate harvesting, postharvest handling,
change and possible food shortages. processing and consumption. Factors
to consider toward delivering on better and the policies and institutions that
nutrition while also creating a better influence production.
environment, better production and
better livelihoods include facilitating Chapter 4 looks at the markets and
access by small-scale producers and value chains that link producers with
agricultural enterprises to viable consumers. It begins by focusing on
markets, assuring the safety and international trade, which is important
quality of fruit and vegetables along for certain crops and enables
supply chains, applying innovation, consumers to buy types of food they
reducing loss and waste, and reducing would not otherwise be able to get.
the energy intensity and ecological It discusses contract farming, which
footprint of supply chains. offers ways for small-scale producers
to participate in high-value markets.
It then examines ways to link farmers
to domestic markets (which account
In this document for the vast majority of the fruit and
vegetables grown and consumed
Chapters 2–5 address the four core around the world), and how to add
elements of the fruit and vegetable value to fresh produce. It concludes
sector. Chapter 2 discusses delivering with a discussion of responsible
better and more efficiently on health business practices.
and nutrition at the consumer
end of the system. Eating fruit and Chapter 5 focuses on quality, safety,
vegetables is good for us, but few of us loss and waste reduction. It highlights
consume even the minimum amounts cross-cutting issues and the actions
recommended by the World Health needed to assure sustainability and
Organization. This chapter describes efficiency throughout the food system
the current situation and presents and to deliver safe, good-quality food.
some reasons for the shortfall.
Chapter 6 lists the key issues that must
Chapter 3 focuses on production. It be addressed to move away from the
presents the volume of production current situation where elements of the
around the world, before focusing on food system operate independently.
the major types of producers: small- What is needed is a more sustainable
scale farmers, urban and peri-urban and systemic approach, where the
producers, and large-scale commercial core elements are better linked with
growers. It then turns to the inputs each other so they can deliver nutrition
needed to grow these crops, the and health benefits and safeguard
environmental aspects of production, the environment.

Good for you
Health and nutrition benefits 2
F
ruit and vegetables are a vital The evidence is clear. Fruit and
part of cuisines around the world. vegetables are an important part of
From gado-gado in Indonesia to a healthy diet. They help children
sauerkraut in Germany and guacamole grow and support body functions and
in Mexico, each country and region has physical, mental and social well-being
its own favourite dishes. Rice, potatoes at all ages. They can help prevent all
and bread are near-universal; it is our forms of malnutrition (undernutrition,
fruit and vegetables that help define micronutrient deficiency, overweight
our culture. and obesity) and reduce the risk of
non-communicable diseases (Afshin
This chapter examines the consumption et al., 2019; WHO and FAO, 2005).
side of the fresh fruit and vegetable Together with malnutrition, unhealthy
system (in other chapters we will look diets are among the top-ten risk factors
at what happens to get these foods to for disease globally.
our tables). We start with the nutritional
and health benefits of these foods. We
then look at consumption levels around
the world, and the reasons for the sad
fact that most people do not eat enough
of them to maintain a healthy life. The
chapter ends with some suggestions as
to how to change this.
Consumption
© FAO/Vasily Maksimov
Parents around the world try to cajole

their children to eat their greens or
snack on fruit rather than junk food.
They do so for a reason: fruit and
vegetables are good for you.
9
Box 2. Colour is the key
The colours of fruit and vegetables are often linked to the nutrients and phytochemicals they contain
(FAO, 2003)
Purple/blue
Antioxidant properties that can reduce the risks of cancer, stroke and heart disease.
Examples
z Beetroot, red cabbage, eggplant.
z Blackberry, blueberry, purple grape, plum, passionfruit.
Red
Can help lower the risk of cancer and improve heart health.
Examples
z Red capsicum, radish, tomato.
z Red apple, cactus pear, cherry, red grape, red and pink grapefruit, red guava,
raspberry, strawberry, watermelon.
Orange/yellow
Contain carotenoids that help keep eyes healthy.
Examples
z Carrot, pumpkin, squash.
z Apricot, grapefruit, lemon, mango, melon, nectarine, orange, papaya,
peach, pineapple.
Brown/white
Phytochemicals with antiviral and antibacterial properties as well as potassium.

Examples
z Cauliflower, chive, garlic, ginger, leek, onion.
z Banana, durian, jackfruit, white peach, brown pear.
Green
Phytochemicals with anti-cancer properties.

Examples
z Asparagus, green bean, bok choy, broccoli, cabbage, green capsicum, cucumber,
lettuce, peas, spinach.
z Green apple, avocado, green grape, kiwifruit, lime.

Almost all countries make dietary z Better mental health. Eating
recommendations that include fruit 7–8 servings a day (more than
and vegetables, using depictions such the recommended minimum of 5
as triangles, pyramids and plates (see, servings) is linked to lower risk of
for example, EU Science Hub). The depression and anxiety (Conner et
recommendations vary from country al., 2017).
to country, depending on what is
locally available, affordable, and socio- z Healthy heart. Fibre and
culturally acceptable. antioxidants in fruit and vegetables
can help prevent cardiovascular
WHO currently recommends disease (Wang et al., 2014; Collese et
consuming at least 400 grams of fruit al., 2017; Miller et al., 2017; Aune et
and vegetables each day – or five al., 2017).
servings of 80 grams each (WHO and
FAO, 2003). The optimum amount z Lower cancer risk. In 128 out of
depends on various factors, including 156 dietary studies, consuming fruit
age, sex, and level of physical activity. and vegetables was found to lower
All the guidance promotes a varied diet the risk of lung, colon, breast, cervix,
and a balance between different types oesophagus, oral cavity, stomach,
of food. Fruit and vegetables are a vital bladder, pancreas and ovarian
part of this advice. cancer (Boffetta et al., 2010).
z Lower obesity risk. A number of

studies have observed a lowered
Benefits of eating fruit
and vegetables
Consuming enough (or even more than
the recommended amounts) of fruit and
vegetables has many benefits (Box 2):
z Children’s growth and

development. Fruit and vegetables
are rich in Vitamin A, calcium, iron
and folate, which can promote good
health, strengthen a child’s immune
system and help protect against
disease, both now and in the future
© FAO/Miguel Schincariol
(Xin, 2016).
z Longer life. People who eat more

fruit and vegetables live longer
than those who do not, according
to a large study in 10 European
countries (Leenders et al., 2013).
f r e n n r n ene s 11
such as gas, constipation and
diarrhoea (Klimenko et al., 2018;
Maxner et al., 2020).
z Improved immunity. Adequate

intakes of fruit and vegetables
may reduce the severity of some
infectious diseases. Though they
will not protect you against a virus
© FAO/Alessia Pierdomenico
such as COVID-19, recovery from

infectious disease is better when
consuming fruit and vegetables
than with diets low in this food
group (Chowdhury et al., 2020).
Consumption levels
risk of adiposity and obesity in Worldwide, we consume far less fruit
certain groups who consume fruit and vegetables than the minimum
and vegetables (Ledoux et al., 2011; total of 400 g recommended by
Schwingshackl et al., 2015). WHO for a healthy diet. The amount
of fruit and vegetables you need
z Lower diabetes risk. A systematic to eat depends on your age, sex,
review and meta-analysis found and level of physical activity. Many
higher green leafy vegetable and countries have developed additional
higher fruit intake was associated recommendations for children, given
with a significant reduction in the importance of fruit and vegetables
Type 2 diabetes risk. For every 0.2 for healthy growth and development.
serving/day of vegetable intake,
there was a 13 percent lower risk of On average, we consume only about
diabetes (Li et al., 2014). two-thirds of the recommended
minimum amounts of fruit and
z Better gut health. A diet rich in vegetables (calculation based on
fruit, vegetables and other high- Afshin et al., 2019). The quantities
fibre, plant-based foods improves vary considerably: people in Central
gut bacteria diversity and tends to Asia, North Africa and the Middle
increase bacteria associated with anti- East consume slightly more than the
inflammatory compounds linked recommended minimum, while those
to improved metabolism. Higher in sub-Saharan Africa and Oceania
consumption of fruit and vegetables consume only about one-third of this.
has also been shown to decrease Residents of the Caribbean consume
the prevalence of diverticulosis as the most fruit, while those in southern
well as other digestive problems Africa consume the least.

Consumption of fruit and vegetables in they consume, and vice-versa. Possible
sub-Saharan Africa is particularly low reasons for this could be:
(Amao, 2018).
z Where incomes are generally low
z In South Africa, a study of 3 480 (as in sub-Saharan Africa and South
adults aged 50 years or more Asia), people tend to spend their
found that 68.5 percent did not eat limited food budget on cheaper
enough fruit and vegetables. This staple foods. Cultural preferences
was especially true of Black African and the low availability of fruit and
or Coloured men, men with low vegetables may also play a role.
educational level, and those with
low socio-economic status. z In other parts of the world,
consumption levels are higher,
z In Benin, school-going adolescents but consumers still have a limited
consumed on average only 97 g of budget for fresh produce (or wish
fruit and vegetables as compared to to consume only a certain amount
the generally recommended intake of such items). They balance their
of 300 g for fruits and 150–225 g for spending or consumption: if they
vegetables for this age group. consume more fruit, they eat fewer
vegetables. The levels of each
z In Lagos, Nigeria, the same age depend on factors such as price,
group knew of the nutritional and availability and culture.
health benefits, but only 5.5 percent
of those interviewed consumed the
recommended minimum amounts.
Why do people not eat enough
There is only a limited relationship
between income levels at a regional
fruit and vegetables?
level and the intake of fruit and Eating behaviours are complex and
vegetables. People in high-income shaped by interwoven physical,
Western Europe and Northern biological, psychological, historical, and
America consume only half of the ideal cultural factors. While it is not possible
amounts, while those in North Africa to examine all the factors that influence
and the Middle East consume larger fruit and vegetable consumption here,
quantities, even though incomes in below are a few factors that emerged
this region are generally lower. during a FAO/WHO workshop in 2020:
Overall, there is little apparent Availability. Many fruit and vegetables

relationship between the consumption are seasonal and perishable and
of vegetables with that of fruit. If we are not available year-round. High
exclude those areas with low levels of losses during harvesting, transport
consumption, there is a strong negative and storage reduce the quantities
correlation between the intake of fruit available in shops and markets.
and that of vegetables: the more fruit This is compounded by the lack of
people consume, the fewer vegetables refrigeration and transport facilities,
with fields or gardens can grow and
Box 3. Consumption in sub-Saharan Africa eat their own fruit and vegetables,
but many crops are seasonal and
A study in 10 countries in sub-Saharan Africa (Ruel perishable, and are therefore not
et al., 2004) found that the expenditure for fruit and always available.
vegetables accounts for between 3 and 13 percent
of the total household budget, or between 5 and 16 Education and culture. Food is
percent of the food budget. intensely cultural: our tastes are
influenced by the culture we are
As household incomes rise, demand for fruit and vegetables brought up in and how we were brought
also rise, but at a slower rate than the income. Households up as children. Indeed, food is an
headed by women tend to spend more on fruit and important part of culture itself: what
vegetables than do those headed by men. we cook and eat in part determines
Urban residents tend to eat more fruit and vegetables than our identity. Immigrants prefer to
do those in rural areas – but this is because urban residents eat food they are used to; immigrant
tend to have higher incomes. communities frequent shops selling the
products with which they are familiar.
Controlling for income, better-educated people tend to But cultures and diets sometimes
consume less fruit and vegetables than those with less change, and rising incomes and
education. This is because the better-educated tend to work urban lifestyles with a preference for
outside the home; they prefer processed foods that contain “convenience” are often associated with
less fruit and vegetables. an increased intake of sugar, oils, animal
products and highly processed foods,
and lower consumption of fresh fruit
warehouses and retail outlets, which and vegetables – a change known as the
shortens the shelf-life of especially “global nutrition transition” (Caballero
perishable items. Breakdowns in and Popkin, 2002; Popkin et al., 2012).
supply chains disrupt the marketing of
produce and reduce the incentives for Lack of knowledge. People may like
producers to grow these crops. Low (or dislike) fruit and vegetables for
demand creates low supply, and vice- their taste but not know of their value
versa: a chicken-and-egg situation (see for health and nutrition. The needs
Chapter 3). of children, teenagers, adults and the
elderly differ, as do those of men and
Affordability. Fruit and vegetables women. Women who are pregnant
can be a relatively expensive part of or lactating need extra nutrition, but
the diet (Box 3). Many of the poor they and their families may not be
spend what food money they have on aware of this. People living with HIV/
cheap, stomach-filling, energy-rich, AIDS, and those with diabetes and
staple carbohydrates such as rice or other health problems, also need
cassava. They add small amounts of special diets. But nutrition and health-
vegetables and animal products for awareness campaigns are often
taste when available. Fruit can also be poorly targeted and fail to match the
a luxury item, but may be affordable physiological needs of these specific
when production is at its peak. Those population groups.

