Sternberg Sternberg, CH 3

Here are some of the questions we will explore in this chapter:
l. What are the fundamental structures and processes within the brain?
2. How do researchers study the major structures and processes of the brain?
3. What have researchers found as a result of studying the brain?
Cognitive Neuroscience
Iii BELIEVE IT OR NOT
Does YouR BRAIN Use Less POWER THAN YouR DESK LAMP? achieves, it does not use much more energy than your
CHAPTER OUTLINE The brain is one of the premier users of energy in the computer and monitor when they are "asleep." It is esti-
human body. As much as 20% of the energy in your mated that your brain uses about 12-20 watts of power.
Cognition in the Brain: The Anatomy Brain Disorders body is consumed by your brain, although it accounts Your sleeping computer consumes about 10 watts when
Strol<e only for about 2% of your body mass. This may come it's on, and 150 watts together with its monitor or even
and Mechanisms of the Brain
as no surprise, given that you need your brain for almost more. Even the lamp on your desk uses more power than
Gross Anatomy of the Brain: Forebrain, Midbrain, Brain Tumors
anything you do, from moving your legs to walk to read- your brain. Your brain performs many more tasks than
Hind.brain Head Injuries
ing this book, to talking to your friend on the phone. Even your desk lamp or computer. Just think about all you'd
The Forebrain Intelligence and Neuroscience seeing what is right in front of your eyes takes a huge have to eat if your brain consumed as much energy as
The Midbrain
Intelligence and Brain Size amount of processing by the brain, as you have seen in those devices (Drubach, 1999). You'll learn more about
The Hindbrain
Intelligence and Neurons Chapter 2. And yet, for all the amazing things your brain how your brain works in this chapter.
Cerebral Cortex and Localization of Function Intelligence and Brain Metabolism
Hemispheric Specialization
Biological Bases of Intelligence Testing
Lobes of the Cerebral Hemispheres
The P-FIT Theory of Intelligence
Neuronal Structure and Function Our brains are a central processing unit for everything we do. But how do our brains
Receptors and Drugs Key Themes relate to our bodies? Are they connected or separate? Do our brains define who we are?
Summary An ancient legend from India (Rosenzweig & Leiman, 1989) tells of Sita. She marries
Viewing the Structures and Functions
one man but is attracted to another. These two frustrated men behead themselves. Sita,
of the Brain Thinking about Thinking: Analytical, bereft of them both, desperately prays to the goddess Kali to bring the men back to life.
Postmortem Studies Creative, and Practical Questions Sita is granted her wish. She is allowed to reattach the heads to the bodies. In her rush
Studying Live Nonhuman Animals to bring the two men back to life, Sita mistakenly switches their heads. She attaches
Studying Live Humans Key Terms
them to the wrong bodies. Now, to whom is she married? Who is who?
Electrical Recordings Media Resources The mind-body issue has long interested philosophers and scientists. Where is the
Static Imaging Techniques mind located in the body, if at all? How do the mind and body interact? How are we
Metabolic Imaging able to think, speak, plan, reason, learn, and remember? What are the physical bases
for our cognitive abilities? These questions all probe the relationship between
cognitive psychology and neurobiology. Some cognitive psychologists seek to answer
such questions by srudying the biological bases of cognition. Cognitive psychologists
are especially concerned with how the anatomy (physical structures of the body) and
the physiology (functions and processes of the body) of the nervous system affect and
are affected by human cognition.
Cognitive neuroscience is the field of study linking the brain and other aspects of
the nervous system to cognitive processing and, ultimately, to behavior. The brain is
the organ in our bodies that most directly controls our thoughts, emotions, and
motivations (Gloor, 1997; Rockland, 2000; Shepherd, 1998). Figure 3. l shows
photos of what the brain actually looks like. We usually think of the brain as being
at the top of the body's hierarchy-as the boss, with various other organs responding
to it. Like any good boss, however, it listens to and is influenced by its subordinates,
the other organs of the body. Thus, the brain is reactive as well as directive.
94 CHAPTER 3 o Cognitive Neuroscience Cognition in !he Brain: The Anatomy and Mechanisms of !he Brain 95
from the front-to-back physical arrangement of these parts in the nervous system of a
developing embryo. Initially, the forebrain is generally the farthest forward, toward
what becomes the face. The midbrain is next in line. And the hind.brain is generally
farthest from the forebrain, near the back of the neck [Figure 3.2 (a)]. In develop-
ment, the relative orientations change so that the forebrain is almost a cap on top of
the midbrain and hindbrain. Nonetheless, the terms still are used to designate areas
~ Mid brain _____, , , / ~ ~

~
.i:;
e
..5
i
]
\/'~J_· --.,.;;a.,'---- Cerebellum
\r...,·\__
"-:
.g_
j
-f
;g
i
J
/l ., ~l.~_\_\.~. ,-.__·:::~:
_J__/
(a) l (b)
~
9 }.
<i/;, /I!','
-+-- Spinal cord
!Figure 3. 1 The Brain.
What does a brain actually look like? Here you can see side (a) and top (bl views of a human brain. Subsequent I
l
figures and schematic pictures (i.e., simplified diagrams) point out in more detail some of the main features of the brain.
, I·
, • Armbud
(a) 5 weeks (in utero) .
__
~
A major goal of present research on the brain is to study localization of function.

.-·
Localization of function refers to the specific areas of the brain that control specific
skills or behaviors. Facts about particular brain areas and their function are (b) 8 weeks (in utero)
interspersed throughout this chapter and also throughout the whole book. . Cerebral
Our exploration of the brain starts with the anatomy of the brain. We will look at -~ hemispheres
,,-
the gross anatomy of the brain as well as at neurons and the ways in which . :,.
information is transmitted in the brain. Then we will explore the methods scientists /
use to examine the brain, its structures, and functions. And finally, we will learn about
brain disorders and how they inform cognitive psychology.
Midbrain
<C@~irnofl'n@IJ'il aim fl'lrne !Bir<Qloirn: lime All'il@ti"@my @lril<dl Mecelrn@ll'ilD$1rnilS @f trlhie ~ir©Jolnl
-:;;:-;- Cerebellum
The nervous system is the basis for our ability to perceive, aJapt to, and interact .,~i• ,~
' ✓;
nS:::::,d
I
with the world around us (Gazzaniga, 1995, 2000; Gazzaniga, lvry, & Mangun,
1998). Through this system we receive, process, and then respond to information
from the environment (Pinker, 1997a; Rugg, 1997 ). In the following section, we
will focus on the supreme organ of the nervous system-the brain-paying special
1
attention to the cerebral cortex, which controls many of our thought processes. In
a later section, we consider the basic building block of the nervous system-the neu-
ron. We will examine in detail how information moves through the nervous system
at the cellular level. Then we will consider the various levels of organization within
the nervous system and how drugs interact with the nervous system. For now, let's
(c) 7 months (in utero)
look at the structure of the brain.
Figure 3.2 Fetal Brain Development.
Gress A1r11atcmy cf tlhie 1Brao1r11: 1Fcrelbrao1r11, ModlbiraoD1l, IHlolnldllbiraoD'\l
Over the course of embryonic and fetal development, the brain becomes more highly specialized and the locations and
What have scientists discovered about the human brain? The brain has three major relative positions of the hindbrain, the midbrain, and the forebrain change from conception to term.
regions: forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain. These labels do not correspond exactly .Sm1rcc.': From In Sc."arch of rJie Human Mind hy Rohert J. Sternberg, copyright © l 995 hy Harcourt Rrao: & Companv. Repmduccd hy
to locations of regions in an adult or even a child's head. Rather, the terms come pernw,~i1 m of tlw publisher.
.1_
96 CHAPTER 3 ° Cognitive Neuroscience Cognition in the Brain: The Anatomy and Mechanisms of the Brain 97
of the fully developed brain. Figures 2.2 (b) and (c) show the changing locations discussion of the major structures and functions of the brain. The basal ganglia
and relationships of the forebrain, the midbrain, and the hindbrain over the course (singular: ganglion) are collections of neurons crucial to motor function. Dysfunc,
of development of the brain. You can see how they develop, from an embryo a few tion of the basal ganglia can result in motor deficits. These deficits include tremors
weeks after conception to a fetus of seven months of age. involuntary movements, changes in posture and muscle tone, and slowness of move~
ment. Deficits are observed in Parkinson's disease and Huntington's disease. Boch
The forebrain these diseases entail severe motor symptoms (Rockland, 2000; Lerner & Riley,
The forebrain is the region of the brain located toward the top and front of the 2008; Lewis & Barker, 2009).
brain. It comprises the cerebral cortex, the basal ganglia, the limbic system, the thal, The limbic system is important to emotion, motivation, memory, and learning.
amus, and the hypothalamus (Figure 3.3 ). The cerebral cortex is the outer layer of Animals such as fish and reptiles, which have relatively undeveloped limbic systems,
the cerebral hemispheres. It plays a vital role in our thinking and other mental pro, respond to the environment almost exclusively by instinct. Mammals and especially
cesses. It therefore merits a special section in this chapter, which follows the present humans have relatively more developed limbic systems. Our limbic system allows us to
suppress instinctive responses (e.g., the impulse to strike someone who accidentally
causes us pain). Our limbic systems help us to adapt our behaviors flexibly in response
to our changing environment. The limbic system comprises three central intercon-
Cerebral cortex Hippocampus
(influences learning nected cerebral structures: the septum, the amygdala, and the hippocampus.
