5 CE217 TRE U3 Road Intersections 111221

B.
Tech Civil Engineering

FIFTH SEMESTER
CE217 Transportation Engineering
UNIT – III
Unit -3 Traffic Engineering
Traffic Engineering – Fundamentals of traffic flow, Level of service, analysis of Speed

studies. Accident studies and analysis. Principles and design of signalized and un-
signalized intersections as per IRC standards.
ROAD INTERSECTIONS
 Intersection is an area shared by two or more roads.
 This area is designated for the vehicles to turn to different directions to reach their
desired destinations. Its main function is to guide vehicles to their respective
directions.
 Traffic intersections are complex locations on any highway. This is because

vehicles moving in different direction want to occupy same space at the same
time.
 In addition, the pedestrians also seek same space for crossing.
 Drivers have to make split second decision at an intersection by considering his

route, intersection geometry, speed and direction of other vehicles etc. A small
error in judgment can cause severe accidents.
 It also causes delay and it depends on type, geometry, and type of control. Overall
traffic ow depends on the performance of the intersections.
 It also affects the capacity of the road.
 Therefore, both from the accident perspective and the capacity perspective, the
study of intersections very important for the traffic engineers especially in the case
of urban scenario.
Conflicts at an intersection
 Various types of conflicts at an intersection are  Crossing Conflict  Merging
Conflict Diverging Conflict.
 Conflicts at an intersection are different for different types of intersection.
Consider a typical four-legged intersection.
CE217/TRE/U3/Intersections/2021 Page 1 of 22
 The number of conflicts for competing through movements are 4, while competing
right turn and through movements are 8.
 The conflicts between right turn traffics are 4, and between left turn and merging
traffic is 4.
 The conflicts created by pedestrians will be 8 taking into account all the four
approaches. Diverging traffic also produces about 4 conflicts.
 Therefore, a typical four legged intersection has about 32 different types of
conflicts.
 Essence of the intersection control is to resolve these conflicts at the intersection
for the safe and efficient movement of both vehicular traffic and pedestrians.
 Two methods of intersection controls are there: time sharing and space sharing.
 The type of intersection control that has to be adopted depends on the traffic
volume, road geometry, cost involved, importance of the road etc.
Levels of intersection control
 The control of an intersection can be exercised at different levels.

 They can be passive control, semi control,  active control.
 In passive control, there is no explicit control on the driver .
 In semi control, some amount of control on the driver is there from the traffic
agency.
 Active control means the movement of the traffic is fully controlled by the traffic
agency and the drivers cannot simply manoeuvre the intersection according to his
choice.
1 Passive control
 When the volume of traffic is less, no explicit control is required.

 Here the road users are required to obey the basic rules of the road.
 Passive control like traffic signs, road markings etc. are used to complement the
intersection control.
 Some of the intersection control that are classified under passive control are No
Control  Traffic Signs  Traffic Signs plus Markings
(i) No control
 If the traffic coming to an intersection is low, then by applying the basic rules
of the road like driver on the left side of the road must yield and that through
movements will have priority than turning movements.
 The driver is expected to obey these basic rules of the road.
(ii) Traffic signs:
 With the help of warning signs, guide signs etc. it is able to provide some level
of control at an intersection. Give way control, two-way stop control, and all-
way stop control are some examples.
 The GIVE WAY control requires the driver in the minor road to slow down to a
minimum speed and allow the vehicle on the major road to proceed.
 Two way stop control requires the vehicle drivers on the minor streets should
see that the conicts are avoided.
 Finally an all-way stop control is usually used when it is difficult to

differentiate between the major and minor roads in an intersection. In such a
case, STOP sign is placed on all the approaches to the intersection and the
driver on all the approaches are required to stop the vehicle.
 The vehicle at the right side will get priority over the left approach. The traffic
control at 'at-grade' intersection may be uncontrolled in cases of low traffic.
 Here the road users are required to obey the basic rules of the road. Passive
control like traffic signs, road markings etc. are used to complement the
intersection control.
(iii) Traffic signs plus marking:
 In addition to the traffic signs, road markings also complement the traffic
control at intersections.
 Some of the examples include stop line marking, yield lines, arrow marking etc.
2 Semi control
In semi control or partial control, the drivers are gently guided to avoid conflicts.
Channelization and  Traffic rotaries.
(i) Channelization:
 The traffic is separated to ow through definite paths by raising a portion of the