Competition with alternatives. Improving health and nutrition
Processed foods are backed by
powerful advertising that present Alongside the current COVID-19
them as tasty and socially desirable. pandemic, we are also facing a
Aggressive marketing promotes pandemic of non-communicable
unhealthy foods and beverages in diseases, many of them caused by
schools, offices and shops. Sugary poor nutrition (Allen, 2017). This
drinks are easier to buy and consume requires decisive action. The policy
than freshly pressed juice; sweets and areas needing attention include
packaged snacks have a longer shelf the following.
life than fruit. Such foods compete
with fruit and vegetables for the same Promoting production. Interventions
dollar, euro, franc, peso, pound, rupee are needed to help small farmers
or shilling. produce more fruit and vegetables.
That will mean improving agricultural
Food safety. Unlike many processed extension services to promote good
foods, fruit and vegetables have to be farm practices, good soil management
washed or peeled and perhaps cooked and the availability of inputs such as
before they can be eaten. Eating seed and fertilizer. Attention is needed
contaminated fruit and vegetables to empower women, who tend many
may make you ill. The contamination a field and home-garden. Imports are
may happen during production – from important for supplying the nutrition
irrigation water, the soil, fertilizer or needs of countries that do not
pesticides – or come from unsanitary produce enough fruit and vegetables
processing and preparation (see domestically (FAO, 2018).
Chapter 5).
Improving availability. The availability
National policies. Governments of fruit and vegetables can be
concerned about food security, the increased by improving the value chain
balance of trade and geopolitical
concerns have focused a great deal of
attention on staple crops and export
commodities. They have devoted far
less attention to fruit and vegetables.
As a result, far fewer investments
have been made by medium-sized
and commercial farmers in their
production. Trade policies have also

promoted the influx of cheap, imported
fruit and vegetables to the detriment
of locally produced, indigenous
varieties. This has contributed to
the low consumption of neglected,
underutilized but nutritious fruit and
vegetables (see Chapter 4).
aspect of such promotional campaigns.
Nutritional messages and horticultural
production integrated in curricula can
help children acquire life-long skills
and promote the consumption of fruit
and vegetables from the early years
of life. School feeding-programmes,
already important in the effort to end
hunger, should be part of national
education policies as well. Legislation
© FAO/Ami Vitale
can promote the inclusion of fruit and

vegetables in school canteens, vending
machines and procurement practices.
Marketing restrictions on the sale near
to schools of foods that are high in salt,
that connects growers with consumers sugar and trans-fat can help improve
(see Chapter 4). This includes transport, the school food environment.
marketing, storage and processing
facilities, labour resources and finance Measuring nutrition. Further
to make the value chain more efficient efforts are needed to measure the
and to reduce losses and waste. consumption of fruit and vegetables,
along with other dietary components.
Improving affordability. Subsidies Progress is being made. Two indicators
can increase the intake of fruit and are the Minimum Dietary Diversity
vegetables (WHO, 2017). for Women of Reproductive Age, and
the Infant and Young Child Feeding
Promoting consumption. Education Minimum Dietary Diversity (FAO and
and information are key to promoting FHI 360, 2016). The former is included
fruit and vegetables as part of the in the suite of nutrition indicators
diet. The poor consume less (or opt planned for around 90 countries that
for cheaper alternatives) because they will conduct demographic health
cannot afford them. In high-income surveys.
countries, many people choose to eat
unhealthy alternatives. Better targeted Studies on nutrition campaigns have
information and incentives can help so far focused largely on content
change such behaviours. and process rather than on impact.
A number of good practices have not
Integrating nutrition in school yet been properly documented. Such
curricula. Schools are an important studies are urgently needed.

Growing green
Sustainable production 3
M
ost fruit grow on trees – and and the alarming loss of biodiversity
trees have to be planted, threatening all fruit and vegetable
tended and harvested. species. Finally, we examine three
Vegetables (most of which are annual aspects of policies and institutions
crops) must be sown, transplanted, that particularly affect the production
weeded, managed for pests and end of the value chain: research and
diseases, and harvested. Fruit and technology development, extension
vegetable production tends to be services, and rural infrastructure.
labour- and skill-intensive. That
generates employment, but also adds
to the cost of production, pushing up
prices of the output. Production
This chapter focuses on the production In 2018, the world produced a total of
of fruit and vegetables. We start with 868 million tonnes of fruit and 1 089
an overview of production worldwide, million tonnes of vegetables (FAOSTAT).
in terms of commodities, regions and
growth in the last two decades. We
then examine three different types of
producers: small-scale producers (who
grow the majority of the world’s fruit
and vegetables), urban and peri-urban
producers (who are frequently also
small-scale producers), and large-scale
© FAO/Vyacheslav Oseledko
commercial producers.
Next we turn to the farm inputs (seeds,

water, fertilizers and pest management)
and good farm practices. We then
highlight selected environmental
issues: resource use, climate change,
neglected crops and wild species,
r n reen s n e r c n 17
Fruit, million tonnes
Banana, plantain, 155 Watermelon, Grape, 79 Other, 76
melon, 131
Mango, Peach, Pineapple,

Citrus, 152 Apple, pear, mango- nectarine, 28
quince, pomes, steen, apricot,
111 guava, 55 28
Berries,
currants, 12
Date, 9
Cherry, 4
Papaya, Plum, sloe,
Total: 868 13 stone fruit,
13
Figure 2. World fruit production by commodity, 2018
Source: FAOSTAT
Vegetables, million tonnes

Other fresh Tomato, 182 Cabbage, Cucumber,
vegetables, 327 a li o r gherkin, 75
brassicas, 96
Eggplant Carrot, Chilli, green

(aubergine), turnip, 40 pepper, 37
54
Onion, garlic,
shallot, leek, 133
Lettuce,
chicory,
Beans, 27
peas,
carobs,
legumes, 50
Maize
(green), 12
Total: 1,089 Spinach, Pumpkin,
cassava squash,
leaves, 29 gourds, 28
Figure 3. World vegetable production by commodity, 2018

Source: FAOSTAT

E Europe
23.1
N Europe 1.0
W Europe 15.0 C Asia
27.1
11.0
N America E Asia
S Europe 48.4
251.8
9.3 N Africa 34.2 37.2

W Asia
Caribbean
39.4 26.5 134.8
C America W Africa
S Asia
17.4
Middle 25.1 63.5
Africa E Africa SE Asia
87.3
7.5 8.1
S America
Southern Oceania
Africa
Fruit production, 2018

million tonnes
Figure 4. World fruit production by region, 2018

Source: FAOSTAT
E Europe
N Europe 4.1 36.2
34.0 C Asia
W Europe 16.2
N America 17.1
S Europe 34.1
E Asia
N Africa 34.0 574.4
3.4 35.9
18.3 W Asia
Caribbean
C America 26.2
W Africa
4.7 159.9
Middle 13.8 S Asia
Africa E Africa 45.6
24.7 SE Asia
S America 2.8
Southern 3.4
Africa Oceania
Vegetable production, 2018

million tonnes
Figure 5. World vegetable production by region, 2018

Source: FAOSTAT
The main fruit in order of importance way, is East Asia, followed by South
were banana, citrus (orange, tangerine, Asia (Figures 4 and 5). Other major
mandarin, lemon, grapefruit, etc.), producing regions are South America,
melons, apple and grape (Figure 2). Southeast Asia and Southern Europe
“Other” fruit accounted for 76 million (for fruit), and Southeast Asia (for
tonnes, reflecting the wide range of vegetables). Northern and Western
different types of fruit that are grown Europe produce relatively little, so have
around the world. to import much of what they consume
(see Chapter 4).
The main vegetables were tomato,
various alliums (onion, garlic, shallot, Nonetheless, production statistics
leek), brassicas (cabbage, cauliflower, cover only a few of the many species
broccoli), and cucumber. But overall, of fruit and vegetables that are grown
“other” fresh vegetables are more and consumed. A large proportion of
important than any of these individual the output of small-scale producers
categories: nearly twice as many also does not appear in the official
“other” vegetables were produced than production and trade statistics.
tomatoes (Figure 3). Home gardening and production
for home consumption are vastly
The world’s main producing region of undocumented, so their impact is
both fruit and vegetables, by a long largely unknown. We need to better
1200 1200
Fruit Vegetables 1089
1000 1000
924
868
836
800 800
741
694 685
600 600
577
507
484
400 421 400
286
200 200
163
139 150
111
93 84 88 88 91
68 76 66 81 72 76 80 84
45
0 0
Africa Americas Asia, Oceania Europe World Africa Americas Asia, Oceania Europe World
2000 2010 2018 2000 2010 2018
Figure 6. Change in production of fruit and vegetables, 2000–2018

Source: FAOSTAT

understand the diversity and reality of difficult to produce enough to meet
different production systems. the WHO’s recommended daily intakes
(Mason-D’Croz et al., 2019). And the
Worldwide production of both fruit 400-gram-a-day figure is an average:
and vegetables rose by about half the actual recommended amounts
between 2000 and 2018 (Figure 6). The depend on factors such as age and
biggest absolute increase was in Asia, sex (Chapter 2). Making sure that
especially East Asia (where China is by everyone can get enough fruit and
far the largest producer). In relative vegetables will require improvements
terms, the biggest increases were in along the entire value chain, from
Central Asia (where production of both production to processing, marketing,
fruit and vegetables more than tripled) and finally consumption.
and Central Africa (nearly triple the
amount of fruit and double the volume The umbrella term “fruit and
of vegetables, though from a very low vegetables” covers an incredible range
base). Production of vegetables also of species, varieties, cropping systems,
doubled in East and West Africa. agro-climatic conditions, and farm and
market types. No single production
Production in some regions has approach can be used for them all.
stagnated or even declined: in Northern For production to be sustainable, the
America and Southern and Western practices and technologies must be
Europe (fruit and vegetables) and in adjusted to the local context.
Northern Europe (vegetables only).
The world is producing more fruit and

vegetables – but still not enough. In
2000 world production totalled just 306
grams per person per day. By 2017 this
had risen to 390 grams (FAO, 2020) –
but this includes non-edible portions
such as the core and peel, as well as
loss and waste, which are often very
high. WHO recommends that people
should eat at least 400 grams of fruit
and vegetables a day (Mason-D’Croz et
al., 2019).
Distribution and access problems

mean that many people cannot get the
types or amounts of food they need
© FAO/Paul Mundy
(Chapter 4). A sizeable proportion of

the harvest is lost or wasted before it
reaches consumers’ plates (Chapter
5). Climate change and a lack of
water for growing crops will make it
Producers z In Cambodia, fruit and vegetables
are the second most important
commodity group after rice in
value terms and provide the main
Small-scale producers additional source of income for
most households in the country
Family farmers, who are often (but not (Altendorf, 2018).
always) small-scale producers, account
for 80 percent of the world’s food in z Around 80 percent of avocado
value terms (FAO and IFAD, 2019), production in Mexico is estimated
as well as a large share of fruit and to be carried out by small-scale
vegetables. farmers (Altendorf, 2019).
Worldwide, over 50 percent of the fruit z Some 200 000 rural families are
and vegetables are grown on farms reported to be directly involved
smaller than 20 hectares (most of in, and benefiting from, banana
which are family farms). In developing production in Guatemala
countries, such farms grow the vast (Altendorf, 2019).
majority of horticultural produce –
over 80 percent in most of Asia, sub- In Europe and North and Central
Saharan Africa and China (Figure 7). America, medium-sized farms of
Fruit Vegetables
Australia and New Zealand Farm size (ha)
North America >200
>50-200
South America >20-50
Central America >2-20
Europe
West Asia and North Africa
Southeast Asia
South Asia
a t ia a i
Sub-Saharan Africa
China
World
0 25 50 75 100 0 25 50 75 100
Production (%) Production (%)
Figure 7. Production of fruit and vegetables by farm size and world region
Adapted from Herrero et al., 2017.