(controls thinking and sensing Thalamus
functions, voluntary movement) and memory) The septum is involved in anger and fear. The amygdala plays an important role
(relays sensory information in emotion as well, especially in anger and aggression (Adolphs, 2003; Derntl et al.,
to cerebral cortex)
2009). Stimulation of the amygdala commonly results in fear. It can be evidenced in
Corpus callosum
(relays information Hypothalamus
various ways, such as through palpitations, fearful hallucinations, or frightening
between the two (regulates temperature, flashbacks in memory (Engin & Treit, 2008; Gloor, 1997; Rockland, 2000).
cerebral hemispheres} eating, sleeping, and Damage to (lesions in) or removal of the amygdala can result in maladaptive
endocrine system) lack of fear. In the case of lesions to the animal brain, the animal approaches
Basal ganglia
potentially dangerous objects without hesitation or fear (Adolphs et al., 1994;
Midbrain
(reticular activating system:
Frackowiak et al., 1997). The amygdala also has an enhancing effect for the per-
Amygdala
(influences carries messages about ception of emotional stimuli. In humans, lesions to the amygdala prevent this en-
anger and sleep and arousal} hancement (Anderson & Phelps, 2001; Tottenham, Hare, & Casey, 2009).
aggression) Additionally, persons with autism display limited activation in the amygdala. A
Pons well,known theory of autism suggests that the disorder involves dysfunction of the
Pituitary gland (relays information
between cerebral
amygdala, which leads to the social impairment chat is typical of persons with
(master gland
of the endocrine cortex and cerebellum) autism, for example, difficulties in evaluating people's trustworthiness or recogniz-
system) ing emotions in faces (Adolphs, Sears, & Piven, 2001; Baron-Cohen et al., 2000;
Howard et al., 2000; Kleinhans et al., 2009) Two other effects of lesions to the
Cerebellum amygdala can be visual agnosia (inability to recognize objects) and hypersexuality
(coordinates fine muscle (Steffanaci, 1999).
movement, balance)
The hippocampus plays an essential role in memory formation (Eichenbaum,
1999, 2002; Gluck, 1996; Manns & Eichenbaum, 2006; O'Keefe, 2003 ). lt gets its
edulla name from the Greek word for "seahorse," its approximate shape. The hippocampus
eartbeat. breathing) is essential for flexible learning and for seeing the relations among items learned as
well as for spatial memory (Eichenbaum, 1997; Squire, 1992). The hippocampus also
Spinal cord appears to keep track of where things are and how these things are spatially related
(relays nerve impulses between to each other. In other words, it monitors what is where (Cain, Boon, & Corcoran,
brain and body. controls
simple reflexes} 2006; Howland et al., 2008; McClelland et al., 1995; Tulving & Schacter, 1994).
We return to the role of the hippocampus in Chapter 5.
People who have suffered damage to or removal of the hippocampus still can
recall existing memories-for example, they can recognize old friends and places-
IFogure 3.3 Structures of the Brain. but they are unable to form new memories ( relative to the time of the brain
The forebrain, the midbrain, and the hindbrain contain structures that perform essential functions for survival and for damage). New infonnation-new situations, people, and places-remain forever
high-level thinking and feeling. new. A disease that produces loss of memory function is Korsakoff's syndrome.
Source: From Psychology: In Search of the Human Mind hy Rohert J. Sternberg, copyright© 2000 hy Harcourt Brace & Company, repmduceJ Other symptoms include apathy, paralysis of muscles controlling the eye, and tremor.
hy permission of the puhlisher.
t --
This loss is believed to be associated with deterioration of the hippocampus and is

caused by a lack of thiamine (Vitamin B-1) in the brain. The syndrome can result
- IN THE LAB OF MARTHA FARAH
from excessive alcohol use, dietary deficiencies, or eating disorders.
There is a renowned case of a patient known as H.M., who after brain surgery
Cognitive Neuroscience collaborator. In first graders and in retained his memory for events that transpired before the surgery but had no memory
and Childhood Poverty middle-school students, we again found for events after the surgery. This case is another illustration of the resulting problems
striking SES disparities in language and with memory formation due to hippocampus damage (see Chapter 5 for more on
Around the time I had my daughter, executive function, as well as in declara- H.M.). Disruption in the hippocampus appears to result in deficits in declarative
I shifted my research focus to develop- tive memory. Assuming that these dispari- memory ( i.e., memory for pieces of information), but it does not result in deficits
mental cognitive neuroscience. People nat- ties are the result of different early life in procedural memory (i.e., memory for courses of action) (Rockland, 2000).
urally assumed that these fvllo life changes experiences, what is it about growing up The thalamus relays incoming sensory information through groups of neurons
were related, and they were-but not in poor that would interfere with the develop- that project to the appropriate region in the cortex. Most of the sensory input into
the way people thought. What captured ment of these specific systems? the brain passes through the thalamus, which is approximately in the center of the
my interest in brain development was not In one study, we made use of data brain, at about eye level. To accommodate all the types of information that must be
principally watching my daughter grow, as wondrous collected earlier on the middle-school children just men- sorted out, the thalamus is divided into a number of nuclei (groups of neurons of
a process as that was. Rather, it was getting to know tioned. We found that their language ability in middle similar function). Each nucleus receives information from specific senses. The infor-
the babysitters who entered our lives, and learning about school was predicted by the amount of cognitive stimu-
theirs. mation is then relayed to corresponding specific areas in the cerebral cortex. The
lation they experienced as four-year olds-being read thalamus also helps in the control of sleep and waking. When the thalamus mal-
These babysitters were young women of low socio- to, taken on trips, and so on. In contrast, we found that functions, the result can be pain, tremor, amnesia, impairment of language, and
economic status (SES), who grew up in families depen- their declarative memory ability in middle school was disruptions in waking and sleeping (Rockland, 2000; Steriade, Jones, & McCormick,
dent on welfare and supported their own young predicted by the quality of parental nurturance that they 1997). In cases of schizophrenia, imaging and in vivo studies reveal abnormal
children with a combination of state assistance supple- received as young children-being held close, being changes in the thalamus (Clinton & Meador-Woodruff, 2004). These abnormalities
mented with cash wages from babysitting. As care- paid attention to, and so on. The latter finding might result in difficulties in filtering stimuli and focusing attention, which in tum can
givers for my child, they were not merely hired help; seem an odd association. Why would affectionate par- explain why people suffering from schizophrenia experience symptoms such as hallu-
they were people I liked, trusted, and grew to care enting have anything to do with memory? Yet research cinations and delusions.
about. And as we became closer, and I spent more with animals shows that when a young animal is The hypothalamus regulates behavior related to species survival: fighting, feed-
time with their families, I learned about a world very stressed, the resulting stress hormones can damage ing, fleeing, and mating. The hypothalamus also is active in regulating emotions and
different from my own. the hippocampus, a brain area important for both stress reactions to stress (Malsbury, 2003). It interacts with the limbic system. The small
The children of these inner-city families started life regulation and memory. This research has also shown size of the hypothalamus (from Greek hypo-, "under"; located at the base of the fore-
with the same evident potential as my own child, learn- that more nurturing maternal behavior can buffer the brain, beneath the thalamus) belies its importance in controlling many bodily func-
ing words, playing games, asking questions, and grap- young animal's hippocampus against the effects of tions (Table 3 .1). The hypothalamus plays a role in sleep: Dysfunction and neural
pling with the challenges of cooperation, discipline, stress. It would appear that children living in the stressful loss within the hypothalamus are noted in cases of narcolepsy, whereby a person falls
and self-control. But they soon found their way onto environment of poverty benefit in a similar way from asleep often and at unpredictable times (Lodi et al., 2004; Mignot, Taheri, &
the same dispiriting life trajectories as their parents, attentive and affectionate parenting. Nishina, 2002). The hypothalamus also is important for the functioning of the en-
with limited skills, options, hope. As a mother, I found it Our most recent work, with graduate student docrine system. It is involved in the stimulation of the pituitary glands, through
heart-breaking. As a scientist, I wanted to understand. Daniel Hackman and radiology colleague Hengyi which a range of hormones are produced and released. These hormones include
This led to a series of studies in which my colla- Rao, has tested these hypothesized mechanisms more growth hormones and oxytocin ( which is involved in bonding processes and sexual
borators and I tried first to simply document the effects directly. Brain imaging has confirmed that hippocam- arousal; Gazzaniga, lvry, & Mangun, 2009).
of childhood poverty in terms of cognitive neuros- pal size is affected by early life parental nurturance in The forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain contain structures that perform essential
cience's description of the mind, and then to explain low SES individuals and direct measures of hormonal functions for survival as well as for high-level thinking and feeling. For a summary
the effects of poverty in terms of more specific, mecha- responses to stress i~dicate that both SES and parenting of the major structures and functions of the brain, as discussed in this section, see
nistic causes. With Kim Noble, then a graduate student in early childhood program later life stress response. Table 3.1.
in my lab, we assessed the functioning of five different Our ultimate goal is to understand the complex web
neurocognitive systems in kindergarteners of low and of social, psychological and physiological influences The Midbrain
middle SES. We found the most pronounced effects in that act upon children in low SES families and to use The midbrain helps to control eye movement and coordination. The midbrain is
language and executive function systems. These results that understanding to help them achieve their true more important in nonmammals where it is the main source of control for visual
were replicated and expanded upon in additional stud- potential. and auditory information. In mammals these functions are dominated by the fore-
ies with Noble and with Hallam Hurt, a pediatrician
brain. Table 3.1 lists several structures and corresponding functions of the miJbrain.