road in the middle usually called as islands distinguished by road markings.
 The conflicts in traffic movements are reduced to a great extent in such a case.
 In channelized intersections, as the name suggests, the traffic is directed to flow

through different channels and this physical separation is made possible with the
help of some barriers in the road like traffic islands, road markings etc.
(ii) Traffic rotaries:
 It is a form of intersection control in which the tra_c is made to ow along one

direction around a traffic island.
 The essential principle of this control is to convert all the severe conflicts like
through and right turn conflicts into milder conflicts like merging, weaving and
diverging.
 It is a form of `at-grade' intersection laid out for the movement of traffic such that
no through conflicts are there.
 Free-left turn is permitted where as through traffic and right-turn traffic is forced
to move around the central island in a clock-wise direction in an orderly manner.
 Merging, weaving and diverging operations reduces the conflicting movements at

the rotary.
3 Active control
Active control implies that the road user will be forced to follow the path suggested by
the traffic control agencies. He cannot manoeuvre according to his wish. Traffic
signals and grade separated intersections come under this classification.
(i) Traffic signals:
 Control using traffic signal is based on time sharing approach.

 At a given time, with the help of appropriate signals, certain traffic movements are
restricted where as certain other movements are permitted to pass through the
intersection.
 Two or more phases may be provided depending upon the traffic conditions of the
intersection.
 When the vehicles traversing the intersection is very large, then the control is
done with the help of signals.
 The phases provided for the signal may be two or more. If more than two phases
are provided, then it is called multiphase signal.
 The signals can operate in several modes. Most common are fixed time signals
and vehicle actuated signals.
 In fixed time signals, the cycle time, phases and interval of each signal is fixed.
 Each cycle of the signal will be exactly like another. But they cannot cater to the
needs of the fluctuating traffic.
 On the other hand, vehicle actuated signals can respond to dynamic traffic
situations.
 Vehicle detectors will be placed on the streets approaching the intersection and
the detector will sense the presence of the vehicle and pass the information to a
controller.
 The controller then sets the cycle time and adjusts the phase lengths according to
the prevailing traffic conditions.
(ii) Grade separated intersections:
 The intersections are of two types. They are  at-grade intersections and grade-
separated intersections.
 In at-grade intersections, all roadways join or cross at the same vertical level.
Grade separated intersections allows the traffic to cross at different vertical levels.
 Sometimes the topography itself may be helpful in constructing such
intersections. Otherwise, the initial construction cost required will be very high.
 Therefore, they are usually constructed on high speed facilities like expressways,
freeways etc.
 These type of intersection increases the road capacity because vehicles can flow
with high speed and accident potential is also reduced due to vertical separation
of traffic.
Classification of Intersections
2 Groups  Intersection at Grade  Grade separated Intersection
1. Intersection at Grade
These include all roads which meet at more or less the same level. The traffic
manoeuvers like merging, diverging and crossing are involved in the inter
section at grade. The intersection at grade are further sub classified into three
categories viz. un channelized  channelized  Rotary intersection 
Signalised intersection.
2. Grade separated intersection
Intersections roads are separated by difference in level, thus eliminating the
cross manoeuvers. The grade separation is effected by taking one of the roads
say the major road either above the cross road by means of an over pass or fly
over or below the cross road by under pass. The turning movements between
the grade separated cross roads are enabled by suitable interchange facilities.