20–200 hectares are more important, But small scale and a diversity of
while it is only in South America and in products makes it difficult for individual
Australia and New Zealand that farms farmers to market their produce
over 200 ha dominate. effectively. Marketing must therefore
rely on farmers getting organized into
Fruit and vegetables typically are groups or entering contract-farming
more profitable than staple crops arrangements with traders (see
for a given area of land. They also Chapter 4). As a group, farmers can
require more intensive management. perform collective actions such buying
That opens opportunities for small- inputs, hiring services and selling their
scale farmers to take advantage of output. The group members can also
rising demand and to earn more by swap ideas and experience, and they
producing and marketing fruit and have a bigger chance of receiving
vegetables. Small-scale production technical advice.
also has the potential to protect the
environment and ensure social equity
(FAO, 2012). Women, in particular,
can benefit as they are frequently Urban and peri-urban producers
engaged in fruit and vegetable
production and marketing (Fisher et Many of the smallest-scale producers
al., 2018). are found in and around towns
and cities. They include commercial
Small-scale family farms are often growers who sell their output to local
more diverse than larger farms, with a markets, as well as home-gardeners
mix of staple crops, fruit, vegetables, and community gardeners who grow
other crops, and livestock. This mix produce for their own consumption or
allows them to spread their risk: if one to share with friends and neighbours.
crop fails, they have others to fall back Surplus produce is sometimes sold
on. Diversity also means ecological directly to consumers or to small-scale
balance, with crop residues used to traders. These producers can increase
feed livestock and manure used to the availability and access to fruit and
fertilize crops. Different crops harbour vegetables for urban dwellers. The
pollinating insects and beneficials that COVID-19 pandemic has highlighted
control pests. the importance of local production
(FAO, 2020).
Many countries are currently
experiencing a decline in the numbers Bad roads mean that highly perishable
and diversity of insects, threatening fruit and vegetables cannot be
the many fruit and vegetable crops transported far. This is less of a
that rely on insect pollination. The problem for cereals or crops like cacao
small size of many family farms can and coffee, which can be dried, bagged,
help preserve biodiversity. At the same loaded onto trucks and hauled off to
time, diversified systems are more distant markets. This is one reason
knowledge-intensive and require skills intensive commercial horticulture
to manage them efficiently. tends to cluster around urban areas.
While growing fruit and vegetables Inputs
in and near cities has advantages,
it also brings risks – of pollution,
contamination, and the loss of land
to urban growth. In addition, in some Production and marketing technologies
countries urban agriculture does not
fall under the responsibility of the Technologies have been developed that
ministry of agriculture, so growers make the production, processing and
cannot benefit from extension services marketing of fruit and vegetables more
or government-supported inputs efficient. These include the following.
(Aubry and Manouchehri, 2019;
Taguchi and Santini, 2019). z Production: tissue culture and
grafting for seedling supply, high
yielding and disease-tolerant
cultivars, grafting, precision
Large-scale commercial producers agriculture, drones, extension
advice systems, irrigation,
Larger-scale commercial producers greenhouses, insect-breeding for
of fruit and vegetables tend to focus pollination and pest control, pest
on a relatively small range of major identification and management,
crops, such as tomatoes, bananas conservation-farming techniques.
and pineapples. Many of these are
destined for the export market or z Harvest and postharvest:
for industrial processing. Depending harvesting, sorting and packing
on the structure of the market, there equipment, improved packaging
may (or may not) be opportunities for and storage techniques (see
small-scale farmers to take advantage Chapter 5).
of larger farms and processing facilities
nearby through arrangements such as z Marketing: market information
contract farming. systems, digital communications,
traceability systems, remote
Sophisticated technologies such as payments (see Chapter 4).
irrigation systems, artificial lighting,
hydroponics and digital information These technologies not only increase
systems require capital investment productivity, yields and quality; they
and special skills; only larger also reduce losses, cut the amount of
commercial operations can afford the labour required, and place greater
these. In countries such as Kenya and emphasis on management skills.
Ethiopia, growers raise green beans They are also more likely to attract
and other vegetables in greenhouses young, better-educated people to the
and export them by airfreight to horticultural professions and create
dealers in Europe. However, even new business opportunities both on-
smaller-scale producers can adopt and off-farm. However, they involve
technologies such as greenhouses and capital outlays that may be beyond the
drip irrigation. reach of poor small-scale producers.

Quality seeds and planting materials finnicky: they need “dry heads and
wet feet”. Irrigation is often needed
Annual crops such as cabbages and to supplement rainfall (and of course
onions rely on quality seeds or other is indispensable in greenhouses). But
planting materials to produce high irrigation water in some areas and
yields. Perennials such as citrus, apples seasons is scarce, leading to efforts to
and grapes depend on clonal seedlings get “more crop per drop” (FAO, 2003).
or grafted cuttings. These planting
materials must be genetically pure, Many small-scale farmers use watering
have a high germination rate, and be cans to water their vegetables: this is
disease-free. Varieties must be adapted practical in small greenhouses and in
to the local environment and to market gardens close to the house. In larger
preferences in terms of colour, shape areas, various irrigation systems are
and taste. And they must be available used, using overhead systems, furrows
for the market in different forms: fresh, or drip-irrigation (pipes with tiny
dried, canned, juiced or fermented holes that allow water to dribble out,
(FAO, 2001). Wainwright et al., 2013). Irrigation can
use “grey water” from washing (after
In many countries, quality planting simple filtration), but using “black
materials are not easily available. water” that contains faecal matter is a
Suitable improved cultivars either problem as it may contaminate the soil
do not exist or are in short supply. and crops. Sophisticated systems use
Tissue-culture programmes to produce biological filtration to recycle water and
planting materials are few. Farmers reduce contamination.
fall back on seeds they have produced
themselves, or exchange planting
materials with their neighbours. This
has advantages (it conserves local
varieties) and disadvantages (farmers
cannot get the varieties they need to
boost their harvest). These drawbacks
result from inappropriate policies and
the lack of a conducive environment for
a thriving seed sector (Tata et al., 2016).
Water
Many fruit and vegetables differ in

© IWRM AIO SIDS
their water requirements: they need

the right amount of water at the right
times. Too much water causes root
rot. Too little, and they wilt. Gardeners
say that tomatoes are particularly
Fertilizers more practical than for cereals because
the areas involved tend to be smaller.
In places where fruit and vegetables Many small-scale farmers know this
have a low priority, little investment already: they compost their farmyard
has been made by either governments manure to fertilize their vegetable
or the private sector in ensuring that patch rather than spreading it thinly
farmers can obtain and learn about over their crop fields. Mulch is useful to
suitable fertilizer formulation, proper cover the soil, conserve soil moisture
placement and recommended dosages. and suppress weeds.
As a result, many farmers cannot get
the expected yields. The types and
amounts of fertilizer applied should
be determined based on soil analysis; Pest and disease management
excess applications should be avoided.
Perfect papayas, beautiful bananas,
The supply of synthetic fertilizers the choicest cherries: many types
could be improved through bulk of fruit and vegetables must appear
procurements by farmer groups, flawless to be saleable. But many are
and by “smart” subsidies and credit hypersensitive to pests and diseases.
schemes to help farmers buy the The tiniest blemish can demote them
inputs they need. from Grade A to the animal-feed bin.
Compost is important in fruit and To avoid this, farmers often apply

vegetable production, and applying it is more chemicals than they need in
Three plots, 3-year rotation

Year 1 Year 2 Year 3
Plot 1 Potatoes Legumes, onions, roots Brassicas
Plot 2 Legumes, onions, roots Brassicas Potatoes
Plot 3 Brassicas Potatoes Legumes, onions, roots
Four plots, 4-year rotation

Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4
Figure 8. Plot 1 Legumes Brassicas Potatoes Onions and roots
Recommended
crop rotations Plot 2 Brassicas Potatoes Onions and roots Legumes
for vegetables in
Plot 3 Potatoes Onions and roots Legumes Brassicas
the UK
Adapted from Plot 4 Onions and roots Legumes Brassicas Potatoes
RHS (2020)

order to control pests and diseases Good agricultural practices
and fulfil their buyers’ requirements.
Indiscriminate and excessive use Improved seed and planting materials,
of chemicals cause health and adequate watering and integrated
environmental problems for farmers pest management are all part of a set
(Tsimbiri et al., 2015), harm beneficial of “good agricultural practices” that
insects, and contaminate the product, farmers should use to grow enough
resulting in food-safety concerns. fruit and vegetables in a sustainable
manner. Other technologies include:
Integrated pest management is the
solution. This is an ecosystem-based Crop rotations and intercropping.
strategy that focuses on preventing Rotating crops helps maintain soil
pests and disease in the long term fertility and control pests and diseases.
through a combination of biological Single-season vegetables can be
control, habitat manipulation, rotated with staple cereals and other
improved cultural practices, and the crops. It is important to follow the
use of resistant varieties. Farmers use correct sequence of crops, as some
pesticides judiciously and only if careful crop species do not grow well next to
field checks show they are needed – or after others (Figure 8). Vegetables
not as a preventive measure, as is all can also be grown in alternating rows
too common (Flint, 2012). and bands, or between rows of fruit
trees. Fruit trees can be grown around
New technologies such as smartphone fields or on bunds, where they help
apps and accredited laboratories now stabilize slopes.
make it possible to identify pests and
diseases quickly and recommend
ways of dealing with them (Miller et
al., 2009). However, agrochemicals
companies may use apps to promote
the sale of their products, without
alerting farmers to other ways to
control pests. It is important to
reinforce producers’ knowledge and
critical thinking and enable them
to obtain accurate information and
technologies to solve problems.
A number of biopesticides are

available on the market that are less
© FAO/Farooq Naeem
harmful to the environment, but

these must also be used judiciously.
Participatory approaches such as
farmer field schools have been
successful in promoting integrated pest
management worldwide.
Integrated production with ploughing has many disadvantages: it
livestock. Livestock can be grazed destroys the soil structure, reduces soil
under fruit trees, where they help moisture, kills soil organisms, speeds
suppress weeds and fertilize the the breakdown of organic matter, and
soil, or on vegetable fields after the hastens the release of carbon dioxide
harvest. Animals can be fed with crop into the atmosphere.
residues such as discarded cabbage
leaves or blemished fruit. After proper It is better to reduce the amount
treatment, manure can be used to of tillage or avoid it altogether, for
fertilize gardens and fields. example by sowing seed in individual
furrows or using specialized planting
Soil amendments. Amendments equipment. Transplanting seedlings
such as mulch, compost and lime can enables them to get ahead of weeds;
suppress weeds, control erosion, and dense planting and applying mulch also
boost fertility. Some amendments suppress weeds. So can herbicides,
(mulch, compost) can be made on- though these risk polluting the
farm (the quality of the compost is environment, harming biodiversity and
important, otherwise it may contain contaminating the crop.
weed seeds). Other amendments, such
as lime, may need to be brought in Organic farming. Organic farming
from elsewhere. avoids using synthetic inputs
altogether, using many of the
Reduced tillage. Farmers plough principles described above (Scialabba
their soil mainly to control weeds. But et al., 2015). It relies on dense planting
and mulching to suppress weeds,
close crop sequencing to avoid
fallow periods, crop associations
to control pests, careful water
control, and intensive observation
and maintenance. It is particularly
suited to small-scale fruit and
vegetable growing where gardeners
can provide the level of labour and
management required.
Many fruit and vegetable growers in

low- and middle-income countries are
de facto organic producers because
they have no access to agrochemicals,
© FAO/Fredrik Lerneryd
cannot afford them, or prioritize their

staple crops for the little fertilizer they
are able to buy. They could benefit
from training and advice in crop
management and from improved
seeds and planting materials.