By far the most indispensable of these structures is the reticular activating system
(RAS; also called the "reticular formation"), a network of neurons essential to the
100 CHAPTER 3 o Cognitive Neuroscience Cognition in the Brain: The Anatomy and Mechanisms of the Brain 101
TcabUe 3.11 Major Structures and Functions of the Brain Table 3. 1 Continued
Region of Major Structures within Region of Major Structures within
the Brain the Regions Functions of the Structures the Brain the Regions Functions of the Structures
Forebrain Cerebral cortex (outer Involved in receiving and processing sen- Reticular activating system Important in controlling consciousness
layer of the cerebral sory information, thinking, other cognitive (also extends into the (sleep arousal), attention, cardiorespira-
hemispheres) processing, and planning and sending hindbrain) tory function, and movement
motor information
Gray matter, red nucleus, Important in controlling movement
Basal ganglia (collections Crucial to the function of the motor system substontio nigra, ventral
of nuclei and neural fibers) region
Limbic systems (hippo- Involved in learning, emotions, and moti- Hindbrain Cerebellum Essential to balance, coordination, and
campus, amygdala, and vation (in particular, the hippocampus in- muscle tone
septum) fluences learning and memory, the
Pons (also contains part of Involved in consciousness (sleep and
amygdala influences anger and aggres-
the RAS) arousal); bridges neural transmissions from
sion, and the septum influences anger and
one part of the brain to another; involved
fear)
with facial nerves
Thalamus Primary relay station for sensory informa- Medulla oblongato Serves as juncture at which nerves cross
tion coming into the brain; transmits infor-
from one side of the body to opposite side
mation to the correct regions of the of the brain; involved in cardiorespiratory
cerebral cortex through projection fibers function, digestion, and swallowing
that extend from the thalamus to specific
regions of the cortex; comprises several
nuclei (groups of neurons) that receive
specific kinds of sensory information and
regulation of consciousness (sleep; wakefulness; arousal; attention to some extent;
project that information to specific regions
and vital functions such as heartbeat and breathing; Sarter, Bruno, & Berntson,
of the cerebral cortex, including four key
nuclei for sensory information: ( 1) from the
2003 ).
visual receptors, via optic nerves, to the The RAS also extends into the hindbrain. Both the RAS and the thalamus are
visual cortex, permitting us to see; (2) from essential to our having any conscious awareness of or control over our existence.
the auditory receptors, via auditory nerves, The brainstem connects the forebrain to the spinal cord. It comprises the hypothal-
to the auditory cortex, permitting us to mnus, the thalamus, the midbrain, and the hindbrain. A structure called the peri-
hear; (3) from sensory receptors in the so- aqueductal gray (PAO) is in the brainstem. This region seems to be essential for
matic nervous system, to the primary so- certain kinds of adaptive behaviors. Injections of small amounts of excitatory amino
matosensory cortex, permitting us to sense acids or, altematively, electrical stimulation of this area results in any of several re-
pressure and pain; and 14) from the cere-
sponses: an aggressive, confrontational response; avoidance or flight response;
bellum (in the hindbrain) to the primary
heightened defensive reactivity; or reduced reactivity as is experienced after a defeat,
motor cortex, permitting us to sense phys-
ical balance and equilibrium
when one feels hopeless (Bandier & Shipley, 1994; Rockland, 2000).
Physicians make a detennination of brain death based on the function of the
Hypothalamus Controls the endocrine system; controls the
brainstem. Specifically, a physician must detennine that the brainstem has been
autonomic nervous system, such as internal
damaged so severely that various reflexes of the head (e.g., the pupillary reflex) are
temperature regulation, appetite and thirst
regulation, and other key functions; in·
absent for more than 12 hours, or the brain must show no electrical activity or cere-
volved in regulation of behavior related to bral circulation of blood (Berkow, 1992).
species survival (in particular, fighting,
feeding, fleeing, and mating); plays a role
in controlling consciousness (see reticular The Hindbrain
activating system); involved in emotions, The hindbrain comprises the medulla oblongata, the pons, and the cerchdlum.
pleasure, pain, and stress reactions The medulla oblongata controls heart activity and largely controls breathing,
Midbrain Superior colliculi (on top) Involved in vision (especially visual swallowing, and digestion. The medulla is also the place at which ner\'es from the
reflexes) right side of the body cross over to the left side of the brain and nerves from the left
Inferior colliculi (below) Involved in hearing side of the body cross over to the right side of the hrain. The medulla nblnngata is
an elongated interior structure located at the point where the spinal Cl H·d enters the
Icontinued)
skull and joins with the brain. The medulla oblongata, which contains part of the hemisphere is specialized for some kinds of activity whereas the right cerebral hemi-
RAS, helps to keep us alive. s~here is specialized for other kinds. For example, receptors in the skin on the right
The pons serves as a kind of relay station because it contains neural fibers that side of the body generally send information through the medulla to areas in the left
pass signals from one part of the brain to another. Its name derives from the Latin hemisphere in the brain. The receptors on the left side generally transmit informa-
for "bridge," as it serves a bridging function. The pons also contains a portion of the tion to the right hemisphere. Similarly, the left hemisphere of the brain directs the
RAS and nerves serving parts of the head and face. The cerebellum ( from Latin, motor responses on the right side of the body. The right hemisphere directs re-
"little brain") controls bodily coordination, balance, and muscle tone, as well as sponses on the left side of the body.
some aspects of memory involving procedure-related movements (see Chapters 7 However, not all information transmission is contralateral-from one side to
and 8) (Middleton & Helms Tillery, 2003 ). The prenatal development of the hu- another (contra-, "opposite"; lateral, "side"). Some ipsilateral transmission-on the
man brain within each individual roughly corresponds to the evolutionary develop- sa~e s!de-occurs as well. For example, odor information from the right nostril goes
ment of the human brain within the species as a whole. Specifically, the hindbrain is pnmanly to the right side of the brain. About half the information from the right
evolutionarily the oldest and most primitive part of the brain. It also is the first part eye goes to the right side of the brain, the other half goes to the left side of the brain.
of the brain to develop prenatally. The midbrain is a relatively newer addition to the In addition to this general tendency for contralateral specialization, the hemispheres
brain in evolutionary terms. It is the next part of the brain to develop prenatally. also communicate directly with one another. The corpus callosum is a dense aggre-
Finally, the forebrain is the most recent evolutionary addition to the brain. It is gate of neural fibers connecting the two cerebral hemispheres (Witelson, Kigar, &
the last of the three portions of the brain to develop prenatally. Walter, 2003 ). It allows transmission of information back and forth. Once information
Additionally, across the evolutionary development of our species, humans have has reached one hemisphere, the corpus callosum transfers it to the other hemisphere.
shown an increasingly greater proportion of brain weight in relation to body weight. If the corpus callosum is cut, the two cerebral hemispheres-the two halves of
However, across the span of development after birth, the proportion uf brain weight the brain-cannot communicate with each other (Glickstein & Berlucchi, 2008).
to body weight declines. For cognitive psychologists, the most important of these Although some functioning, like language, is highly lateralized, most functioning-
evolutionary trends is the increasing neural complexity of the brain. The evolution even language--depends in large part on integration of the two hemispheres of
of the human brain has offered us the enhanced ability to exercise voluntary control the brain.
over behavior. It has also strengthened our ability to plan and to contemplate alter-
native courses of action. These ideas are discussed in the next section with respect to
the cerebral cortex. Hemispheric Specialization
~ow did psychologists find out that the two hemispheres have different responsibili-
ttes? The study of hemispheric specialization in the human brain can be traced back
Cerrebiral Cortex all'lld D..oca~bz:afl'oo1n1 cf 1Full'llc11"oc1n1 to Marc Dax, a country doctor in France. By 1836, Dax had treated more than
The cerebral cortex plays an extremely important role in human cognition. It forms 40 patients suffering from aphasia-loss of speech-as a result of brain damage. Dax
a 1- to 3-millimeter layer that wraps the surface of the brain somewhat like the bark noticed a relationship between the loss of speech and the side of the brain in which
of a tree wraps around the trunk. In human beings, the many convolutions, or damage had occurred. In studying his patients' brains after death, Dax saw that in
creases, of the cerebral cortex comprise three elements. Sulci (singular, sulcus) are every case there had been damage to the left hemisphere of the brain. He was nor
small grooves. Fissures are large grooves. And gyri (singular, gyrus) are bulges able to find even one case of speech loss resulting from damage to the right hemi-
between adjacent sulci or fissures. These folds greatly increase the surface area of the sphere only.
cortex. If the wrinkly human cortex were smoothed out, it would take up about 2 square In 1861, French scientist Paul Broca claimed that an autopsy revealed that an
feet. The cortex comprises 80% of the human brain (Kolb & Whishaw, 1990). aphasic stroke patient had a lesion in the left cerebral hemisphere of the brain. By
The volume of the human skull has more than doubled over the past 2 million 18~4, Broca was convinced that the left hemisphere of the brain is critical in speech,
years, allowing for the expansion of the brain, and especially the cortex (Toro et al., a view that has held up over time. The specific part of the brain that Broca identi-
2008). The complexity of brain function increases with the cortical area. The hu- fied, now called Broca's area, contributes to speech (Figure 3.4 ).
man cerebral cortex enables us to think. Because of it, we can plan, coordinate Another important early researcher, German neurologist Carl Wemicke, studied
thoughts and actions, perceive visual and sound patterns, and use language. Without language-deficient patients who could speak but whose speech made no sense. Like
it, we would not be human. The surface of the cerebral cortex is grayish. It is some- Broca, he traced language ability to the left hemisphere. He studied a different pre-
times referred to as gray matter. This is because it primarily comprises the grayish cise location, now known as Wemicl<e's area, which contributes to language compre-
neural-cell bodies that process the information that the brain receives and sends. In hension ( Figure 3.4).
contrast, the underlying white matter of the brain's interior comprises mostly white, ~arl Spencer Lashley, often described as the father of neuropsychology, started
myelinated axons. studymg localization in 1915. He found that implantations of crudely built electro-
The cerebral cortex forms the outer layer of the two halves of the brain-the des in apparently identical locations in the brain yielded different results. Different
left and right cerebral hemispheres (Davidson & Hugdahl, 1995; Galaburda & locations sometimes paradoxically yielded the same results (e.g., see Lashley, 1950).