INTERSECTION AT GRADE
Factors to be considered in design of Intersection at Grade:  Relative speed 

Manoeuvring areas.
1. Relative Speed:
 Relative Speed is the vector difference in the velocities of two vehicles in the same
flow and is the sum of the speed approaching vehicles from opposite direction.
 It is the speed of convergence of vehicles in separate traffic flows as they approach

a point of potential collision.
 Relative speed is dependent on the absolute speeds of the intersecting vehicles

and angle between them.
 When the angle of merging is small the relative speed will also be low. If there is
collision between two vehicles at small angle at about the same speed or at low
relative speed, the impact would be much less severe than when vehicle collide at
high relative speed.
 As the relative speed increases, the judgement of drivers regarding time and
distance is likely to be more inaccurate, thus increasing the possibility and
severity of accidents.
 Thus in intersection design has to be taken to keep the relative speeds low.
2. Manoeuvring area
 Manoeuvring area is the area of an intersection at grade where in merging,

diverging and cross manoeuvers take place; there is a potential collision and also
those like channel of approach and departure where the manoeuvre is influenced.
 Elemental manoeuvring area are those formed by only two single one way lanes of
flows when they diverge, merge or cross, these being the simplest of these
manoeuvres.
 But in multiple manoeuver areas where more than two lanes one way flows are
present, traffic operations are much more complex and hence are to be avoided in
intersection design.
 Point where the possible path of two vehicles intersect is called conflict points and
the area containing all possible points is the conflict area.
 Area where more that one vehicle is subjected to conflict simultaneously is called
major conflict area.
 During design of intersections at grade, attempt should be made to minimise the

total conflict area and particularly he major conflict area.
Requirement of intersection at grade
All road intersections which meet at about the same level allowing traffic manoeuvres
like merging, diverging, crossing, and weaving are called intersections at grade. The
basic requirements of the intersection at grade are
1) At the intersection the area of conflict should be as small as possible

2) The relative speed and particularly the angle of approach of the vehicle should
be small.
3) Adequate visibility should be available for vehicles approaching the
intersection.
4) Sudden change of path should be avoided.
5) Geometric features like turning radius and width of pavement should be
adequately provided.
6) Proper signs should be provided on the road approaching the intersection to
warn the drivers.
7) If the number of pedestrians and cyclist are large separate provision should be
made for their safe passage at intersections with high volume of fast moving
traffic.
8) Good lighting at night is desirable.
Visibility at Intersections:
 When both the intersecting roads are of equal importance, the sight distance for
the driver approaching the intersection is the safe SSD for the design speed on the
particular arm.
 The diagonal of the sight or visibility triangle should be clear of any obstruction
for non- signalised intersections.
 In the case of a priority junction, the traffic on the minor road is controlled by
STOP or GIVE WAY traffic sign and/or road markings.
 The visibility distance for drivers approaching from the minor road should be
adequate for their reaction and judgment of the traffic on the major road for a safe
crossing. The current Indian practice is to maintain a minimum visibility distance
of 15 m along the minor road.
 The corresponding distance along the major road is considered to be a time-

headway of 8 seconds; or, the minimum visibility distance along the major road is
the distance travelled by the vehicle at its design speed in 8 seconds. Thus, for a
speed of 100 km/h, it is 270 m; for 65 km/h, it is 145 m; and for 50 km/h, it is
110 m. In urban sections, these speeds are further reduced.
Width of Carriageway at Intersections:
 Width of the carriageway needs to be increased on horizontal curves to counteract

the ill-effects of the centrifugal force.
 Similarly, near intersections at-grade, the turning moments are facilitated by

introducing sharp curves to be negotiated at a minimum speed.
 Here also, an increased carriageway

width is found necessary.
 Table gives the particulars of the

inner radius at the corners, design
speed, and lane widths for single-lane
and two-lane roads.
 As the angle of turn increases, the

radius of the corner curves decreases, the curves becoming sharper and sharper.
Speed-Change Lanes:
 While entering into or leaving an intersection, drivers have to necessarily change

their speed.
 While entering into an intersection, the speed is reduced to a safe limit at which
the intersection may be negotiated, while leaving, the speed has to be increased
until the desired design speed on the highway is reached.
 If such deceleration or acceleration is accomplished on the regular carriageway,

traffic could be disrupted and even hazards or accidents might occur.
 To prevent this, ‘speed-change lanes’ are provided on superior highways like