Environment sensitive to temperature extremes,
such as frost during blossoming and
heat during flowering. Some crops
stop growing if the temperature is not
Resource use within the appropriate range; others
suffer disorders that make them
Nutrient-dense foods such as unmarketable: bean pods get stringy,
fruit and vegetables tend to have cauliflowers develop hollow stems, and
lower environmental impacts than lettuces “bolt” (grow extended stems)
carbohydrate-rich staples such as (Peet and Wolfe, 2000).
cereals (Clark et al., 2019). Per unit
of land, water and nutrients, fruit
and vegetables are more effective at
providing nutritional security than Neglected crops and wild species
other crops. That can help prevent the
expansion of farming into forest areas Of an estimated 400 000 plant species
that are important for biodiversity and in the world, somewhere between
carbon sequestration. 30 000 and 80 000+ are edible by
humans (Brummitt et al., 2020; FAO,
Nonetheless, intensive and 2018). Several thousand are grown
unsustainable fruit and vegetable as agricultural and horticultural
production can use excessive amounts crops. Some 7 000 species have been
of fertilizers and pesticides, which may gathered and cultivated since the
harm biodiversity and contaminate advent of agriculture. But the world’s
surface and groundwater. food supply depends on just 200
plant species (many of which are fruit
and vegetables), and only 12 species
provide three-quarters of the food
Climate change we consume; just nine account for
66 percent of total crop production
Comparatively little research has been (FAO, 2019; IDRC, 2010). Most of
done on the effects of climate change the remaining minor crops are also
on fruit and vegetable production. fruit and vegetables, as are the vast
Various aspects of climate change majority of other edible species.
may affect fruit and vegetable
production: temperature, carbon These species and landraces are
dioxide concentrations, ozone levels, often referred to as “neglected and
water availability and salinity. Their underutilized” because they have
effects are likely to vary from place been “forgotten” by agricultural
to place. Some are positive (rising research and investments. They
CO2 levels are expected to stimulate include traditional crop species and
plant growth); others are negative varieties, as well as wild species that
(reduced water availability harms it) people often also harvest and use
(Scheelbeek et al., 2018). Many fruit as food. They present enormous
and vegetable species are highly untapped potential for small-scale
farmers and rural communities. Crop biodiversity
They are often more nutritious and
more resistant to pests and diseases Farmers and gardeners around
than are commercial varieties the world maintain a wide range
(Schreinemachers et al., 2018). of traditional varieties of fruit
They are well-adapted to the local and vegetables. But this wealth is
climate and pests. They are resilient under threat from various sources.
and require few or no inputs, often Commercial pressures induce farmers
growing as weeds in and around fields to adopt high-yielding types instead of
and along roadsides, so are typically lower-yielding but hardier traditional
accessible for both landowners and sorts that have limited consumer
the landless. demand. Seed producers market only
commercial varieties – often hybrids
Many traditional crops and wild that produce useless seed or no seed
species are sold in local markets at all. When older varieties of fruit
(Mundy, 2014). They help maintain trees die, they are not replaced. Cross-
food and nutrition security and act pollination with imported varieties
as a buffer in disaster-prone areas dilutes the genetic purity of local types.
(Rahim et al., 2009). Such species and Pests, diseases, drought and heat take
varieties can be developed to broaden their toll on the remaining populations
the food basket in face of the threat of traditional varieties and may force
of climate change (Padulosi et al., them into extinction.
2013). Wild foods contribute to dietary
quality, dietary diversity and seasonal In high-income countries, seed
evenness (Powell et al., 2015), companies breed, multiply and
providing important nutrients and market seeds of horticultural crops,
complementing many staple-based and commercial nurseries raise
diets in any given month of the year. seedlings of vegetables and fruit
trees. Universities, research institutes
It is important to develop strategies and nongovernment organizations
that can help indigenous food also conserve and distribute seeds
crops to effectively contribute to of traditional varieties. Such services
food security, nutrition, health and are rare or non-existent in low- and
economic development (Kahane et al., middle-income countries – except
2013). This will require the creation for a few commercial species such
of favourable policy environments as bananas and pineapples. Farmers
and increased investments (Jaenicke, must rely on their own seed or on
2013), production and dissemination local seed exchanges. This conserves
of information (Pichop et al., biodiversity, but means that farmers
2016), and promotion of research, do not have access to suitable
knowledge management and higher-yielding varieties.
capacity building, e.g., to promote
breeding programmes focusing on The World Vegetable Center, the
the development of adapted varieties international research institute with
(COAG, 2018). the mandate for vegetables, maintains

a genebank with 61 000 accessions
from 155 countries, including about
12 000 accessions of indigenous
vegetables (World Vegetable Center,
2020b). But much less work has been
done to characterize and conserve the
© Veejay Villafranca/NOOR for FAO

germplasm of most fruit and vegetable
species than for the major staple crops.
The International Rice Genebank, by
contrast, holds more than 132 000
accessions of rice and its wild relatives
(IRRI, 2019a).
Policies and institutions

Sustainable intensification of fruit organizations have focused on
and vegetable production calls for ensuring food security in terms
political commitment, investment, of calories rather than in terms of
institutional support and a demand- nutrients: they have put more effort
driven approach to technology into filling plates rather than increasing
development. There is no “one-size-fits- the variety of food on the plate. It is
all” set of recommendations. Still, it is also because of the sheer number of
possible to identify the key features of fruit and vegetable species, each of
enabling policies and institutions for which needs its own breeding and
sustainable intensification of small- research programme.
scale fruit and vegetable production.
The design, implementation and The funding devoted to research on
monitoring of policies will require all types of crops is inadequate given
strong collaboration between different the importance of these crops, the
ministries and administrations, from challenges facing them, and the proven
public health and education to trade, and potential payoff of research and
environment and agriculture. development. The International Rice
Research Institute has a budget of USD
73 million and focuses on a single crop
(IRRI, 2019b). That is still far more than
Research and technology development the budget of the equivalent institute
devoted to vegetables, the World
Compared to major staples such as Vegetable Center, which has a budget
rice and wheat, relatively little public of around USD 20 million and must
effort has gone into developing deal with a whole basketful of crops
improved technologies for fruit and (World Vegetable Center, 2020a). There
vegetables. This is because in the is no international research centre
past, governments and international focusing on fruit.
agricultural research effort, and most
horticultural research focuses on the
major commercial and export crops,
such as bananas, rather than on the
wide range of crops that are locally
important and do not appear in
trade data. More research is needed
to support sustainable domestic
production and the conservation
and promotion of neglected and
underutilized species, especially in
regions where projected supply is
particularly inadequate, such as sub-
Saharan Africa, parts of Asia and the
Pacific (Mason-D’Croz et al., 2019).
Research is needed to breed varieties

with disease- and pest-resistance,
tolerance to heat, drought, flooding
and salinity, and with increased
nutrient content. Other priority topics
include crop-management techniques,
the control of pests and diseases,
© FAO/Riccardo Gangale
water-efficient irrigation methods

such as drip irrigation and recycling
of used water, good soil management
and conservation methods to
enhance plant health, and the use of
appropriate farm machinery to reduce
labour needs and improve productivity.
The majority of agricultural research is Greenhouses offer many opportunities

performed by public institutions such to lower the environmental impact
as government research institutes, of growing vegetables, for example
universities, and international centres by optimizing energy use, reducing
(Beintema and Elliot, 2011). Figures the emission of CO2, improving the
on private-sector research are difficult efficiency of water use, and controlling
to find but appear to be lower than pests and diseases.
publicly funded research. Most private
research focuses on high-income But small-scale producers grow most
countries, with very little going to low- of the world’s fruit and vegetables, and
and middle-income countries. technologies are needed that suit their
conditions and their pockets. Women,
Fruit and vegetables account for who manage a big share of the world’s
a small proportion of the total gardens, must be ensured access to

new techniques. The development those in low- and middle-income are
and deployment of such technologies more likely to use their smartphones.
offer business opportunities for youth Both government and private
employment on- and off-farm. Further operators are developing services
along the value chain, technologies for farmers, typically focusing first on
are needed to improve postharvest staples and cash crops such as cacao
services, storage, transport and and coffee, but also covering major
processing in order to preserve horticultural crops such as tomatoes.
nutrient content and taste, and to
reduce losses. The advent of smartphones presents
new opportunities (it is possible to
communicate with farmers without
having to travel) but reinforces old
Extension services problems (how to reach the poorest
farmers, especially women). Private
Like agricultural research, extension operators also face the problem of
services are generally focused on major finding ways to pay for their services:
staple and cash crops. Most extension advertisers are scarce in poor areas,
workers are trained in the major crops and farmers are unwilling or unable
first and other topics second; when to pay for subscriptions (CTA, 2015).
they meet farmers, the big crops take Connectivity and internet facilities
up the biggest part of the time. in rural areas need to be improved
before connected devices can be
Nonetheless, fruit and vegetables pose used. This is especially important
very different problems for farmers with the recent upsurge in online
at all stages – inputs, production, marketing activities.
harvesting and marketing. Each crop
presents its own challenges, suffers
from its own pests and diseases, and
must be marketed in its own way. Rural infrastructure
Extension personnel need to be able to
advise farmers on all these topics. The infrastructure needed for fruit and
vegetables also poses challenges. A few
The internet and smartphones enable species, such as onions, are relatively
producers to learn about various robust and can be tipped into sacks
aspects of production and marketing, or loaded onto lorries in bulk. Others,
as well as to discover prices, link such as tomatoes, mangoes and soft
with buyers, and make and receive fruit, are extraordinarily delicate and
payments. They also make it easier must be handled with great care. They
to gather, collate, analyse and report require careful sorting and grading to
data on areas, production, yields and remove damaged fruit, special packing
prices. While commercial famers in to protect them on the road, and
high-income countries typically obtain refrigeration throughout their journey
information and fill in forms on a to keep them in tip-top condition. They
computer, smaller-scale farmers and do not take kindly to being bounced
on the back of a truck bumping along a zones will help link farmers to markets
corrugated dirt road. for fresh produce and to processors
that convert them into products with
Investment in roads, electricity (for cold a longer shelf life. This will also help
rooms), internet access, warehousing stabilize prices, reduce postharvest
and processing capacity in production losses and lower transaction costs.

