CHAPTER 4 - Data Interpretation and Analysis

CHAPTER 4 -DATA INTERPRETATION AND ANALYSIS
It is a good idea to start data interpretation just after data gathering activity, because
experience will be fresh in the minds of the participants and this can help overcome any bias
caused by recording via audio, video, etc.
Task Description
Description of user task can help users to articulate existing work practices and help to
express envisioned use for new products.
Three common description types are:
1. Scenarios
ƒ an informal narrative story, simple, ‘natural’, personal, not generalisable
2. Use cases
ƒ assume interaction with a system
ƒ assume detailed understanding of the interaction
3. Essential use cases
An essential use case is a structured narrative, expressed in the language of the application
domain and of users, comprising a simplified, generalized, abstract, technology-free and
implementation independent description of one task or interaction that is complete,
meaningful, and well-defined from the point of view of users in some role or roles in relation
to a system and that embodies the purpose or intentions underlying the interaction.
Essential use cases are documented in a format representing a dialogue between the user and the
system. This resembles a two-column format used by Wirfs-Brock . In Wirfs-Brock's format,
the column labels refer to the action and the response. In contrast, the essential use case
format labels the columns user intention and system responsibility.
A) Example scenario for travel organizer:

“The Thomson family enjoy outdoor activity holidays and want to try their hand at sailing this
year. There are four members of the family: Sky who is 10 years old, Eamonn who is 15
years old, Claire who is 35, and Will who is 40. While out on a shopping trip they call by at
the travel agents in their local town to start exploring the possibilities ... The travel organizer
is located in a quiet corner of the agents’ office, where there are comfortable seats and play
things for young children. They all gather around the organizer and enter their initial set of
requirements—a sailing holiday for four novices. The stand-alone console is designed so that
all members of the family can interact easily and comfortably with it. The system’s initial
suggestion is that they should consider a flotilla holiday, where several novice crews go
sailing together and provide mutual support for first time sailors…”
B) Example use case for travel organizer:
1. The system displays options for investigating visa and vaccination requirements.
2. The user chooses the option to find out about visa requirements.
3. The system prompts user for the name of the destination country.
4. The user enters the country’s name.
5. The system checks that the country is valid.
6. The system prompts the user for her nationality.
7. The user enters her nationality.
8. The system checks the visa requirements of the entered country for a passport holder of her
nationality.
9. The system displays the visa requirements.
10. The system displays the option to print out the visa requirements.
11. The user chooses to print the requirements.
Some alternative courses:

6. If the country name is invalid:
6.1 The system displays an error message.
6.2 The system returns to step 3.
8. If the nationality is invalid:
8.1 The system displays an error message.
9. If no information about visa requirements is found:
9.1 The system displays a suitable message.
Example use case diagram for travel organizer:

C) Essential use case Examples
i) Atm system
ii. Customer help desk system

TASK ANALYSIS
Task Analysis plays an important part in User Requirements Analysis.
- Task analysis is the procedure to learn the users and abstract frameworks, the patterns used in
workflows, and the chronological implementation of interaction with the GUI. It analyzes the
ways in which the user partitions the tasks and sequence them.
For example, a person preparing an overhead projector for use would be seen to carry out the
following actions :-
1. Plug in to main and switch on supply.

2. Locate on/off switch on projector
3. Discover which way to press the switch
4. Press the switch for power
5. Put on the slide and orientate correctly
6. Align the projector on the screen
7. Focus the slide
The description of user tasks includes:

i. What tasks they perform?
ii. Why they perform them?
iii. How they perform them?
The three questions can be answered by obtaining
ƒ Goals: What people want to accomplish
ƒ Tasks: The mechanisms people use to accomplish goals
ƒ Actions: Subcomponents of tasks
Example:
Goal: Get to mountain vacation
Tasks: Rent car, drive, get repairs
Action: Get gas
What are the aims of Task Analysis?
Task analysis verifies that the set of actions employed by the user does accomplish the task. Task
analysis explicitly describes the procedure that the user actually employs since this may be
different from the expected series of actions.
Task analysis is used to:
i. Predict the time taken to learn a new task and become a proficient user of the particular
application / machine. Task analysis may reveal how difficult one method is to learn
compared to another.
ii. Predict the time taken for a proficient user to accomplish the set task - this can reflect
whether the interface is good at supporting exploration. Is it quicker to simply explore by
trial and error or attempt to find out through help?
iii. Predict the time taken for expert execution of the set task - how long does it take to
become expert once a procedure has been discovered? This can be affected by the design
of an interface.
iv. To improve the delivery of information to the user.
This involves identifying any problems with the delivery of information to the user and
the consideration of possible solutions.
When to Perform a Task Analysis
It’s important to perform a task analysis early in your process, in particular prior to design work.
Task analysis helps support several other aspects of the user-centered design process, including:
 Website requirements gathering
 Developing your content strategy and site structure
 Wireframing and Prototyping
 Performing usability testing
Types of Task Analysis
There are several types of task analysis but among the most common techniques used are:
i. Hierarchical Task Analysis is focused on decomposing a high-level task into subtasks.