Rosen, 2003; Gazzaniga & Hutsler, 1999; Levy, 2000). Although the two hemi- Subsequent researchers, using more sophisticated electrodes and measurement
spheres appear to be quite similar, they function differently. The left cerehral procedures, have found that specific locations do correlate with specific motor
104 Cognition in the Brain: The Anatomy and Mechanisms of the Brain 105
CHAPTER 3 o Cognitive Neuroscience
Some of the most interesting information about how the human brain works
Sensory cortex
?nd especially about the respective roles of the hemispheres, has emerged from stud~
Motor cortex 1es of hu~ans w_irh epilepsy in whom the corpus callosum has been severed. Surgi-
Association cally sev~rmg this neurological bridge prevents epileptic seizures from spreading from
cortex
Association
one h~misphere to another. This procedure thereby drastically reduces the severity of
cortex the seizures. However, this procedure also results in a loss of communication be-
Auditory tween the two hemispheres. It is as if the person has two separate specialized brains
cortex
processing different information and performing separate functions.
Broca's area Split-brain patients are people who have undergone operations severing the cor-
(speech)
pus c~llosum. Sp~it-brain research reveals fascinating possibilities regarding the ways
we thmk. Many m the field have argued that language is localized in the left hemi-
;..;......--Visual
sphere. Spatial visualization ability appears to be largely localized in the right hemi-
cortex sphere (Farah, 1988a, 1988b; Gazzaniga, 1985). Spatial-orientation tasks also seem
to be localized in the right hemisphere (Vogel, Bowers, & Vogel, 2003 ). It appears
that roughly 90% of the adult population has language functions that are predomi-
nantly localized within the left hemisphere. There are indications, however, that the
'tl(.
I
lateralization of left-handers differs from that of right-handers, and that for females
the lateralization may not be as pronounced as for males (Vogel, Bowers, & Vogel:
,
., ,! Wernicke's area
( understanding
2003 ). More than 95% of right-handers and about 70% of left-handers have left-
hemisphere dominance for language. In people who lack left-hemisphere processing,
language)
) language development in the right hemisphere retains phonemic and semantic abili-
ties, but it is deficient in syntactic competence (Gazzaniga & Hutsler, 1999).
The left hemisphere is important not only in language but also in movement.
People with aprm.ia-disorders of skilled movements-often have had damage to
the left hemisphere. Such people have lost the ability to carry out familiar purposeful
movements like forming letters when writing by hand (Gazzaniga & Hutsler, 1999;
Heilman, Coenen, & Kluger, 2008). Another role of the left hemisphere is to exam-
ine past experiences to find patterns. Finding patterns is an important step in the
generation of hypotheses (Wolford, Miller, & Gazzaniga, 2000). For example, while
observing an airport, you may notice chat planes often approach the landing strip
from different directions. However, you may soon find that at any given time, all
planes approach from the same direction. You then might hypothesize that the di-
Figure 3.4 Functional Areas of the Cortex. rection of their approach may have to do with the wind direction and speed. Thus,
Strangely, although people with lesions in Broca's area cannot speak fluently, they can use their voices to sing or shout.
you have observed a pattern and generated ideas about what causes this pattern with
the help of your left hemisphere.
Source: From Introduction to Psychology, 11/e, by Richard Atkinson, Rita Atkinson, Daryl Bern, Ed Smith, and Susan Nolen Hoeksema,
copyright © 1995 by Harcourt Brace & Company, reproduced by permission of the publisher. The right hemisphere is largely "mute" (Levy, 2000). It has little grammatical or
phonetic understanding. But it does have very good semantic knowledge. It also is
involved in practical language use. People with right-hemisphere damage tend to
have deficits in following conversations or stories. They also have difficulties in
making inferences from context and in understanding metaphorical or humorous
responses across many rest sessions. Apparently, Lashley's research was limited by the speech (Levy, 2000). The right hemisphere also plays a primary role in self-
technology available to him at the time. recognition. In particular, the right hemisphere seems to be responsible for the iden-
Despite the valuable early contributions by Broca, Wernicke, and others, the tification of one's own face (Platek et al., 2004 ).
individual most responsible for modern theory and research on hemispheric speciali- In studies of split-brain patients, the patient is presented with a composite
zation was Nobel Prize-winning psychologist Roger Sperry. Sperry (I 964) argued photograph that shows a face that is made up of the left and right side of the faces
that each hemisphere behaves in many respects like a separate brain. In a classic of two different persons (Figure 3.5). They are typically unaware that they saw
experiment that supports this contention, Sperry and his colleagues severed the cor- conflicting information in the two halves of the picture. When asked to give an an-
pus callosum connecting the two hemispheres of a cat's brain. They then proved swer about what they saw in words, they report that they saw the image in the right
that information presented visually to one cerebral hemisphere of the cat was not half of the picture. When they are asked to use the fingers of the left hand ( which
recognizable to the other hemisphere. Similar work on monkeys indicated the same contralaterally sends and receives information to and from the right hemisphere) to
discrete performance of each hemisphere (Sperry, 1964 ). point to what they saw, participants choose the image from the left half of the
l
Gazzaniga (Gazzaniga & LeDoux, 1978) does not believe that the two hemi-
spheres function completely independently but rather that they serve complemen-
tary roles. For instance, there is no language processing in the right hemisphere
(except in rare cases of early brain damage to the left hemisphere). Rather, only vi-
suospatial processing occurs in the right hemisphere. As an example, Gazzaniga has
found that before split-brain surgery, people can draw three-dimensional representa-
tions of cubes with each hand (Gazzaniga & LeDoux, 1978). After surgery, however,
they can draw a reasonable-looking cube only with the left hand. In each patient,
the right hand draws pictures unrecognizable either as cubes or as three-
dimensional objects. This finding is important because of the contralateral associa-
tion between each side of the body and the opposite hemisphere of the brain. Recall
]
that the right hemisphere controls the left hand. The left hand is the only one that
l
~;;:::::;!;:::==:::::=~=====ciiiai:===========:=::;::::..;;:;;:;=====(a=)===-~ 1 a split-brain patient can use for drawing recognizable figures. This experiment thus
supports the contention that the right hemisphere is dominant in our comprehen-
sion and exploration of spatial relations.
] Gazzaniga ( 1985) argues that the brain, and especially the right hemisphere of the
a ·-
~
brain, is organized into relatively independent functioning units that work in parallel.
~
According to Gazzaniga, each of the many discrete units of the mind operates rela-
I
~;::
tively independently of the others. These operations are often outside of conscious
awareness. While these various independent and often subconscious operations are
all
taking place, the left hemisphere tries to assign interpretations to these operations.
~- Sometimes the left hemisphere perceives that the individual is behaving in a way
-:-:;:::;,•
that does not intrinsically make any particular sense. For example, if you see an adult
- .
....
,, .. staggering along a sidewalk at night in a way that does not initially make sense, you
--
"Whom did you see?" may conclude he is drunk or otherwise not in full control of his senses. The brain thus
"It was Cher." finds a way to assign some meaning to that behavior.
In addition to studying hemispheric differences in language and spatial relations,
researchers have tried to determine whether the two hemispheres think in ways that
differ from one another. Levy (1974) has found some evidence that the left he1Tti-
ll
sphere tends to process information analytically (piece-by-piece, usually in a sequence).
She argues that the right hemisphere tends to process it holistically (as a whole).
. ·.
Lobes of the Cerebral Hemispheres
L\11 t
For practical purposes, four lobes divide the cerebral hemispheres and cortex into
four parts. They are not distinct units. Rather, they are largely arbitrary anatomical
. 'Z"
.'.
·.-
..-.,.'. ,, regions divided by fissures. Particular functions have been identified with each lohe,
- but the lobes also interact. The four lobes, named after the bones of the skull lying
~,, "Point to the person you saw"
directly over them (Figure 3.6), are the frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital
(c)
J lobes. The lobes are involved in numerous functions. Our discussion of them here
describes only part of what they do.