Markets and value chains
Responding to health-conscious consumers 4
T
he fruit and vegetables sector and vegetables sector, and they also
plays an important role in stimulate domestic production and
providing fresh and nutritious markets. The growth in exports has
food to consumers around the world, significantly outpaced the increase in
especially in growing towns and cities. production: global trade more than
The sector generates income not only doubled between 2000 and 2018
for producers, but also for the actors (Figure 10).
along the value chain that links farms
to consumers (FAO, 2018). Fruit and While exported quantities of fresh Figure 9. World
vegetables can generate high returns produce are low compared to the export value
per hectare, making it possible to produced quantities, the value of trade of selected
reduce poverty if the right investment, means that they have the potential agricultural
capacities and services are in place. to contribute substantially to both commodities, 2018
the agricultural and gross domestic Source:
This chapter examines various aspects products of producing countries. Latin FAOSTAT (2020)
of markets and value chains, including
international trade, the links between Billion USD
farmers and domestic markets, and the 150
need for responsible business practices. 140 138

120
118
106
International trade 90
85 83
International trade of fresh fruit and 60

vegetables represents only around
7–8 percent of total global production
30
(FAOSTAT), but it still ranks among
24
the most valuable crop and livestock
commodity groups (Figure 9). Exports 0
Meat Fresh Cereals oﬀ Dairy Oilseeds Sugar
are an important driving force fruits, tea, cocoa, products,
behind the expansion of the fruit vegetables spices eggs
35
Figure 10. USD billion, constant (2014-16)
Worldwide exports 140
of fresh fruit and
vegetables: Total 120
49.9
aggregate volume 100
increased by 115
percent between 80 39.2
2000 and 2018 60
22.3
Source: 40 83.2
FAOSTAT (2020) 61.4
20 39.6
0
2000 2010 2018
Fruit Vegetables
America and the Caribbean and Asia The major importers of fresh produce
have established themselves as the are the European Union, the United
most important exporting regions, States of America (both are also large
where trade in fruit and vegetables exporters), China, Canada, Japan
generates important foreign exchange and the Russian Federation. Trade
that many low- and middle-income agreements, such as the World Trade
countries can use to import food and Organization Agreement on Agriculture
other items. Favourable land, climatic and various regional trade agreements,
conditions and high productivity in have led to reduced import tariffs
many areas of these regions make it (FAO, 2017b) among other effects,
possible to produce many varieties also stimulating growth in trade of the
on a large scale, and year-round. sector (Huang, 2004).
Many countries in these regions have
also invested in institutional capacity The expansion in global trade is also
development (Fernandez-Stark et al., impacted by rising demand in high-
2011) and the infrastructure needed to income countries, particularly in the
support trade. United States and the European Union,
the two largest importing blocs. A
Increases in trade have also been preference for safe, good-quality,
made possible through innovations in attractively packed fresh produce, a
distribution technology and logistics growth in health consciousness, and
that have cut transport costs and more widespread awareness of the
delivery times. Fresh produce is now nutritional benefits of fresh fruit and
available and affordable year-round vegetables all contribute to rising
in many places (Altendorf, 2017). consumption (see Chapter 2).
Investments from importing countries
in producing countries and bilateral Campaigns to promote the health
or multilateral agreements have benefits of nutrient-rich fruit and
stimulated this trade. vegetables and the growing availability

of ready-to-eat products further shaped by urbanization and income
stimulate demand. Indeed, changing growth” (FAO, 2020d).
consumer preferences can be seen in
the growing year-round availability of Contract farming is an agreement
fresh items that were once regarded as between one or more farmer(s) and
highly seasonal. For some high-value a contractor for the production and
products, such as avocado, changes supply of agricultural products under
in consumer preferences are a key forward agreements, frequently at
driver of trade expansion. On the other predetermined prices (Eaton and
hand, global demand for some other Shepherd, 2001). Farmers undertake in
items, including pineapples, mangoes advance to supply given quantities of
and papayas, is more sensitive to a product to a buyer at a guaranteed
changes in their price and to changes price. The contract may stipulate the
in incomes in importing regions volume, quality and timing, the crop
(Altendorf, 2017). variety, production methods (such as
the agrochemicals that may be used),
Trade tends to be dominated by large packaging, and other details. The buyer
national and multinational firms may arrange for training, advice, inputs
(Altendorf, 2019) which capture most such as seeds and chemicals, and even
of the added value. This may limit the specialized equipment and labour
potential of the fruit and vegetable for land preparation and harvesting,
export sector to reduce poverty. as well as credit to cover the cost
of inputs.
Contract farming is one way that
farmers can improve their participation Ideally, both sides benefit: the farmer
in the high-value fruit and vegetables gets a guaranteed market and
sector, as the approach provides income, while the buyer is assured of
solutions to address small farmers’ a reliable supply of a quality product.
challenges related to access to But contract farming carries risks
technical assistance, inputs, credit,
insurance and market information
(FAO, 2015; UNIDROIT, FAO and IFAD,
2015; FAO, 2020d).
Contract farming
© FAO/Alessandra Benedetti
The growth in global fruit and

vegetable markets opens significant
opportunities for farmers, and
“[c]ontract farming arrangements are
increasingly seen as a means to include
smallholder farmers in remunerative
markets for added-value foods that are
r es n ec ns Res n n e c nsc s c ns ers 37

for both sides. The buyer is often in farming system, and the needs of the
a more powerful position and may buyer (FAO, 2013, 2020a). A survey of
impose demands that are too stringent farmers in peninsular Malaysia, for
on the farmers. On the other hand, example, found that farmers were
farmers may not honour the delivery more likely to be interested in contract
of the contracted amounts or quality farming for fruit and vegetables if they
standards indicated, or may side-sell owned the land they farmed, cultivated
to buyers offering a higher price at a relatively large area, were educated,
harvest-time (FAO, 2013). and believed they would benefit
from the contracting arrangements
Whether farmers engage in (Arumugam et al., 2017).
contract farming depends on many
factors, including the farmer’s own Through contract farming, processors,
characteristics, the local situation and exporters and other midstream actors
integrate small farmers into highly
profitable national and global value
chains. But these are still very limited in
scope. Some examples:
z South Africa. Citrus growers have

contracts with both an exporter
and a juice processor and receive
financial and technical support
(FAO, 2013).
z Tanzania. An exporter supports

vegetable farmers to meet
international quality and safety
standards (FAO, 2013).
z Nepal. Farmers in remote areas

who grow ginger under contract
with a processor and exporter
report around 58 percent higher net
profits than non-contracted farmers
(Kumar et al., 2016).
z Mexico. A family-owned frozen-

vegetables firm offers small-scale
© FAO/Pier Paolo Cito
producers contracts and provides

them with the inputs, technical
assistance and credit in a way that
minimizes the firm’s contracting
transaction costs (Key and
Runsten, 1999).

Raw materials Production
Packaging and
Processing
Distribution Figure 11. Fruit
cool storage and marketing
and vegetable
Input suppliers Producers Processors Domestic market
value chain
for processing in Ukraine
Dried
Supermarket Source: CBI (2015)
Residues
Seeds Frozen
Fertilizer Preserved
Equipment Juices Hotels, restaurants
Producers for Exporters and
Irrigation fresh consumption wholesalers catering
equipment
Medium Cold Wholesalers

Small Packing
and large storage
Small-scale
Large production and retailers
export companies
Production Packing Cold storage Open-air

markets
Export
Importers
While contract farming is typically vegetables) is supplied through the

applied to procure produce from domestic market (AGRA, 2019). In
farmers for export markets that apply Latin America and Asia, most fruit
stringent requirements on producers and vegetables are sold through
(FAO, 2016), there is some evidence wholesale markets, fresh food markets,
that the approach can also be adapted supermarkets and specialized grocery
for improving coordination in domestic stores (Boza, 2020; ADB, 2019a, 2019b,
food markets, including for high-value Ren and An, 2010).
produce (Meijerrink, 2010; Soullier and
Moustier, 2018). Much of this produce is grown by
smallholders for sale through an
often-complex system of traders and
intermediaries, or sometimes directly
Linking farmers to domestic markets to consumers (see Chapter 3). Figures
11 and 12 show value chain maps for
Due to high perishability and selected fruit and vegetables in Ukraine
competitiveness in export markets, and Uganda. The maps demonstrate
most fresh fruit and vegetables the complexity of the linkages between
are traded and consumed the numerous actors along the value
locally or nationally. In Africa chain, and how the relationships and
up to 96 percent of marketed types of actors vary from one country
farm output (including fruit and to another.

Figure 12. Avocado, Production Bulk market Retail markets Consumers
mango and green

beans value chain Domestic rural markets
in Uganda
Rural assemblers/
Smallholders
buying agents Rural retail centres Rural consumers
Source: Dijkxhoorn et.
al. (2019)
Domestic urban markets
Open-air retail market

Rural/urban
Large/medium wholesalers/brokers
commercial farmers (buying agents)
Roadside kiosks/stalls
Middle-class greengrocers
Domestic urban
High-end greengrocers consumers
Contracted Super/hypermarkets
Local processors
smallholders
Hotels, hospitals, schools,

other institutions
International export markets
Large International exporters International

company farms (fresh and processed) EU, UAE, others consumers
Domestic and regional food markets can also promote fruit and vegetables
are expanding in low- and middle- programmes, as in India and Brazil,
income countries on the back of where consumption of mango and
population growth, urbanization, rising papaya has been expanding among
incomes and a growing middle class, an increasingly affluent population
increasing women’s participation in (Altendorf, 2017).
labour markets, and shifts in consumer
preferences for food. As income These shifting patterns in incomes
growth leads to major socio-economic and food consumption create
changes, parallel shifts in food opportunities for small farmers and
consumption patterns also take place small agri-enterprises along food
– a process known as the “nutrition value chains (Reardon, 2015). They
transition”. In the last stage of this give rise to shorter food value chains
transition, the consumption of fruit and and distribution channels, creating
vegetables increases (FAO, 2020d). more opportunities for direct linkages
between producers and consumers
These trends have been taking place in (Galli and Brunori, 2013). Shorter
a number of low- and middle-income food value chains may also stem from
countries (Pingali, 2007; Popkin, 2006, initiatives such as farmers’ markets
cited in FAO, 2020d). Governments or open-air food fairs, which build on

consumers’ desire to engage directly
with producers. Governments can
also promote fruit and vegetable
consumption and sustainable
production from smallholders through
public food procurement for schools
and other public institutions (ECLAC
et al., 2015). The COVID-19 crisis
emphasizes the central role that local
food-distribution channels play in
ensuring food security (FAO, 2020b).
Value addition
© FAO/Simon Maina
Value addition for fresh fruit and
vegetables includes sorting, grading,
packaging, transport, wholesaling
and retailing, as well as processing
activities. It is done by enterprises
of various sizes, from micro to large.
Some actors perform multiple roles: As with small food producers, small
wholesalers, for example, may play and medium agrifood enterprises
an important role in providing market also face a number of obstacles when
information for producers and linking to markets (FAO, 2015).
managing postharvest logistics (FAO,
2014). In many countries, supermarkets z Access to finance is a longstanding
have a growing share of the retail trade problem for small farmers and
in fresh produce, but the traditional agrifood enterprises alike (and
retail sector, which includes local not only in the fruit and vegetable
wet markets and roadside stalls, is sector). The lack of reliable,
still central for fruit and vegetable affordable finance inhibits
retail and food security in low-income innovation, growth and employment
countries (Parfitt et al., 2010). generation, and constrains the
agrifood sector’s capacity to reduce
Strengthening the capacities of poverty (Beck and Cull, 2014;
the sector can improve market FAO, 2020d; Fjose et al., 2010;
transparency and the quality and OECD 2017).
safety of food available in domestic
markets (Demmler, 2020). In addition, z Infrastructure and utilities such
these mid-stream agrifood enterprises as cold chains, appropriate storage
also create the biggest market and processing technologies,
opportunities for farmers domestically reliable energy and clean water
(AGRA, 2019). supplies are often inadequate.

Their development is hindered product perishability, unreliable
by a shortage of investment procurement, sensitivity to
opportunities, qualified staff, weather, etc.
inadequate controls, and
fragmented supplies (FAO, 2016).
z Government support for mid- Learning from international trade

stream actors is also frequently
lacking. Ministries of agriculture Domestic value chains can benefit
and extension services focus on by learning from successes in the
up-stream activities by producers, international trade of fresh fruit
while small-scale mid-stream actors and vegetables. Governments can
in the value chain fall between the support the sector by providing
mandates of ministries of trade, institutional frameworks for public–
industry and commerce (FAO, private collaboration, investing
2015). Policies and regulations in infrastructure such as storage
addressing them overlap or facilities and laboratories, stimulating
conflict, while policies tailored for linkages with research to generate
the manufacturing sector fail to innovations in postharvest operations
apply to the agribusiness (e.g., packaging and cold chains),
sector with its special concerns: encouraging finance for the sector, and
building the competence of producers
and managers (Fernandez-Stark
et al., 2011). In Chile, such support
helped the fruit and vegetable sector
to upgrade and become competitive
internationally, generating more
than 450 000 jobs along the chain –
equivalent to 5 percent of the country’s
labour force (López, 2009).
Trade policies that stimulate exports

can also affect the behaviour of
national actors in the value chain.
Appropriate policies can foster open
borders and promote responsible,
transparent national value chains.
In the area of food safety and plant
health, the agreements of the
© FAO/Maxim Zmeyev
World Trade Organization strongly

encourage the use of international
standards as the basis for national
measures. This can help to reduce
trade costs and allow food to move
smoothly between markets.