expressways or on national highways. Such lanes also increase the capacity of the
intersection.
 IRC recommends that speed-change lanes be provided if the projected traffic on
these lanes is more than 1000 PCU’s per day. Speed-change lanes are either
acceleration lanes or deceleration lanes.
 An acceleration lane enables a vehicle entering a lane to increase its speed and
merge safely with through traffic.
 A deceleration lane is an auxiliary lane to enable a vehicle leaving the through

traffic stream to reduce speed without interfering with other traffic; such a lane is
provided on the near-side for left-turning traffic.
 Acceleration and deceleration lanes are usually provided with a taper, as shown in
Fig. 5.3. The length of a deceleration
lane depends upon the manoeuvring
speed and the deceleration
characteristics; the length of an
acceleration lane depends upon the
speed at which the drivers merge with
through traffic and the acceleration
characteristics.
Various forms of intersections at Grade
A) Un channelized intersection
 Intersection area is paved and there is absolutely no restriction to vehicles to use

any part of the intersection to vehicles to use any part of the intersection area.
 Hence the channelized (all paved)
intersections are the lowest class of
intersection, easiest in the design but most
complex in traffic operations resulting in
maximum conflict area and more number of
accidents, unless controlled by traffic
signals or police.
 When no additional pavement width for

turning movements is provided, it is called
plain intersection.
 But when the pavement is widened at the

intersection area, by a traffic lane or more,
it is known as flared intersection.
B) Channelized Intersections:
 Channelized intersection is achieved by

introducing islands into the intersection
area in order to channelize the traffic flow
into appropriate streams.
 Channelizing islands also reduce the total conflict are available in the
unchannelizing intersection.
 Size and shape of the channelizing islands are so deigned as to control and
regulate the porch angle and relative speed of the vehicles.
 Radius of the entrance and exit curve and the area are suitably designed to
accommodate the channelizing islands of proper size and shape.
 Thus the functions of the channelizing islands are to  Channelize the turning
traffic into appropriate paths  Control the angle of approach of the vehicles
coming form different legs,  Reduce the relative speed and  Decrease the
conflict area at the intersection.
 Some of the typical examples of channelized inter sections are shown in figs.
 Channelization may be either partial or complete by introducing channelizing
islands of appropriate size and shapes.,
along with divisional islands and
medians.
 From traffic operation point of view,

there is a better control on the traffic
entering and leaving the intersection
and hence channelize intersection are
considered as superior to the all paved
ways.
 However it is not possible to avoid

crossing conflicts and therefore one of
the crossing vehicles will have to stop which the other proceeds.
The advantages of channelized interactions

are
1. Vehicles are regulated, confined and

guided through the definite paths.
2. Angle of merging streams can be forced

to be at flat angles so as to decrease the
relative speed and cause minimum
disruption.
3. Both the major and minor conflict areas

within the intersection can considerably
be decreased as shown in the figure.
4. Angle between intersection streams of

traffic may be kept as desired in a favourable way
5. Speed control can be established over vehicle entering the intersection.
6. Refuge islands can be provided for pedestrian within the intersection area.
7. Points of conflicts can be separated.
8. Channelizing islands provide proper place for installation of signs and other traffic
control devices.
One of the main limitations of the channelized intersection is that the crossing
conflicts continue to exists.
Therefore as the traffic volume at the intersection increased, it is necessary to

upgrade the intersection to a higher category such as signalised intersection.
REFERENCE
1. https://www.civil.iitb.ac.in/tvm/nptel/567_Grade/web/web.html
2. http://www.engineeringenotes.com/transportation-
engineering/highway/highway-intersection-and-its-types-with-notes-and-
diagram/48521

GRADE SEPARATED INTERSECTIONS
 Roads are separated and constructed at different elevations, avoiding the need for
crossing at the same elevation.
 Grade separation may be achieved by the construction of an over-bridge or an

under-bridge
 Transfer from one road to another is facilitated by interchanges consisting of