!Figure 3.5 A Study with Split-brain Patients. The frontal lobe, toward the front of the brain, is associated with motor proces-
In one study, the participant is asked to focus his or her gaze on the center _of the screen. Then a chimeric f'?c.e (a face sing and higher thought processes, such as abstract reasoning, problem solving,
showing the left side of the face of one person and the right side of ~n~ther) 1s flashed on the screen. The ~arti~1pant then planning, and judgment (Stuss & Floden, 2003 ). lt tends to he involved when
is asked to identify what he or she saw, either by speaking or by pomt1ng to one of several normal (not chimeric) faces. sequences of thoughts or actions are called for. It is critical in producing speech.
The prefrontal cortex, the region toward the front of the frontal lohe, is involved in
picture. Recall the contralateral association between hemisphere and side of the body.
complex motor control and tasks that require integration of intt1rmatinn over time
Given this, it seems that the left hemisphere is controlling their verbal processing (Gazzaniga, lvry, & Mangun, 2002).
(speaking) of visual infonnation. The right hemisphere appears to control spatial pro-
The parietal lobe, at the upper back portion of the brain, is associated with
cessing (pointing) of visual information. Thus, the task that the participants are asked
somatosensory processing. It receives inputs from the neurons regarding touch,
to perfonn is crucial in determining what image the participant thinks was sht lWn.
pain, temperature sense, and limb position when you are perceiving space and ynur
1
Dorsal movement, particularly of movement invO I ·

(superior) motor cortex were electri·call • l d vmg any kind of delayed response. If your
Y st1mu ate you Id b . .
Right body part The nature of the ' wou react Y movmg a correspondmg
hemisphere your brai~ had been stimulat:rv~:em would depe~d on. where in the motor cortex
Lateral located contralaterally on th . ntrol of the vanous kmds of body movements is
Frontal fissure e pnmary motor cortex. A similar inverse mapping occurs
lobe firom top to bottom. Th e lower extre • • f h b d
Longitudinal (toward the top of the he d) 51.d f mh ltles o t e o y are represented on the upper
Rostral O
is represented on th l a 'd e f ht e motor cortex ' and th e upper part o f t h e b o d y
Caudal fissure
(anterior) (posterior) . _e ower s1 e o t e motor cortex.
Central fissure
Information gomg to neighbo rmg · parts o f the body also comes from neighboring
parts . of t h e motor cortex . · Thus th
, e motor cortex can be mapped to show where
Occipital
Ventral
lobe
an.d m 3what 7) M proportions
f . different parts of th e bod y are represente d m · t h e b ram ·
(1irnterior) Parietal lobe (F1gure . . aps o this kind are called "homun t·" (h
") b h d I · L ·
cu 1 omuncu us 1s attn 1or 1ttIe
.c "t·
,~entra1·· P erson ecause t e e ·
Y ptct the body parts of a person mapped on the bram. .
I\{ The three
. . other
. lobes are located farther away fr om th e fron t o f t h e h ea d . Th ese
('- ~) ',
Io bes specrn
. 11ze m sensory and perceptua l activity. · · For example, m · t h e paneta
· l lobe,
( i:-,- - ..
t h e primary somatosensory cortex receives · ·m1ormat1on
c · fr om t h e senses a b out pres-
-~--"- su~e, texture, temperature, and pain. It is located right behind the frontal lobe's
Occipital
lobe Longitudinal pnmary motor cortex. If your somatosensory cortex were electrically stimulated, you
fissure probably would report feeling as if you had been touched.
(a) Anatomical areas (left lateral view) (b) Anatomical areas (top view)
Figure 3.6 Four Lobes of the Brain.

The cortex is divided into the frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital lobes. The lobes have specific functions but also
interact to perform complex processes.
Source: From Psychology: In Search of the Human Mind by Robert J. Sternberg, copyright© 2000 by Harcourt Brncc & Company, rcpruJuccJ
(Motor
by permission of the publisher.
cortex)
relationship to it-how you are situated relative to the space you are occupying
(Culham, 2003; Gazzaniga, lvry, & Mangun, 2002). The parietal lobe is also in~
volved in consciousness and paying attention. If you are paying attention to what
you are reading, your parietal lobe is activated.
The temporal lobe, directly under your temples, is associated with auditory
processing (Murray, 2003) and comprehending language. It is also involved in your
retention of visual memories. For example, if you are trying to keep in memory
\ ips
Figure 3.6, then your temporal lobe is involved. The temporal lobe also matches
new things you see to what you have retained in visual memory. (
J, . -- ~
:-' ja.\J'J
The occipital lobe is associated with visual processing (De Weerd, 20036). The ~
j
'!>,)e
·.:.r: ... o~g ~,S.l
occipital lobe contains numerous visual areas, each specialized to analyz~ specific as-
.·~. ~o
pects of a scene, including color, motion, location, and form (Gazzamga, lvry, &
Mangun, 2002). When you go to pick strawberries, your occipital lobe is involved
in helping you find the red strawberries in between the green leaves. (Sensory
cortex)
Projection areas are the areas in the lobes in which sensory processing occurs.
These areas are referred to as projection areas because the nerves contain sensory
information going to {projecting to) the thalamus. It is from here that the sensory
information is communicated to the appropriate area in the relevant lobe. Similarly,
the projection areas communicate motor information downward through the spinal
cord to the appropriate muscles via the peripheral nervous system (PNS). Now let us
consider the lobes, and especially the frontal lobe in more detail. Figure 3.7 (part ] ) Homunculus of the Primary Motor Cortex.
The frontal lobe, located toward the front of the head (the face), plays a role This map of the primary motor cortex is often termed a homunculus (from Latin, "little person") because it is drawn
in judgment, problem solving, personality, and intentional movement. It contains the as a cross section of the cortex surrounded by the figure of a small upside-down person whose body parts map out a
primary motor cortex, which specializes in the planning, control, and execution of proportionate correspondence to the parts of the cortex.
110 CHAPTER 3 • Cognitive Neuroscience Cognition in the Brain: The Anatomy and Mechanisms of the Brain 111
From looking at the homunculus (see Figure 3.7), you can see that the relation- The visual cortex is primarily in the occipital lobe. Some neural fibers carrying
ship of function to form applies in the development of the motor cortex. The same visual information travel ipsilaterally from the left eye to the left cerebral hemi-
holds true for the somatosensory cortex regions. The more need we have for use, sphere and from the right eye to the right cerebral hemisphere. Other fibers cross
sensitivity, and fine control in a particular body part, the larger the area of cortex over the optic chiasma (from Greek, "visual X" or "visual intersection") and go con-
generally devoted to that part. For example, we humans are tremendously reliant tralaterally to the opposite hemisphere (Figure 3.8). In particular, neural fibers go
on our hands and faces in our interactions with the world. We show correspondingly from the left side of the visual field for each eye to the right side of the visual cortex.
large proportions of the cerebral cortex devoted to sensation in, and motor response Complementarily, the nerves from the right side of each eye's visual field send
by, our hands and face. Conversely, we rely relatively little on our toes for both information to the left side of the visual cortex.
movement and information gathering. As a result, the toes represent a relatively The brain is a very complex structure, and researchers use a variety of expres-
small area on both the primary motor and somatosensory cortices. sions to describe which part of the brain they are speaking of. Figure 3.6 explains
The region of the cerebral cortex pertaining to hearing is located in the tempo- some other words that are frequently used to describe different brain regions. These
ral lobe, below the parietal lobe. This lobe performs complex auditory analysis. This
kind of analysis is needed in understanding human speech or listening to a sym- Primary visual
phony. The lobe also is specialized-some parts are more sensitive to sounds of cortex ---------.a.--
higher pitch, others to sounds of lower pitch. The auditory region is primarily con-
tralareral, although both sides of the auditory area have at least some representation , ·• -r-
from each ear. If your auditory cortex were stimulated electrically, you would report
having heard some sort of sound.
,f \
I
I• \
(Motor
cortex)
Optic chiasma
Right eye Left eye
(Sensory
cortex)
II
Figure 3.8 The Optic Tract and Pathways to the Primary Visual Cortex.
\\
figure 3.7 (part 2) Homunculus of the Somatosensory Cortex. Some nerve fibers carry visual information ipsilaterally from each eye to each cerebral hemi-
As with the primary motor cortex in the frontal lobe, a homunculs of the somatosensory cortex maps, in inverted form, sphere; other fibers cross the optic chiasma and carry visual information contralaterally to the
the parts of the body from which the cortex receives information. opposite hemisphere.
Source: From In Search of the Human Mind by Robert J. Sternberg, Copyright© 1995 by Harcourt Brace & Company, reproJuced hy pcnnis- Source: Frnm Psychology: ht Search of the Human Mind by Robert J. Sternberg, copyright © 2000 hy Harcourt
sion of the publisher. Br.ice & Company, reproduced by permission of the publisher.
are the words rostral, ventral, caudal, and dorsal. They are all derived from Latin
words and indicate the part of the brain with respect to other hody parts.
• Rostral refers to the front part of the brain {literally the "nasal region").