Responsible business
Box 4. Decent jobs
Decent jobs are defined as opportunities for work that are
Employment and work conditions productive, respect core labour standards, provide a fair
income (whether through self-employment or wage labour)
Policymakers are increasingly looking and ensure equal treatment for all. Workers should be able
to high-value food chains, such as fruit to perform their tasks under safe and healthy conditions
and vegetable value chains, to create and have a voice in the workplace (FAO, 2017a).
off-farm employment (Losch, 2012).
In rural Africa, farming accounts for
around 40 percent of employment 2015). Crop production can have adverse
(as measured in terms of full-time environmental impacts, especially on
equivalents). The wholesale, logistics, large, monoculture plantations that
processing and retail of food and other heavily rely on pesticides to protect crops
agricultural products account for a and agrochemicals to preserve products.
further 25 percent (Dolislager et al.,
2019; Arslan et al., 2019), with half of To protect vulnerable groups,
these activities carried out by small employees and the environment,
and medium-sized enterprises. As the companies operating beyond the
number of mid-stream firms in food- farm gate and along value chains
supply chains grow, expectations are need to ensure their supplies are
that farm output will be stimulated procured from sources that adhere to
and on-farm employment created environmental, social and governance
(Reardon et al., 2019). These small good practices by putting appropriate
rural enterprises are more likely to hire policies and systems in place. Doing
vulnerable groups such as women or so will protect companies at all levels,
young people (Dolislager et al., 2019). from small firms to multinationals,
from reputational problems. This
Jobs created in the sector should offer in turn can help them avoid costly
decent employment opportunities (Box remedial actions and improve
4). But value chains for fresh produce are relationships with suppliers, business
particularly vulnerable to environmental, partners and other stakeholder groups,
social and governance risks. The thereby reducing their costs and
industry has a relatively high proportion raising their profitability (FAO, 2020c).
of informal workers (casual, migrant
or family labour). It is not uncommon
to find farms where workers toil long
hours in difficult conditions, without Due diligence
adequate health-and-safety safeguards,
and without respect for their rights, such Drawing on various international
as the freedom to form unions. Child guidance instruments (Table 1) and
labour has been frequently reported, applied throughout the value chain,
gender equity is a problem, and gender- due diligence and responsible business
based violence is common (Cooper, practices can benefit farmers, farm

Table 1. International guidance instruments on responsible business practices workers, small agri-enterprises, local
communities, the environment and
Guidance for responsible agricultural society as a whole (OECD and FAO,
supply chains 2020). Due diligence by companies can
OECD- Organisation for Economic Co-operation also increase the resilience of value
FAO and Development and Food and Agriculture chains to external shocks such as
Organization of the United Nations COVID-19 (Box 5).
OECD and FAO (2016)
This chapter has explored recent
Principles for responsible investment in
trends behind the rapid growth in
agriculture and food systems
CFS demand for fresh fruit and vegetables,
Committee on World Food Security
and notably of tropical fruit. The rise in
CFS (2014)
international trade has been enabled
by advances in transportation, storage
Guiding principles on business and human rights
technologies, trade agreements,
UN United Nations
rising incomes and shifting consumer
UN (2011)
preferences. However, if the potential
Declaration on multinational enterprises of the sector is to be harnessed for
ILO International Labour Organization poverty reduction, it is necessary
ILO (2017) that the right support infrastructure,
investment and access to services for
Guidelines for multinational enterprises small-scale actors across the entire
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and value chain be provided, alongside an
OECD
Development enabling environment that protects
OECD (2011) the rights of vulnerable groups. The
relevance of consumer trends is also
discussed, as well as the importance of
learning from opportunities provided
by international trade for domestic
Box 5. Due diligence market development for low and
middle-income countries.
Due diligence is defined as a process through which
enterprises can identify, assess, mitigate, prevent and
account for how they address the actual and potential
adverse impacts of their activities as an integral part of
business decision-making and risk management systems
(OECD and FAO, 2016).

Nothing to lose
Quality, safety, loss and waste 5
F
ood that does not appeal to out damaged or overripe produce.
consumers goes unbought and Supermarkets package delicate items
uneaten. Food that is contaminated to prevent bruising and extend their
by pathogens or chemicals is unsafe to shelf life. Greengrocers spray water
eat – and cannot be counted as food. on their wares to keep leaves pert and
All along the value chain, starting in the flies away.
field and ending in the kitchen or dining
room, food is lost or wasted. Because By definition, consumer expectations
they are perishable and fragile, fruit and and perceptions will also determine
vegetables are especially at risk of going their perception of food quality (Box
uneaten (FAO, 2019). 6). What may be unacceptable to one
consumer may be perfectly acceptable
This chapter focuses on four related to another. Consumers often assess
issues: food quality, food safety, and quality on a subjective basis: their
losses and waste. It outlines the factors choice depends on their expectations.
relating to each, and how quality and Firms use quality standards based on
safety can be assured and how losses objective measurements, driven by
and waste can be minimized. data on temperature, firmness, sugar
Quality Box 6. Food quality and food safety

Food quality describes the attributes of a food that
Go into a market or shop anywhere
influence its value and that make it acceptable or desirable
in the world: shoppers will be picking
for the consumer. The ideal of food quality therefore differs
and choosing fruit and vegetables
across countries and cultures.
according to their look and feel. They
want firm tomatoes, yellow bananas, Food safety is the assurance that food will not cause harm
unwilted lettuce, apples without to the consumer when it is prepared and/or eaten according
maggots, blemish-free mangoes, and to its intended use (CXC, 1969). Unlike food quality, food
fresh spinach. Traders constantly safety is non-negotiable.
sort through their stock to toss
45
© FAO/Heba Khamis
content and shelf-life predictions for z Producers value factors such

fresh produce. as yield, resistance to pests and
diseases, and ease of harvesting.
Quality is especially important to
serve all markets, and particularly z Wholesalers and retailers place
high-value markets: exports, a premium on size, form, colour
supermarkets, hotels and and safety. They often require the
restaurants. Commercial quality produce to comply with in-house or
standards for fruit and vegetables industry standards.
are developed and approved by the
United Nations Economic Commission z Consumers are more interested
for Europe through its Working Party in the visual appearance,
on Agricultural Quality Standards texture, firmness, sensory and
(UNECE, 2020). These international nutritional properties.
standards facilitate trade, encourage
high-quality production, improve
profitability and protect consumer
interests. They are used by Factors affecting quality
governments, producers, traders,
importers and exporters, as well as Fruit and vegetable quality is
international organizations. influenced by extrinsic and intrinsic
factors. Extrinsic factors include the
Stakeholders along the value chain production environment, how the
emphasize different aspects of quality. produce is handled during harvest and

at various stages of the supply chain,
and how it is packaged and presented Box 7. Quality attributes based on consumer perceptions
for sale to consumers. Intrinsic
factors relate to the food itself: its Search attributes
visual appearance (size, form, and
colour), texture, firmness, sensory and Can be checked directly before purchase.
nutritional properties, and food safety. z Colour, size, firmness, blemishes
All these attributes are of interest and
value to consumers.
Experience attributes
The best type of handling and
packaging depends on the type of Evident only after purchase, but influence
produce. Bananas, for example, should whether someone buys the same produce
be kept at a temperature of 12–15°C. item again.
Cauliflower needs cooler temperatures z Taste, texture, cooking quality
(0–5°C).
Credence attributes
Because produce continues to respire
Cannot be assessed before or after
during storage, it consumes oxygen
purchase; depend on credibility of
from within the packaging and emits
supplier. Often given on labels.
carbon dioxide, slowing down the
ageing process and extending shelf life. ORGANIC z (Sometimes) food safety
But if the packaging is airtight, there
z Organic, fair trade, local origin,
will not be enough oxygen left and the
pesticide residues
produce will die. That is why plastic
packaging often has perforations to Adapted from Rezare Systems (2020)
allow a controlled amount of oxygen
to reach the contents (MAP, 2012).
Ethylene gas emitted by fruit hastens see whether a fruit is over-ripe or
the ripening, aging and eventually bruised, and decide not to buy it.
spoilage: putting ripe bananas (which
emit a lot of ethylene) next to apples z Experience attributes become
will speed their ripening. evident only after purchase: when
the buyer bites into the fruit and
discovers its eating quality – its taste
and texture.
Basis on which consumers purchase produce
z Credence attributes depend on
Consumers purchase fresh produce information or claims from the
on the basis of search, experience and seller: Is it safe to eat? Was the
credence attributes (Box 7). item grown locally? Is it organic? Is
it free of pesticide residues? Such
z Search attributes are evident information may be included on a
from the appearance of the label, but fresh fruit and vegetables
produce itself: the consumer can are often sold unpackaged without
n se s fe ss n se 47
© FAO/Heba Khamis
a label. This attribute also depends guarantee the safety and quality of
on consumers’ trusting what is produce and assure buyers that it has
printed there, as the consumer can been produced and processed in a
often not verify claims from the particular way.
seller at the time of purchase.
Standards and certification are
especially useful where there is
information asymmetry: where buyers
Standards and consumers cannot easily judge the
safety and quality aspects of products
International bodies (in particular or production processes. One example
the FAO/WHO Codex Alimentarius is the environmental friendliness of
Commission), governments, industry organic produce. This is a “credence
groups, individual firms and non- attribute” because consumers have
government organizations set no way of checking that an item was
standards or technical regulations to actually produced organically (Caswell
guarantee the quality and safety of and Mojduszka, 1996). Certification
produce. These in turn rely on food- systems (and the labelling of certified
control systems with inspections, products) aim to provide a verification
certification and sanctions for non- or a “burden of proof” that given
compliance. They are designed to standards have been complied with.

Table 2. Meeting standards and ensuring safety
The Codex Alimentarius Commission is the central

component of the Joint FAO/WHO Food Standards
Programme. It develops recommended codes of practice,
Codex Alimentarius
such as hygienic practices and practices for the processing
and handling of foods or food groups.
Codex Alimentarius (2020)
GAP: Good agricultural practices

A set of recommended practices to maintain quality and
GMP: Good manufacturing practices
hygiene in the food chain.
GHP: Good hygienic practices
HACCP: Hazard analysis and critical control An approach that identifies specific hazards and measures to
point system control them, so as to ensure the safety of food.
Detailed, written, accessible description for use by personnel

SOP: Standard operating procedures
explaining how each operation is performed.
The ability to follow the movement of a food through

Traceability
specified stages of production, processing and distribution.
International standards (FAO/WHO specifications. Codex standards cover