ii. Cognitive Task Analysis is focused on understanding tasks that require decision-
making, problem-solving, memory, attention and judgement.
A) Hierarchical Task Analysis

- Hierarchical Task Analysis is the procedure of disintegrating tasks into subtasks that could be
analyzed using the logical sequence for execution. This would help in achieving the goal in
the best possible way.
- Involves breaking a task down into subtasks, then sub-tasks and so on. These are grouped
as plans which specify how the tasks might be performed in practice
ƒ HTA focuses on physical and observable actions, and includes looking at actions not
related to software or an interaction device
ƒ Start with a user goal which is examined and the main tasks for achieving it are identified
ƒ Use text and/or diagrams to show task-subtask hierarchy and plans to describe order
Example: HTA for borrowing a book from the library
Task-subtask hierarchy:
0. In order to borrow a book from the library
1. Go to the library
2. Find the required book
2.1 Access library catalogue
2.2 Access the search screen
2.3 Enter search criteria
2.4 Identify required book
2.5 Note location
3. Go to shelf and get book
4. Take book to checkout counter
Plans to describe the task order:

ƒ Plan 0: Do 1-3-4. If book is not on the expected shelf, do
2-3-4.
ƒ Plan 2: Do 2.1-2.4-2.5. If book not identified, do 2.2-2.3-
2.4-2.5.
This is called textual HTA
Graphical HTA representation:
B) Cognitive Task Analysis

Cognitive task analysis (CTA) is a type of Task analysis aimed at understanding tasks that
require a lot of cognitive activity from the user, such as decision-making, problem-solving,
memory, attention and judgment.
Cognitive task analysis has been used to examine:
 Performance differences between novices and experts

 Mental workload associated with complex controls and displays
 Decision-making of experts
 The development and evolution of mental models.
 Information requirements for command and control systems
 Troubleshooting, fault isolation, and diagnostic procedures
Methods available for conducting a cognitive task analysis.

i. Applied Cognitive Task Analysis (ACTA)
Applied cognitive task analysis or ACTA, a streamlined way of figuring out what learners need
to know to accomplish a task. Militello and Hutton (1998) describe a three-prong approach to
creating meaningful training using ACTA.
 Create a task diagram

 Perform a knowledge audit
 Undertake a simulation interview
CTA is performed by interviewing subject matter experts (SMEs) to determine how superior
performers do what they do.
a. Create a task diagram
Interview subject matter experts to identify >3 but no more than 6 steps involved in performing a
task. Have them describe which steps involve cognitive processes. Forcing subject matter experts
to keep the number of steps small forces them to identify the most important steps of a task.
ii. Perform a knowledge audit
Having identified the major steps in performing a task, subject matter experts are probed to
obtain more details about the thought processes involved in each step. Consider asking:
 What strategies do you use to perform a task?

 What clues do you use to make decisions? What do you notice about situations/problems
before you decide what to do?
 How do you troubleshoot when unexpected events happen?
 What are the common missteps that non-experts make?
Militello and Hutton (1998) describe a list of probes or questions to use as part of a knowledge
audit,
 How do you evaluate how a situation has developed and where it’s heading?
 Do you find yourself noticing things about situations that others often don’t? What are
some of the things you notice?
 How do you determine what’s most important about a task? What major elements do you
keep track of?
 What tricks help you to be efficient?
 Can you describe times when you’ve improvised or changed your process to get a job
done?
 Can you describe any unusual circumstances you’ve encountered on a job? How did you
adjust your process?
iii. Simulation interview
Subject matter experts are challenged with a difficult scenario and asked to articulate what they
would do and how they would think if faced with such a scenario. For example, a subject matter
expert could be asked:
 How do you assess the situation?

 What actions would you take?
 What cues do you look for?

 What are the “beginner mistakes” that novices can make in this situation?
Summarizing your analysis

Militello and Hutton (1998) recommend creating a “cognitive demands table” to summarize data
and to identify knowledge needed to accomplish a task.The table can take this form:

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CHAPTER 4 -DATA INTERPRETATION AND ANALYSIS

A) Example scenario for travel organizer:

Some alternative courses:

Example use case diagram for travel organizer:

ii. Customer help desk system

1. Plug in to main and switch on supply.

The description of user tasks includes:

What are the aims of Task Analysis?

Task analysis is used to:

Types of Task Analysis

i. Hierarchical Task Analysis is focused on decomposing a high-level task into subtasks.

A) Hierarchical Task Analysis

Example: HTA for borrowing a book from the library

Plans to describe the task order:

Graphical HTA representation:

B) Cognitive Task Analysis

 Performance differences between novices and experts

Methods available for conducting a cognitive task analysis.

 Create a task diagram

 What strategies do you use to perform a task?

 How do you assess the situation?

 What cues do you look for?

Summarizing your analysis

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