• Ventral refers to the bottom surface of the body/brain (the side of the stomach). 1111---ff--tF---- Dendrite Axon
terminal---~
• Caudal literally means "tail" and refers to the back part of the body/brain. button
• Dorsal refers to the upside of the brain ( it literally means "hack," and in animals
the back is on the upside of the body). -_liii~:f¼-------Soma (cell body)
The brain typically makes up only one fortieth of the weight of an adult human ~ ~ ~ - - - Nucleus
body. Nevertheless, it uses about one fifth of the circulating blood, one fifth of the
available glucose, and one fifth of the available oxygen. It is, however, the supreme
organ of cognition. Understanding both its structure and function, from the neural
to the cerebral levels of organization, is vital to an understanding of cognitive psy-
chology. The recent development of the field of cognitive neuroscience, with its
focus on localization of function, reconceptualizes the mind-body question discussed
in the beginning of this chapter. The question has changed from "Where is the
mind located in the body?" to "Where are particular cognitive operations located
in the nervous system?" Throughout the text, we return to these questions in refer-
ence to particular cognitive operations and discuss these operations in more detail. Figure 3. 9 The Composition of a Neuron.
The image shows a neuron with its various components. The information arrives at the dendrites and then is transferred
through the axon to the terminal buttons.
1Nle1u11rcna~ S1tu-ud1LJJire and lruncil'oon
To understand how the entire nervous system processes information, we need to exam- conduction of information. In fact, transmission in myelinated axons can reach 100
ine the structure and function of the cells that constitute the nervous system. Individual meters per second (equal to about 224 miles per hour). Moreover, myelin is not dis-
neural cells, called neurons, transmit electrical signals from one location to another in tributed continuously along the axon. It is distributed in segments broken up by nodes
the nervous system (Carlson, 2006; Shepherd, 2004 ). The greatest concentration of of Ranvier. Nodes of Ranvier are small gaps in the myelin coating along the axon,
neurons is in the neocortex of the brain. The neocortex is the part of the brain associ- which serve to increase conduction speed even more by helping to create electrical
ated with complex cognition. This tissue can contain as many as I 00,000 neurons per signals, also called action potentials, which are then conducted down the axon. The
cubic millimeter (Churchland & Sejnowski, 2004 ). The neurons tend to be arranged in degeneration of myelin sheaths along axons in certain nerves is associated with multi-
the form of networks, which provide information and feedback to each other within ple sclerosis, an autoimmune disease. It results in impairments of coordination and
various kinds of information processing (Vogels, Rajan, & Abbott, 2005). balance. In severe cases this disease is fatal. The second kind of axon lacks the myelin
Neurons vary in their structure, but almost all neurons have four basic parts, as coat altogether. Typically, these unmyelinated axons are smaller and shorter (as well as
illustrated in Figure 3.9. These include a soma (cell body), dendrites, an axon, and slower) than the myelinated axons. As a result, they do not need the increased conduc-
terminal buttons. tion velocity myelin provides for longer axons (Giuliodori & OiCarlo, 2004 ).
The soma, which contains the nucleus of the cell ( the center portion that per- The terminal buttons are small knobs found at the ends of the branches of an
forms metabolic and reproductive functions for the cell), is responsible for the life of axon that do not directly touch the dendrites of the next neuron. Rather, there is a
the neuron and connects the dendrites to the axon. The many dendrites are branch- very small gap, the synapse. The synapse serves as a juncture between the terminal
like structures that receive information from other neurons, and the soma integrates buttons of one or more neurons and the dendrites (or sometimes the soma) of one or
the information. Leaming is associated with the formation of new neuronal con- more other neurons (Carlson, 2006). Synapses are important in cognition. Rats
nections. Hence, it occurs in conjunction with increased complexity or ramification show increases in both the size and the number of synapses in the brain as a result
in the branching structure of dendrites in the brain. The single axon is a long, thin of learning (Federmeier, Kleim & Greenough, 2002). Decreased cognitive function,
tube that extends (and sometimes splits) from the soma and responds to the infor, ing, as in Alzheimer's disease, is associated with reduced efficiency of synaptic trans,
mation, when appropriate, by transmitting an electrochemical signal, which travels mission of nerve impulses (Selkoe, 2002). Signal transmission between neurons
to the terminus (end), where the signal can be transmitted to other neurons. occurs when the terminal buttons release one or more neurotransmitters at the syn,
Axons are of two basic, roughly equally occurring kinds, distinguished by the apse. These neurotransmitters are chemical messengers for transmission of informa,
presence or absence of myelin. Myelin is a white, fatty substance that surrounds tion across the synaptic gap to the receiving dendrites of the next neuron ( von
some of the axons of the nervous system, which accounts for some of the whiteness Bohlen und Halbach & Dermietzel, 2006).
of the white matter of the brain. Some axons are myelinated (in that they are sur- Although scientists have identified more than I 00 transmitter substances, it seems
rounded by a myelin sheath). This sheath, which insulates and protects longer axons likely that more remain to be discovered. Medical and psychological researchers are
from electrical interference by other neurons in the area, also speeds up the working to discover and understand neurotransmitters. In particular, they wish to
understand how the neurotransmitters interact with drugs, moods, abilities, and per# Acetylcholine is associated with memory functions, and the loss of acetylcholine
ceptions. We know much about the mechanics of impulse transmission in nerves. But through Alzheimer's disease has been linked to impaired memory functioning in
we know relatively little about how the nervous system's chemical activity relates to Alzheimer's patients (Hasselmo, 2006). Acerylcholine also plays an important role in
psychological states. Despite the limits on present knowledge, we have gained some in# sleep and arousal. When someone awakens, there is an increase in the activity of
sight into how several of these substances affect our psychological functioning. so#called cholinergic neurons in the basal forebrain and the brainstem (Rockland, 2000).
At present, it appears that three types of chemical substances are involved in Dopamine is associated with attention, learning, and movement coordination.
neurotransmission: Dopamine also is involved in motivational processes, such as reward and reinforce#
ment. Schizophrenics show very high levels of dopamine. This fact has led to the
• monoamine neurotransmitters are synthesized by the nervous system through enzy# "dopamine theory of schizophrenia" which suggests that high levels of dopamine may
matic actions on one of the amino acids (constituents of proteins, such as choline, be partially responsible for schizophrenic conditions. Drugs used to combat schizophre,
tyrosine, and tryptophan) in our diet (e.g., acetylcholine, dopamine, and serotonin); nia often inhibit dopamine activity ( von Bohlen und Halbach & Dermietzel, 2006).
• amino,acid neurotransmitters are obtained directly from the amino acids in our In contrast, patients with Parkinson's disease show very low dopamine levels,
diet without further synthesis (e.g., gamma,aminobutyric acid, or GABA); which leads to the typical trembling and movement problems associated with Parkin#
• neuropeptides are peptide chains ( molecules made from the parts of two or more son's. When patients receive medication that increases their dopamine level, they (as
amino acids). well as healthy people who receive dopamine) sometimes show an increase in patho,
Table 3.2 lists some examples of neurotransmitters, together with their typical logical gambling. Gambling is a compulsive disorder that results from impaired impulse
functions in the nervous system and their associations with cognitive processing. control. When dopamine treatment is suspended, these patients no longer exhibit this
behavior (Drapier et al., 2006; Yoon et al., 2007; Abler et al., 2009). These findings
support the role of dopamine in motivational processes and impulse control.
iable 3.2 Neurotransmitters Serotonin plays an important role in eating behavior and body,weight regulation.
Neurotransmitters Description General Function Specific Examples High serotonin levels play a role in some types of anorexia. Specifically, serotonin
seems to play a role in the types of anorexia resulting from illness or treatment of
Acetylcholine {AchJ Monoamine neuro- Excitatory in brain and either Believed to be involved in memory
illness. For example, patients suffering from cancer or undergoing dialysis often expe,
transmitter synthesized excitatory {at skeletal mus- because of high concentration found
in the hippocampus {McIntyre et al.,
rience a severe loss of appetite (Agulera et al., 2000; Davis et al., 2004 ). This loss of
from choline cles) or inhibitory {at heart
muscles) elsewhere in the 2002) appetite is related, in both cases, to high serotonin levels. Serotonin is also involved
body in aggression and regulation of impulsivity (Rockland, 2000). Drugs that block sero#
Parkinson's disease, characterized by
tonin tend to result in an increase in aggressive behavior.
Dopamine {DAI Monoamine neuro- Influences movement, atten-
tion, and learning; mostly in- tremors and limb rigidity, results from The preceding description drastically oversimplifies the intricacies of constant neu#
transmitter synthesized
hibitory but some excitatory too little DA; some schizophrenia ronal communication. Such complexities make it difficult to understand what is hap-
from tyrosine
effects symptoms are associated with too pening in the normal brain when we are thinking, feeling, and interacting with our
much DA environment. Many researchers seek to understand the normal information processes
of the brain by investigating what is going wrong in the brains of people affected by neu-
Epinephrine and Monoamine neuro- Hormones {also known as Involved in diverse effects on body
norepinephrine related to fight-or-flight reactions, rological and psychological disorders. In the case of depression, for example, in the early
transmitter synthesized adrenaline and noradrena-
from tyrosine line) involved in regulation of anger, and fear 1950s a drug (iproniazid, a monoamine oxidase inhibitor) intended to treat tuberculosis
alertness was found to have a mood#improving effect. This finding led to some early research on
Serotonin Normally inhibits dreaming; defects in the chemical causes of depression. Perhaps if we can understand what has gone awry-
Monoamine neuro- Involved in arousal, sleep
transmitter synthesized and dreaming, and mood; serotonin system are linked to severe what chemicals are out of balance-we can figure out how processes normally work and
from tryptophan usually inhibitory but some depression how to put things back into balance. One way of doing so might be by providing needed
excitatory effects neurotransmitters or by inhibiting the effects of overabundant neurotransmitters.