‘ramps’.
Necessity for Grade Separated Intersections
1) Existing at-grade intersection has reached its maximum capacity, which cannot
be improved further.
2) Particular location has a very bad record of accident history as an at-grade

intersection.
3) There is considerable economic justification for a grade separation in view of very

heavy traffic volume and the loss caused by delays.
4) Topography of the location involves considerable earthwork or land acquisition for

an at-grade intersection.
5) Facility is a high-end type such as an expressway or a freeway with through fast

traffic.
IRC gives guidelines for providing grade separations in urban streets and
rural highways.
 Urban streets, grade separation is to be provided if the estimated traffic within the
next five years exceed the present capacity of the intersection. If the traffic
projections show that, in the next 20 years, traffic volumes exceed the maximum
capacity of an at-grade intersection, a grade separation is indicated.
 In rural highways, a grade separation should be provided at intersections of

divided rural highway if the average daily traffic (ADT) on the cross road is
expected to exceed 5000 PCU within the next 5 years.
 Grade-separation is of great importance across railway tracks. IRC: 62 – 1976

recommends grade-separation across existing railway lines if the product of ADT
and the number of trains per day exceeds 50,000 in the next 5 years.
 For new constructions such as bypasses, grade separations shall be provided
when this figure exceeds 25,000.
Advantages
 Avoids necessity for stopping in intersection and traffic accidents  Increased

Safety  Comfort and convenience to Motorist saving time and operation cost 
Possible to adopt for all likely angles and layout of intersecting roads.
Types of Grade-Separated Intersections
1) Grade-separated intersections without interchange.
2) Grade-separated intersections with interchange.
Interchange is a facility for movement of traffic between two or more roads at

different levels in a grade-separated junction.
1) Grade-Separated Junction without Interchange:
 This is a system wherein the traffic at different levels moves separately without a
provision for an interchange between them; the separation is achieved by means
of an over-bridge, fly-over, or an underpass.
2) Grade-Separated Junction with Interchange:
 This is a system wherein the traffic, besides moving separately in streams at

different levels, can get interchanged from one stream to another via an
interchange facility.
 A proper design of the system facilitates an

orderly and safe movement of traffic.
 This is a high-end facility for large volumes of

traffic on two or more roads involved with a
heavy proportion of turning traffic.
Interchanges can be considered on the basis of the number of legs served by the
intersection and classified as three-leg, four-leg, and multi-leg intersections with the
following subdivisions:
1) Three-Leg Interchange:  T-type  Y-type  Rotary type
2) Four-Leg Interchange:  Diamond type  Partial clover-leaf  Clover-leaf 

Rotary  Directional interchange
3) Multi-Leg Interchange:  Rotary interchange

(1) Three-Leg Interchange:
 A T-interchange is one in which one of the

intersection legs meets a highway approximately
at right angles, but does not cross it, and it is
provided with an interchange facility.
 A Y-interchange is similar to a T-interchange,

but for the intersection angle which is acute or
obtuse.
 A widely used form of T- or Y- interchange is a ‘Trumpet interchange”
 Trumpet interchanges have been used where one highway terminates at another
highway.
 These involve at least one loop ramp connecting

traffic either entering or leaving the terminating
expressway with the far lanes of the continuous
highway.
 These interchanges are useful for highways as