Codex Alimentarius Commission). the general quality requirements,
The Codex Alimentarius, or “Food plus a list of permitted pesticides,
Code” is a collection of food standards, the permissible limits of approved
guidelines and codes of practice that pesticides, postharvest treatments
have been developed by independent such as waxing, labelling and packaging
experts and specialists in a wide range requirements, and permitted levels of
of disciplines to ensure they withstand contaminants. Without these common
the most rigorous scientific scrutiny standards, international trade in these
(Table 2). products would be a lot more difficult.
Established by FAO and WHO in 1963 Business-to-business. Private

to protect consumer health and standards such the BRC Global
promote fair practices in food trade, Standard for Food Safety (BRCGS, 2020)
Codex forms the basis upon which are typically business-to-business
countries develop their national arrangements. Such certification
food regulations. These standards communicates assurance to buyers
enable firms to trade with each other that the supplier is compliant with
in confidence that the produce they the quality standard – although
are buying will be in accordance sometimes a quality mark is marketed
with internationally recognized directly to consumers.
Business-to-consumer. Standards Consumers can detect poor-quality
related to sustainability or environ- fruit and vegetables reasonably
mental protection typically follow a easily, so decide not to buy them.
business-to-consumer model. So too This is not the case for food-safety
do those directed to niche markets problems, which may go undetected
such as organics. Certified produce until the produce has been eaten.
is marketed to consumers at point of They may then cause health problems
sale, often via a label attached to the immediately – such as food poisoning
product. Labels that list “credence by E. coli bacteria – or long-term
attributes” such as organic or fair trade problems, as with heavy metals.
fall into this category (Box 7).
Where standards are imposed by a

government (such as ISO standards Food-borne diseases
(ISO, 2017)) or a nongovernment
organization (such as Global Outbreaks of food-borne diseases can
G.A.P. (2020)), the consumer can result in catastrophic consequences
be reasonably confident that the for consumers and producers alike.
product actually is what the label Food-safety hazards can result in
says it is. But many firms add their products being excluded from the
own labels that are not subject to market, causing major economic losses
independent verification. and costs for producers, processors
and traders. Assuring food safety must
always therefore take precedence
over achieving high levels of other
Safety quality attributes.
Fruit and vegetables may be rich in Food-borne diseases are estimated

vitamins and other nutrients – but to cause some 600 million illnesses
what if they are not safe to eat? Then and 420 000 deaths around the globe
they will not provide any benefits to every year (WHO, 2015). The World
consumers but may cause them to Bank estimates that diseases resulting
get sick or even die – they cannot from the consumption of unsafe
be regarded as food. They may foods cost low- and middle-income
harbour dangerous pathogens or be countries alone USD 110 billion in lost
contaminated with chemicals. productivity, lost trade and medical
expenses a year (Jaffee et al., 2019).
Washing, peeling and cooking can
help remove some of these dangers Such diseases are commonly
(although peeling and cooking may associated with two major food groups:
lead to the loss of some nutrients). fruit and vegetables, and animal
But many fruit are eaten unpeeled products (Minnesota Department of
and raw, as are salads, tomatoes, Health). Fresh produce containing
cucumbers, beansprouts and excessive amounts of chemical
other vegetables. residues or exposed to pollution or

microbial contamination has been Table 3. Food safety risks along the value chain
linked to a series of food-borne
Stage in chain Possible sources of contamination
disease outbreaks around the world
over the last few years (Hussain Soil
and Gooneratne, 2017). Fruit and Wildlife, pests
vegetables that are eaten raw, and Nearby pollution sources
especially those that are not peeled or Runoff or irrigation water
Production
washed in clean water, can transmit Manure
pathogens and dangerous chemicals Pesticides, chemicals
(WHO, 2005). Public concern about Tools
these risks is at an all-time high. Seeds or plants themselves
Equipment, containers
Harvest Contact with the ground
People
Safety controls
Equipment
Safety controls protect both consumer Containers, packaging
health and business interests by Storage rooms
After harvest
ensuring that traded produce Washing, waxing
complies with food-safety standards People, animals, pests
and that it is safe to eat. Because Transport
produce can be contaminated all
Source: FAO (2004)
along the value chain, controls are
needed at each stage (Table 3).
Good practices. In addition, FAO

issues recommendations for good
practices in agriculture, manufacturing
and hygiene for fruit and vegetables.
These aim to help farmers, traders and
processors achieve the standards set
out in the Codex Alimentarius.
Standard operating procedures.

These are written, detailed and
accessible descriptions explaining how
each operation should be performed.
They assure that operations (including
maintenance, sanitation, pest control
© FAO/Karen Minasyan
and waste handling) are efficiently and

appropriately performed.
Hazard analysis and critical control

points. This system, known as HACCP,
is based on one developed by the
National Aeronautics and Space reliable product information and
Administration in the United States guarantee authenticity – for example
to ensure that astronauts were not for organic or regional produce.
affected by food-borne diseases during
their space missions. Rather than
testing the final product, it identifies
critical points in the production system, Responsibility for food safety
determines the problems likely to
occur at those points, and eliminates Various stakeholders share
them. This is especially important for responsibility for food safety.
food products in order to avoid food
becoming unsafe for consumption and National governments are
causing unnecessary wastage. responsible for establishing a national
food-control system with appropriate
Traceability. This is the ability to legal and policy instruments, well-
follow (“trace”) the movement of a food qualified human resources, sound
product as it passes through specified institutional frameworks and the
stages from the producer to the financial assets, equipment and
consumer (Box 8). infrastructure for them to carry
out inspections. They also enforce
If a food-safety problem arises, the compliance and issue penalties for
source can be quickly identified violations or non-compliance.
and batches from the same source
removed from the market. Traceability National Codex Committees facilitate
also makes it possible to provide the aligning of national regulations
with the Codex, provide coordination
among national stakeholders, and
contribute to the development of
Codex standards and related texts.
Box 8. Innovations in traceability
National governments are also
Traceability is a must-have in fruit and vegetable supply
responsible for ensuring the
chains to mitigate and manage risks associated with food-
supporting infrastructure is able to
safety recalls.
supply adequate quantities of safe fruit
New traceability practices that use digital technology help and vegetables. This includes roads for
ensure food safety and quality, optimize supply chains and market access, water supplies, power
reduce loss by making spoilage problems readily detectable for equipment and cooling systems,
(WEF, 2019). access to laboratories and suitable
Blockchain is an increasingly popular method of traceability storage facilities.
because it connects all the stakeholders’ digital records and
events in a tamper-resistant format. The information can The private sector, from producers
be accessed at any point from anywhere, yet it cannot be to retailers, is responsible for ensuring
edited or deleted. compliance throughout the food chain
and the necessary facilities, systems, tools
and well-trained staff to achieve this.

FAO and WHO provide guidance, because it is impossible for them
scientific advice and build capacity in to detect food-safety problems
support of food safety and quality, merely by looking at the produce
including supporting countries in on offer. At the same time, growers
establishing and/or strengthening may not realize that they are the
national food control systems. cause of contamination because of
inappropriate use of chemicals or
Codex Alimentarius develops contaminated irrigation water. Even
internationally recognized food if they do know this, it may be in their
standards (for specific fruit and interests to keep quiet about it so
vegetables in fresh and processed they can sell their output and earn an
form), associated Recommended income for their family.
Codes of Practice, as well as guidance
on labelling, packaging and transport Consumer behaviour. Peeling fruit
(CXC, 1995, 2003). and vegetables or washing them in
clean water can help remove or reduce
contaminants on the surface. But
access to clean, potable water is not
Weak links in the chain universal. Nonetheless, information
campaigns to encourage hygiene at
Inspection, certification and point of use could go a long way to
enforcement. Food safety inspection making these nutritious products safe
and certification, which are part of the for consumption.
official food control system, are not
always adequate. Problems include
a lack of effective communication
and coordination mechanisms
resulting in duplication and/or gaps,
appropriately trained staff, equipment
and transport, poor enforcement and
an inadequate legislative framework.
At the higher end of the market, private
entities impose their own standards,
which smallholders may find hard to
comply with.
Local trade and home consumption.

Many fruit and vegetables are
either traded locally or are eaten
by the people who grow them. At
the consumption end of the value
© FAO/Luis Tato
chain, formal standards are often not

enforced and it is left up to consumers
or traders to reject substandard
produce. But this may not happen
Loss and waste regions found that postharvest
losses were high in both East and
Huge amounts of food are lost or Southeast Asia and in sub-Saharan
wasted every year. This is particularly Africa (the coloured bars in Figure 13),
true of fruit and vegetables because though with different emphases (the
most are highly perishable. Loss and “critical loss points”, Box 9). In East
waste of fruit and vegetables represent and Southeast Asia, loss was highest
a waste of nutrients. during storage (with a median of over
20 percent lost) and processing and
Food loss and food waste are not packaging. In sub-Saharan Africa, the
the same thing (Table 4). Postharvest highest levels of loss occurred on the
food losses take place in the supply farm and in wholesale markets. Loss
chain from harvest until arrival at the and waste in Central and South Asia
wholesale market. Food waste takes tended to be lower, with loss during
place mainly in retail, in the food- transport being the highest.
service sector and in households.
These median figures mask huge
variations. Some studies have found
that up to 50 percent of the fruit and
How much is lost or wasted? vegetables are lost during storage
(in East and Southeast Asia) and on
A synthesis (FAO, 2019) of numerous farm (in sub-Saharan Africa) (these
studies measuring loss and waste in are shown as the T-lines in Figure 13).
fruit and vegetables in three world These findings imply that there is a
Table 4. Food loss and food waste
Definition Stage in value chain Examples
The decrease in the quantity

or quality of food resulting
Produce infested pre-harvest;
from decisions and actions by
Postharvest, produce damaged during transport
Food loss food suppliers in the supply
processing, distribution Decaying produce in the supply
chain, excluding retailers,
chain due to improper handling
food service providers
and consumers.
The decrease in the quantity Uneaten food thrown away in

Mostly retail and
or quality of food resulting houses and restaurants
consumption:
Food waste from decisions and actions Produce that is discarded because
households and the food
by retailers, the food service it fails to meet market standards
service sector
sector and consumers. in retail
Source: FAO (2019)

major potential for improvements in
value chains in all regions. Box 9. Critical loss points
Critical loss points are the points along the food supply
chain where food losses have the highest magnitude, the
Causes of loss and waste greatest impact on food security and the largest economic
dimensions (FAO, 2019).
Loss and waste are systemic and take
place along the food supply chain from
postharvest to retail. Loss is highest in
developing countries and results from organized and apply rudimentary
a lack of technology and infrastructure technologies and approaches. The loss
(FAO, 2019) and a weak knowledge sustained by smallholders in these
base of supply-chain stakeholders. countries is caused mainly by the poor
At the retail and consumer stages, functioning of the supply chain.
behavioural issues, inappropriate
storage and excessive handling of fruit Problems include limited technical
and vegetables in retail are more often capacity, poor production and
the cause of waste. handling practices, inadequate Figure 13. Loss
infrastructure such as feeder roads, and waste of fruit
High levels of qualitative and potable water, electricity and and vegetables
quantitative loss occur in low- and packhouses, as well as packaging, Adapted from FAO
middle-income countries where transport and storage capacity, and (2019) p. 26. Based
farms and rural activities are poorly the institutional and legal framework. on 660 observations.
Excludes outliers.
C and S Asia
On-farm postharvest operations

E and SE Asia Storage
Transportation
Processing and packaging
Wholesale and retail
Sub-Saharan Africa Median Maximum

Loss or waste
0 10 20 30 40 50
Food loss and waste (%)
Impacts of loss and waste
Box 10. Reducing loss in mangoes
Most obviously, malnourished children
Transport is the critical loss point in the mango value stay hungry if they do not have access
chain in the Philippines, a study by the University of the to food. High rates of loss and waste
Philippines at Los Baños found (FAO, 2020). represent a waste of nutrients, a
waste of money and lower profits in
Forms of mechanical damage included cuts and punctures
production and the value chain, lower
(1 percent), compression (1.9 percent), abrasion (2.8
incomes for producers, and higher costs
percent), bruising (2.0 percent) and marking from the
for consumers. Smallholder producers
bamboo baskets (3.8 percent) in which mangoes are
and consumers who have little money
transported to wholesale markets. After 5 days in retail
to spare are especially hard hit.
outlets, up to 90 percent of mangoes showed mechanical
damage. Decay and economic loss were the results.
Food that is contaminated – whether
Improved packaging reduced such problems. Using rigid by pathogens, toxins or chemicals –
plastic crates instead of bamboo baskets reduced damage may appear to be of good quality but
and loss and improved quality available in the market as must be discarded as it may pose a
well as the shelf life of mangoes. health risk.
Loss and waste also translate into

wasted inputs, land, water, energy and
Poor bulk packaging results in loss other resources used to grow, process
during transport (Box 10 and FAO, and handle the produce, boosting the
2017). Without shade or refrigeration, emission of greenhouse gases that
yeast and mould cause produce to contribute to global warming. Many
spoil quickly in hot, humid climates. consumers do not realize that food
waste is related to such concerns.
Food that is contaminated and does
not meet safety criteria is not fit for
human consumption and must be
disposed of. Produce that appears Reducing loss and waste
visually perfect may be contaminated
microbiologically, so present a risk to Postharvest management seeks to
the health of the consumer. manage and maintain the quality of
food after harvest and to reduce loss.
Food waste may result from stringent In the traditional supply chains that
commercial quality standards at the predominate in developing countries,
retail stage that emphasize aesthetic fresh produce must be harvested at
appeal. “Ugly fruit” are rejected even the appropriate stage of maturity,
though they are perfectly sound and sorted to remove decaying produce,
fit for consumption from a nutritional washed if appropriate, dried, and
and safety point of view: bent properly packaged for transport.
cucumbers, green beans that are not
perfectly even, and tomatoes that are Postharvest treatments, such as hot-
not evenly ripe. water and vapour-heat treatments, can

reduce pre-harvest pest and disease
infestations in specific crops such as
mangoes and papayas. Customers
themselves also need to reduce waste
by planning their fruit and vegetable
purchases and storing them properly
(Esguerra et al., 2017).
© FAO/Pedro Costa Gomes