GABA {gamma- Amino acid General neuromodulatory Currently believed to influence certain
aminobutyric acid) neurotransmitter effects resulting from inhibi- mechanisms for learning and memory Recepil'crs and Drugs
tory influences on presynap- {Izquierdo & Medina, 1997)
tic axons Receptors in the brain that nonnally are occupied by the standard neurotransmitters
Glutamate Currently believed to influence certain
can be hijacked by psychopharmacologically active drugs, legal or illegal. In such
Amino acid General neuromodulatory
neurotransmitter effects resulting from excit- mechanisms for learning and memory cases, the molecules of the drugs enter into receptors that normally would be for
atory influences on presyn- (Riedel, Platt, & Micheau, 2003) neurotransmitter substances endogenous in (originating in) the body.
aptic axons When people stop using the drugs, withdrawal symptoms arise. Once a user has
Neuropeptides Peptide chains seNing General neuromodulatory Endorphins play a role in pain relief. formed narcotic dependence, for example, the form of treatment differs for acute toxr
as neurotransmitters effects resulting from influ- Neuromodulating neuropeptides icity (the damage done from a particular overdose) versus chronic tm..icity (the damage
ences on postsynaptic sometimes are released to enhance done by longrterm drug addiction). Acute toxicity is often treated with naloxone or
membranes the effects of Ach
116 CHAPTER 3 o Cognitive Neuroscience Viewing the Structures and Functions of the Brain 117
related drugs. Naloxone (as well as a related drug, naltrexone) occupies opiate rccep, Through such investigations, researchers may be able to trace a link between an
tors in the brain better than the opiates themselves occupy those sites; thus, it hlocks observed type of behavior and anomalies in a particular location in the brain. An
all effects of narcotics. In fact, naloxone has such a strong affinity for the cndorphin early example is Paul Broca's (1824-1880) famous patient, Tan (so named because
receptors in the brain that it actually displaces molecules of narcotics already in that was the only syllable he was capable of uttering). Tan had severe speech
these receptors and then moves into the receptors. Naloxone is not addictive, problems. These problems were linked to lesions in an area of the frontal lobe
however. Even though it binds to receptors, it does not activate them. Although (Broca's area). This area is involved in certain functions of speech production. In
naloxone can be a life,saving drug for someone who has overdosed on opiates, its more recent times, postmortem examinations of victims of Alzheimer's disease (an
effects are short,lived. Thus, it is a poor long,tenn treatment for drug addiction. illness that causes devastating losses of memory; see Chapter 5) have led researchers
In narcotic detoxification, methadone often is substituted for the narcotic ( typi, to identify some of the brain structures involved in memory (e.g., the hippocampus,
cally, heroin). Methadone binds to endorphin receptor sites in a similar way to nal, described earlier in this chapter). These examinations also have identified some of
oxone and reduces the heroin cravings and withdrawal symptoms of addicted the microscopic aberrations associated with the disease process (e.g., distinctive tan,
persons. After the substitution, gradually decreasing dosages are administered to the gled fibers in the brain tissue). Although lesioning techniques provide the basic
patient until he or she is drug,free. Unfortunately, the usefulness of methadone is foundation for understanding the relation of the brain to behavior, they are limited
limited by the fact that it is addictive. in that they cannot be performed on the living brain. As a result, they do not offer
insights into more specific physiological processes of the brain. For this kind of infor,
mation, we need to study live nonhuman animals.
o/ COINIC!EIP1r C:IHIIECIK
1. Name some of the major structures in each part of the brain (forebrain, midbrain, and Studying Live Nonhuman Animals
hindbrain) and their functions. Scientists also want to understand the physiological processes and functions of the
2. What does locolizofion of function mean? living brain. To study the changing activity of the living brain, scientists must use
3. Why do researchers believe that the brain exhibits some level of hemispheric specialization? in vivo research. Many early in vivo techniques were performed exclusively on ani,
4. What are the four lobes of the brain and some of the functions associated with them? mals. For example, Nobel Prize-winning research on visual perception arose from in
vivo studies investigating the electrical activity of individual cells in particular re,
5. How do neurons transmit information?
gions of the brains of animals (Hubel & Wiesel, 1963, 1968, 1979; see Chapter 2).
To obtain single,cell recordings, researchers insert a very thin electrode next to a
single neuron in the brain of an animal ( usually a monkey or a cat). They then re,
Voewong the Structures and Functicirns cf the !Bir«:Doll'\l cord the changes in electrical activity that occur in the cell when the animal is ex,
Scientists can use many methods for studying the human brain. These methods include posed to a stimulus. In this way, scientists can measure the effects of certain kinds of
stimuli, such as visually presented lines, on the activity of individual neurons. Neu-
both postmortem (from Latin, "after death") studies and in vivo (from Latin, "living")
rons fire constantly, even if no stimuli are present, so the task of the researcher is to
techniques on both humans and animals. Each technique provides important informa,
find stimuli that produce a consistent change in the activity of the neuron. This
tion about the structure and function of the human brain. Even some of the earliest
technique can be used only in laboratory animals, not in humans, because no safe
postmortem studies still influence our thinking about how the brain performs certain
way has yet been devised to perform such recordings in humans.
functions. However, the recent trend is to focus on techniques that provide informa,
tion about human mental functioning as it is occurring. This trend is in contrast to the A second group of animal studies includes selective lesioning-surgically removing
or damaging part of the brain-to observe resulting functional deficits (Al'bertin,
earlier trend of waiting to find people with disorders and then studying their brains af,
ter they died. Because postmortem studies are the foundation for later work, we discuss Mulder, & Wiener, 2003; Mohammed, Jonsson, & Archer, 1986). In recent years,
them first. We then move on to the more modem in vivo techniques. researchers have found neurochemical ways to induce lesions in animals' brains by ad-
ministering drugs that destroy only cells that use a particular neurotransmitter. Some
drugs' effects are reversible, so that conductivity in the brain is disrupted only for a
Postmortem Studies
limited amount of time (Gazzaniga, lvry, & Mangun, 2009).
Postmortem studies and the dissection of brains have been done for centuries. Even A third way of doing research with animals is by employing genetic knockout
today, researchers often use dissection to study the relation between the brain and procedures. By using genetic manipulations, animals can be created that lack certain
behavior. In the ideal case, studies start during the lifetime of a person. Researchers kinds of cells or receptors in the brain. Comparisons with normal animals then indi-
observe and document the behavior of people who show signs of brain damage while cate what the function of the missing receptors or cells may be.
they are alive (Wilson, 2003 ). Later, after the patients die, the researchers examine
the patients' brains for lesions-areas where body tissue has been JamageJ, such as
from injury or disease. Then the researchers infer that the lesioned locations may Studying Live Humans
be related to the behavior that was affected. The case of Phineas Gage, discussed Obviously, many of the techniques used to study live animals cannot he used on hu,
in Chapter 1, was explored through these methods. man participants. Generalizations to humans based on these studies are therefore
Viewing the Structures and Functions of the Brain 119
118 CHAPTER 3 o Cognitive Neuroscience
somewhat limited. However, an array of less invasive imaging techniques for use ERP can be used to examine developmental changes in cognitive abilities.
with humans has been developed. These techniques-electrical recordings, static These experiments provide a more complete understanding of the relationship
between brain and cognitive development (Taylor & Baldeweg, 2002).
imaging, and metabolic imaging-are described in this section.
The high degree of temporal resolution afforded by ERPs can be used to comple-
ment other techniques. For example, ERPs and positron emission tomography (PET)
Electrical Recordings were used to pinpoint areas involved in word association (Posner & Raichle, 1994 ).
The transmission of signals in the brain occurs through electrical potentials. When
recorded, this activity appears as waves of various widths (frequencies) and heights Using ERPs, the investigators found that participants showed increased activity in
(intensities). Electroencephalograms (EEGs) are recordings of the electrical fre- ~ertain parts of the brain (left lateral frontal cortex, left posterior cortex, and right
msular cortex) when they made rapid associations to given words. Another study
quencies and intensities of the living brain, typically recorded over relatively long
showed that decreases in electrical potentials are twice as great for tones that are
periods (Picton & Mazaheri, 2003). Through EEGs, it is possible to study brain-
attended to as for tones that are ignored (see Phelps, 1999). As with any technique,
wave activity indicative of changing mental states such as deep sleep or dreaming.