well as toll roads, as they concentrate all entering
and exiting traffic into a single stretch of roadway, where toll booths can be
installed.
 Trumpets are suitable at the locations where the side road exists on only one side
of the freeway, and traffic is relatively low.
 Each entrance and exit consists of acceleration or deceleration lanes at each end.
It requires only one bridge and is the most traditional way of grade separating a
three way junction.
 The principal advantages are low construction cost and are useful for highways as
well as toll roads.
2) Four-Leg Interchange:
(i) Diamond Interchange
 The diamond Interchange is the simplest form of grade separated intersection
between two roadways.
 The conflicts between through and crossing traffic are eliminated by a bridge
structure. This particular intersection has four one way ramps which are
essentially parallel to the major
artery.
 The left turn crossing movement
conflicts are considerably reduced
by eliminating the conflict with the
traffic in opposite direction.
 All the remaining left turn conflicts,
merging and diverging manoeuvre
conflicts take place at the terminal point of each ramp.
 Limitation in application of this design depends on the operations of these
terminals. So, it is suitable for locations where the volume of left turn traffic is
relatively low.
 The diamond interchange requires a minimum amount of land and is
economical to construct.
(ii) Cloverleaf Interchange
 The full clover interchange eliminates all crossing movement conflicts by the
use of weaving sections.
 This weaving section is a critical element of
cloverleaf design. It replaces a crossing conflict
with a merging, followed some distance farther
by a diverging conflict.
 There are two points of entry and exit on each
through roadway.
 The first exit is provided before the cross road
structure allows right turn movements. The
second exit, immediately after the cross road structure, allows for left turn
movements.
 A weaving section is created between the exit and entry points near the
structure. Sufficient length and capacity is to be provided to allow for a smooth
merging and diverging operation.
Half Clover-Leaf Interchange:
 Also called a partial clover-leaf interchange, this type is suitable when a major
road crosses a minor one with not
more than two lanes (Fig. 5.23).
 Partial clover leaf is a modification
that combines some elements of a
diamond interchange with one or
more loops of a cloverleaf to
eliminate only the more critical
turning conflicts.
 This is the most popular freeway -to- arterial interchange.
 Partial clover leaf is usually employed when crossing roads on the secondary
road will not produce objectionable amounts of hazard and delay.
 It provides more acceleration and deceleration space on the freeway.
(iii) Directional Interchange
 A Directional interchange provides direct paths for left turns. These

interchanges contain ramps for one or more direct or semi direct left turning
movements.
 Interchanges of two freeways or interchanges

with one or more very heavy turning
movements usually warrant direct ramps,
which have higher speeds of operation and
higher capacities, compared to loop ramps.
 Some designers do not favour entrance of

merging traffic in the left lane, which is a
characteristic of most direct-connection
bridges.
 The principal limitations of this type of interchange is higher cost of

construction and requirement relatively large amount of land when compared
to the diamond interchanges and in some cases than cloverleaf interchange.
 Various combinations of directional, semi directional and loop ramps may be

appropriate for certain conditions.
 They are the basic patterns that use the least space, have the fewest or least
complex structures, minimize internal weaving and appropriate for the
common terrain and traffic conditions.
iii Grade-Separated Rotary Interchange:

 This can serve as a four-leg interchange or
as a multi-leg interchange; a typical form
of the latter is shown in Fig. 5.25.
 Merits: U-turns are easy. Carriageway
area is less than that in many other
interchanges. Occupies relatively less area.
 Demerits: The capacity of the interchange
is limited by the capacity of the round-
about. Straight traffic on road is required to weave through turning traffic from
the other. The larger the number of legs, the larger will be the confusion in
operation.
Design Criteria for Grade Separations:
 For the purpose of design, the grade-separated interchange consists of three

major elements:
1) Exit terminal – The point of leaving through road
2) Ramp – It may be a single-way road leading to the through road; but, in the
roundabout type, this includes the roundabout itself.
3) Entry terminal – The point of joining the through road.
 When two levels are involved, a decision has to be made regarding which road is
to be taken over the structure and which one under the structure.
 The criteria which help in this regard are the topography, major traffic
movements, type of the highways, and economic considerations.
 An overpass gives less feeling of restriction and has practically no problems of

drainage.
 On the other hand, an underpass is better when the major road is at about the
general ground level, but drainage problems have to be given due attention.
Design Criteria for Ramps/Interchanges:
The following are the common terms used in this connection:
(i) Interchange ramp – An interconnecting roadway or any connection between

roads at different levels. It may be in the form of a loop, outer connection or
direct connection.
(ii) Loop – A one-way turning road that curves about 270° to the left to facilitate a
right-turning movement.
(iii) Outer connection – A ramp used by the left-turning traffic to move from one
through roadway to another through roadway, separated by a grade separation
structure.
(iv) Direct connection – A ramp which does not deviate much from the intended
direction of movement. It avoids the loop for right-turning movement. An outer
connection acts as a direct connection for left-turning movement.
Design Speed for Ramp:
 For ramps, the design speed will be less than that for the highway. For example,
for a design speed of 80 km/h for the highway, that for the ramp will be 40-70
km/h.
 For loops, it is only 45 km/h; for direct connections, a design speed of 65 km/h is
considered appropriate.
Sight distance –
 A minimum stopping sight distance appropriate for the design speed is necessary.
Gradient on ramps –
 It should be limited to 6% in areas subject to snow; it should not exceed 4% for