Fresh produce is best packaged in
rigid containers to reduce mechanical
damage (Rapusas and Rolle, 2009).
During transportation, air must be able
to flow through the produce, while
minimizing water loss that can cause
wilting or shrivelling, weight loss and a
decline in quality. Improved packaging
and transport reduce mechanical Non-compliance with established food
damage, limits the need for handling, safety measures may lead to higher
and speeds up delivery to retailers and levels of losses in trade, for example
consumers. On arrival in wholesale if food is rejected because pesticide
markets, the produce must be sorted, residues exceed contamination limits.
and re-packaged in accordance with In a world where 690 million people go
customer demand. to bed hungry every night and three
billion cannot afford a healthy diet,
Cooling during transportation can slow wasting food on the basis of aesthetics
the growth of certain microorganisms, is ethically unacceptable. Consumers
reduce spoilage rates of good quality should be given the option to buy
produce, lengthen shelf-life and “ugly produce” that is safe but does
reduce losses and waste in fruit not meet aesthetic standards. Such
and vegetables. items are just as nutritious as food
that is cosmetically more attractive.
Traceability is a must-have in fruit and Selling them at a lower price would
vegetable supply chains to mitigate and particularly benefit poorer consumers.
manage risks associated with food-
safety recalls. New traceability practices Solutions include incentives to support
that make use of digital technology technologies to improve handling,
help ensure food safety and quality, public–private partnerships to support
optimize supply chains and reduce loss infrastructure and marketing problems,
by making spoilage problems readily innovations to upscale good practices,
detectable (WEF, 2019). A growing array and training for stakeholders in the
of sensors that monitor temperature supply chain.
and other metrics in real-time during
transportation, will contribute greatly The increasing importance of
to assuring the safety and quality of supermarkets in much of the world will
food as it transits across supply chains. force producers to conform to quality
standards – although consideration pandemic. At the same time, efforts are
is increasingly being given to relaxing needed to ensure that smallholders can
these standards in order to reduce benefit from market opportunities and
waste. Nevertheless, the high levels of can supply the volumes and quality of
waste in retail must not be overlooked, produce they demand.
particularly during the current COVID-19

Food for thought
Issues for action 6
I
mproving nutrition across many of production and lower the costs to
regions of the globe hinges upon consumers and the planet. Reducing
increasing fruit and vegetable intake loss and waste in value chains can also
as key constituents of healthy diets. reduce the environmental footprint
Increasing consumption could lead and, if properly implemented, save
to a win–win scenario for the health consumers money. Conducive policy
of both people and the planet if it is grounded in data, partnerships and
accompanied by concerted efforts and capacity development will be key to
investments to increase production promoting the sustainable production
and productivity in the sector. At the and consumption of fresh produce.
same time, however, such efforts
need to decrease the environmental
footprint, improve harvesting,
handling, storage and distribution to
reduce loss and waste, maintain quality
(particularly nutritive) and increase
shelf-life, and educate consumers
on the health benefits to be derived
from increased consumption of fruit
and vegetables.
Every country faces unique challenges

based on the environmental,
economic and social circumstances
in which its fruit and vegetable
sector operates. Low consumption,
however, continues to be an issue,
© FAO/Paul Mundy
even in countries where availability

is not a constraint. This is mainly
related to the affordability of fruit and
vegetables. Increasing productivity
could reduce the resource intensity
59
Policy z Promotion of biodiversity to
enhance nutritious diets by
Public policy has the power to encouraging the usage of locally
influence all levels of the fruit adapted varieties, landraces, wild
and vegetable value chain, crops and indigenous food species.
thereby shifting production and
consumption patterns. These policies z Better management and reduction
might address: of pesticides in production,
supported by effective regulatory
z Creation of a healthy food processes and knowledge about
environment by making options non-toxic plant-protection products
for consuming more fresh and measures. It is also critical to
produce easier for consumers. prevent the illegal trade and use of
This can include awareness-raising unregistered pesticides.
campaigns designed to change
consumer behaviour, together z Support for measures to enable
with the various interventions the exchange of planting materials
listed below. among countries.
z Formulation of food-based z Ensuring that policies facilitate

dietary guidelines that promote the trade of safe food in order to
the consumption of fruit and increase access to fresh produce in
vegetables as part of a diverse and all locations and during all seasons.
healthy diet.
z Reducing food loss in supply
z Use of public procurement policies chains. In low-income countries,
that promote healthy diets. policy options might include
strengthening the capacity of
z Integration of nutrition in school producer organizations and
curricula and school meals increasing investments in
programmes based on the local and infrastructure – roads, potable
smallholder agriculture production water, packing houses, cold-
to promote life-long positive chain development – to support
nutrition behaviours. postharvest handling and
distribution operations.
z Subsidies and tax incentives for the
production (including sustainable z Reducing food waste in supply
seed provision) and marketing of chains. In high-income countries,
fruit and vegetables. where food waste is an issue,
possible policy options might
z Creation of an enabling include adjusting marketing
environment that supports small- standards for fresh fruit and
scale producers in supply chains vegetables, and supporting their
and equitable and sustainable gleaning in fields for redistribution
contract-farming arrangements. by food banks.

z Support to research, development Multi-sectoral approaches
and innovation toward enhancing
efficiency and sustainability in fruit
and partnerships
and vegetable value chains. The complexity of the fruit and
vegetable sector necessitates
multi-sectorial approaches among
governments, the private sector,
Data to underpin policy development civil society, academia and research
institutions to encourage and
Innovation and investments in the support innovation, technology and
sector have the potential to transform infrastructure development. These
fruit and vegetable food systems in approaches involve coordination and
ways that could sustainably boost leveraging private- and public-sector
productivity and enable more equitable resources toward strengthening the
consumption. sector. Areas of collaboration might
include the following.
Successful policies and investments
require data. A holistic and integrated z Public–private sector collaboration
policy agenda informed by data to develop stronger communication
at each step of the value chain and marketing approaches in
will help to balance supply and support of increasing consumption,
demand and to combat malnutrition. generating new knowledge on fruit
Requirements include: and vegetables, and promoting
behaviour change.
z More specific production data
for a better understanding z Promoting research and
of the contributions of small- development structures and
scale producers. alliances that enable innovation
within the fruit and vegetable
z Data on where losses and waste in
supply chains are most significant
(and what causes them). This would
indicate the level and scale of
technologies needed, guide remedial
actions, and help ensure affordability
of the fresh produce.
z Research and conservation of

indigenous fruit and vegetables,
especially those that are not
annual crops, as they can
contribute to improving diet
quality by providing nutrient-
dense foods while supporting
climate-change adaptation.
f r ss es f r sc ss n 61
sector to reduce food loss and participatory guarantee systems to
waste, e.g., the development enhance marketability.
and use of active and intelligent
packaging to reduce spoilage and z Standards, compliance control,
alert consumers of spoilage. and training and education of all
stakeholders along the food supply
z Working with civil-society and chain on how to produce, harvest,
producer organizations, and handle, package and transport fruit
forming alliances to build and and vegetables, while maintaining
strengthen global value chains and their quality, assuring their safety
reducing food loss and waste in and reducing loss and waste to
supply systems. meet market requirements.
z Establishment of capacity
development and local selection
Capacity development and breeding programmes designed
to promote biodiversity in the
Capacity development of stakeholders fruit and vegetable sector, and
at all levels of the supply system formulation of food-based dietary
is critical to assuring the safety, guidelines, social and behaviour
quality, shelf-life and availability of change communication strategies,
fresh produce in local markets. This enabled by research.
will necessitate:
z Capacity development through

female and male farmer training Conclusion
on integrating nutrition in good
agricultural practices through The International Year of Fruits and
farmer field schools, demonstration- Vegetables in 2021 provides countries
based training and the use of and actors throughout the food system
farmer-to-farmer mentoring. The considerable opportunity to act and
topics should include integrated make a difference within the sector,
pest management, sustainability as well as to promote healthy diets for
and food safety along the adequate nutrition. This will facilitate
value chain. progress in moving toward a holistic
approach that will leave no one behind,
z Capacity development of small- contribute to eliminating hunger
scale producers to enable more and all other forms of malnutrition
direct access to markets and toward achieving the Sustainable
direct farmer–consumer schemes Development Goals.
and to facilitate their inclusion in

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7
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7 References 73
CONTACT
International Year of Fruits and Vegetables 2021 Secretariat
Mail: [email protected]
Website: www.fao.org/fruits-vegetables-2021
#IYFV2021
Food and Agriculture Organization

of the United Nations
Rome, Italy
ISBN 978-92-5-133709-7
9 789251 337097
CB2395EN/1/12.20

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FRUIT AND VEGETABLES –

YOUR DIETARY ESSENTIALS

The International Year of

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

Essential for healthy lives ......1 Responding to health-

Health and nutrition Quality, safety, loss and

Sustainable production ....... 17 Issues for action ................... 59

Chapter 3: Makiko Taguchi Sincere gratitude is extended to Paul

Chapter 4: Siobhan Kelly (Lead), Sabine

2021 is the International Year

of fruit and vegetables and their

z The UN Decade of Family Farming

z WHO’s Global Strategy on Diet,

The diverse range and characteristics

2 Fruit and vegetables – your dietary essentials

Policy. Food policies tend to be tailored

4 Fruit and vegetables – your dietary essentials

Fresh versus processed

form): either whole (berries) or after

Globali- Income Population Political & Socio-

• Food production • Food availability Choices in where and • Quantity

Nutrition Other impacts

Sustainable Development Goals

Figure 1. Food systems for healthy diets

6 Fruit and vegetables – your dietary essentials

8 Fruit and vegetables – your dietary essentials

Parents around the world try to cajole

Contain carotenoids that help keep eyes healthy.

Phytochemicals with antiviral and antibacterial properties as well as potassium.

Phytochemicals with anti-cancer properties.

10 Fruit and vegetables – your dietary essentials

z Lower obesity risk. A number of

z Children’s growth and

z Longer life. People who eat more

z Improved immunity. Adequate

such as COVID-19, recovery from

12 Fruit and vegetables – your dietary essentials

Overall, there is little apparent Availability. Many fruit and vegetables

14 Fruit and vegetables – your dietary essentials

production. Trade policies have also

can promote the inclusion of fruit and

16 Fruit and vegetables – your dietary essentials

Next we turn to the farm inputs (seeds,

Mango, Peach, Pineapple,

Vegetables, million tonnes

Eggplant Carrot, Chilli, green

Figure 3. World vegetable production by commodity, 2018

18 Fruit and vegetables – your dietary essentials

9.3 N Africa 34.2 37.2

Fruit production, 2018

Figure 4. World fruit production by region, 2018

Vegetable production, 2018

Figure 5. World vegetable production by region, 2018

Fruit Vegetables 1089

400 421 400

2000 2010 2018 2000 2010 2018

Figure 6. Change in production of fruit and vegetables, 2000–2018

20 Fruit and vegetables – your dietary essentials

The world is producing more fruit and

Distribution and access problems