heavy truck traffic.
 In the case of minor ramps with low traffic volumes, an exceptional gradient of
10% may be provided.
Width of ramp –
 Since a ramp is expected to carry one-way traffic only, the width should be for the
lane along with an extra-width for the curvature, if any.
Capacity of ramp –
 The practical capacity of through lanes may be taken as 1500 PCU/hour per lane
for interchanges.
 A value of 1200 PCU/hour is considered appropriate.
REFERENCE
1. http://www.engineeringenotes.com/transportation-
engineering/highway/highway-intersection-and-its-types-with-notes-and-
diagram/48521
2. https://theconstructor.org/transportation/grade-separation-
interchanges/29200/
3. https://www.civil.iitb.ac.in/tvm/nptel/567_Grade/web/web.html
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B.

Tech Civil Engineering

Unit -3 Traffic Engineering

Traffic Engineering – Fundamentals of traffic flow, Level of service, analysis of Speed

 Intersection is an area shared by two or more roads.

 Traffic intersections are complex locations on any highway. This is because

 In addition, the pedestrians also seek same space for crossing.

 Drivers have to make split second decision at an intersection by considering his

 It also affects the capacity of the road.

Levels of intersection control

 The control of an intersection can be exercised at different levels.

 When the volume of traffic is less, no explicit control is required.

 The driver is expected to obey these basic rules of the road.

(ii) Traffic signs:

 Finally an all-way stop control is usually used when it is difficult to

(iii) Traffic signs plus marking:

 The traffic is separated to ow through definite paths by raising a portion of the

 In channelized intersections, as the name suggests, the traffic is directed to flow

(ii) Traffic rotaries:

 It is a form of intersection control in which the tra_c is made to ow along one

 Merging, weaving and diverging operations reduces the conflicting movements at

(i) Traffic signals:

 Control using traffic signal is based on time sharing approach.

(ii) Grade separated intersections:

2 Groups  Intersection at Grade  Grade separated Intersection

Factors to be considered in design of Intersection at Grade:  Relative speed 

 It is the speed of convergence of vehicles in separate traffic flows as they approach

 Relative speed is dependent on the absolute speeds of the intersecting vehicles

 Manoeuvring area is the area of an intersection at grade where in merging,

 During design of intersections at grade, attempt should be made to minimise the

Requirement of intersection at grade

1) At the intersection the area of conflict should be as small as possible

 The corresponding distance along the major road is considered to be a time-

Width of Carriageway at Intersections:

 Width of the carriageway needs to be increased on horizontal curves to counteract

 Similarly, near intersections at-grade, the turning moments are facilitated by

 Here also, an increased carriageway

 Table gives the particulars of the

 As the angle of turn increases, the

 While entering into or leaving an intersection, drivers have to necessarily change

 If such deceleration or acceleration is accomplished on the regular carriageway,

 To prevent this, ‘speed-change lanes’ are provided on superior highways like

 A deceleration lane is an auxiliary lane to enable a vehicle leaving the through

Various forms of intersections at Grade

 Intersection area is paved and there is absolutely no restriction to vehicles to use

 When no additional pavement width for

 But when the pavement is widened at the

 Channelized intersection is achieved by

 From traffic operation point of view,

 However it is not possible to avoid

The advantages of channelized interactions

1. Vehicles are regulated, confined and

2. Angle of merging streams can be forced

3. Both the major and minor conflict areas

4. Angle between intersection streams of

5. Speed control can be established over vehicle entering the intersection.

7. Points of conflicts can be separated.

Therefore as the traffic volume at the intersection increased, it is necessary to

 Grade separation may be achieved by the construction of an over-bridge or an

 Transfer from one road to another is facilitated by interchanges consisting of