EEGs and ERPs provide only a glimpse of brain activity. They are most helpful when
To obtain EEG recordings, electrodes are placed at various points along the surface
used in conjunction with other techniques to identify particular brain areas involved
of the scalp. The electrical activity of underlying brain areas is then recorded. There-
in cognition.
fore, the information is not localized to specific cells. However, the EEG is very sen-
sitive to changes over time. For example, EEG recordings taken during sleep reveal Static Imaging Techniques
changing patterns of electrical activity involving the whole brain. Different patterns Psychologists use still images to reveal the structures of the brain (see Figure 3.10
emerge during dreaming versus deep sleep. EEGs are also used as a tool in the diag- and Table 3.3). The techniques include angiograms, computed tomography (CT)
nosis of epilepsy because they can indicate whether seizures appear in both sides of scans, and magnetic resonance imaging scans (MRI). The X-ray-based techniques
the brain at the same time, or whether they originate in one part of the brain and (angiogram and CT scan) allow for the observation of large abnormalities of the
then spread. brain, such as damage resulting from strokes or rumors. However, they are limited
To relate electrical activity to a particular event or task (e.g., seeing a flash of
light or listening to sentences), EEG waves can be measured when participants are
exposed to a particular stimulus. An event-related potential (ERP) is the record of a
small change in the brain's electrical activity in response to a stimulating event. The
(a) Brain angiogram: A brain angiogram highlights the blood vessels of the brain.
fluctuation typically lasts a mere fraction of a second. ERPs provide very good infor-
mation about the time-course of task-related brain activity. In any one EEG record-
ing, there is a great deal of "noise"-that is, irrelevant electrical activity going on in
the brain. ERPs cancel out the effects of noise by averaging out activity that is not
task-related. Therefore, the EEG waves are averaged over a large number (e.g., 100)
o___,,
of trials to reveal the event-related potentials (ERPs). The resulting wave forms
show characteristic spikes related to the timing of electrical activity, but they reveal
only very general information about the location of that activity (because of low
spatial resolution as a result of the placement of scalp electrodes).
The ERP technique has been used in a wide variety of studies. Some studies of (b) c.T scan: A_ CT image of a brain uses a series of rotating scans to produce a three-dimensional
mental abilities like selective attention have investigated individual differences by view of brain structures.
using event-related potentials (e.g., Troche et al., 2009). ERP methods are also
used to examine language processing. One study examined children who suffered 2
from developmental language impairment and compared them with those who did
not. The children were presented with pictures and a sound or word, and then had 1
to decide whether the picture, on the one hand, and the sound or word, on the
other, matched. For example, in a matching pair, a picture of a rooster would be 0
10 .e
presented with either the sound "cockadoodledoo" or the spoken word "crowing.
A mismatch would be the picture of the rooster presented with the sound "ding
11 0
0
200
!
~
~
Detectors O0 Moving a
dong" or the spoken word "chiming." There was no difference between the two
groups when they had to match the picture with the sound. The children with Ian,
guage impairment had greater difficulty matching the picture with the spoken word
_______________________________ i
3 0 X-ray
wu~e
@
}
and exhibited a delayed N400 effect ( the N400 is a component of ERPs that occurs
especially when people are presented with meaningful stimuli). The results con, Figure 3. 10 Brain Imaging Techniques.
firmed the hypothesis that the language networks of the children with language Various techniques have been developed to picture the structures-and sometimes the
impairment may be weakened (Cummings & Ceponiene, 2010). processes-of the brain.
120 CHAPTER 3 o Cognitive Neuroscience Viewing the Structures and Functions of the Brain 121
in their resolution and cannot provide much information about smaller lesions and Table 3.3 Cognitive Neuropsychological Methods for Studying Brain Functioning
aberrations.
Computed tomography (CT or CAT). Unlike conventional X-ray methods that Suitable for
only allow a two-dimensional view of an object, a CT scan consists of :,;cveral Method Procedure Humans? Advantages Disadvantages
X-ray images of the brain taken from different vantage points that, when combined, Single-cell Very thin electrode is inserted next to a No Rather precise re- Cannot be used
result in a three-dimensional image. recording single neuron. Changes in electrical activ- cording of electri· with humans
The aim of an angiography is not to look at the structures in the brain, but rather ify occurring in the cell ore then recorded. cal activity
to examine the blood flow. When the brain is active, it needs energy, which is
EEG Changes in electrical potentials are re- Yes · Relatively Imprecise
corded via electrodes attached to scalp. noninvasive
. -·· - -····. -·--- - -----------~----------------•-•- ------------ - ---- ··-
(c) MRI scan: A rotating series of MRI scans shows a clearer three-dimensional picture of brain ERP Changes in electrical potentials are re- Yes Relatively Does not show ac-
structures than CT scans show.
corded via electrodes attached to scalp. noninvasive tual brain images
PET Participants ingest a mildly radioactive Yes Shows· images of Less useful for fast
form of oxygen that emits positron~ as. it is the brain in action processes
Coil metabolized. Changes in concentration of
positrons in targeted areas of the brqin are
then measured.
··- -- - -
fMRI Creates magnetic field that induces Yes Shows images of Requires individual
changes in the particles of oxygen atoms. the brain in action; to be placed in un-
More active areas draw more oxygenated more precise than comfortable scan-
blood than do less active areas in the PET ner for some time
brain. The differences in the amounts of
(d) PET scan: These still photographs of PET scans of a brain show different metabolic processes oxygen consumed form the basis for fMRI
during different activities. PET scans permit the study of brain physiology. measurements.
--- --- •-- --- - ---
TMS Involves placing a coil on a person's head Yes Enables researcher Potentially danger-
and then allowing an electrical current to to pinpoint how ous if misused
pass through it. The current generates a disruption of a par-
1i
magnetic field. This field disrupts the small ticular area of brain
1· area !usually no more than a cubic c;enti- affects cognitive
j meter) beneath it. The researcher con thEm functioning
look at cognitive functioning when the
lE particular area is disrupted.
!
C> MEG Involves measuring brain activity through Yes Extremely precise Requires expensive
;,:-
detection of magnetic fields by placing a spatial and tempo- machine not readi-
i device over the head. ral resolution ly available to
(e) TMS (Transcranial magnetic stimulation): TMS temporarily disrupts normal brain activity to
investigate cognitive functioning when particular areas are disrupted. i] researchers
~
~
l4
in'
-s transported to the brain in the form of oxygen and glucose by means of the blood.
J In angiography, a dye is injected into an artery that leads to the brain, and then
Coil with
electric
current
I
a
@
an X-ray image is taken. The image shows the circulatory system, and it is possible
to detect strokes (disruption of the blood flow often caused by the blockage of
the arteries through a foreign substance) or aneurysms (abnormal ballooning of an
§ artery), or arteriosclerosis (a hardening of arteries that makes them inflexible and
narrow).
Figure 3. 10 Continued
122 CHAPTER 3 ° Cognitive Neuroscience
l Viewing the Structures and Functions of the Brain 123
Metabolic Imaging
Metabolic imaging techniques rely on changes that take place within the brain as
a result of increased consumption of glucose and oxygen in active areas of the
brain. The basic idea is that active areas in the brain consume more glucose and
oxygen than do inactive areas during some tasks. An area specifically required by
one task ought to be more active during that task than during more generalized
processing and thus should require more glucose and oxygen. Scientists attempt
to pinpoint specialized areas for a task by using the subtraction method. This
method uses two different measurements: one that was taken while the subject
was involved in a more general or control activity, and one that was taken when
the subject was engaged in the task of interest. The difference between these two
measurements equals the additional activation recorded while the subject is en-
gaged in the target task as opposed to the control task. The subtraction method
thus in~olves subtracting activity during the control task from activity during the
task of mterest. The resulting difference in activity is analyzed statistically. This analy-
sis determines which areas are responsible for performance of a particular task above
and beyond the more general activity. For example, suppose the experimenter wishes
to determine which area of the brain is most important for retrieval of word meanings.
The experimenter might subtract activity during a task involving reading of words
from activity_ during a task involving the physical recognition of the letters of the
words. The difference in activity would be presumed to reflect the additional resources
used in retrieval of meaning.
Figure 3. 11 Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI).
There is one important caveat to remember about these techniques: Scientists
An MRI machine can provide data that show what areas of the brain are involved in different have no way of determining whether the net effect of this difference in activity is
kinds of cognitive processing.
excitatory or inhibitory (because some neurons are activated by, and some are inhib-
ited by, other neurons' neurotransmitters). Therefore, the subtraction technique
reveals net brain activity for particular areas. It cannot show whether the area's ef-
The magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scan is of great interest to cognitive fect_ i~ positive ~r negative. Moreover, the method assumes that activation is purely
psychologists (Figure 3.11 ). TI1e MRI reveals high-resolution images of the structure ~ddmve-tha~ it ca1: be discovered through a subtraction method without taking
of the living brain by computing and analyzing magnetic changes in the energy of mto account mteracttons among elements.
the orbits of nuclear particles in the molecules of the body. There are two kinds of This description greatly oversimplifies the subtraction method. But it shows at a
MRis-structural MRis and functional MRls. Structural MRis provide images of the general level how scientists assess physiological functioning of particular areas using
brain's size and shape whereas functional MRis visualize the parts of the brain that imaging techniques.
are activated when a person is engaged in a particular task. MRis allow for a much Positron emission tomography (PET) scans measure increases in oxygen con-
clearer picture of the brain than CT scans. A strong magnetic field is passed through sumption in active brain areas during particular kinds of information processing
the brain of a patient. A scanner detects various patterns of electromagnetic changes (O'Leary et al., 2007; Raichle, 1998, 1999 ). T O track their use of oxygen, partici-
in the atoms of the brain. These molecular changes are analyzed by a computer to pants are given a mildly radioactive form of oxygen that emits positrons as it is me-
produce a three-dimensional picture of the brain. This picture includes detailed tabolized (positrons are particles that have roughly the same size and mass as
information about brain structures. For example, MRI has been used to show that electrons, but that are positively rather than negatively charged). Next, the brain is
musicians who play string instruments such as the violin or the cello tend to have scanned to detect positrons. A computer analyzes the data to produce images of the
an expansion of the brain in an area of the right hemisphere that controls left-hand physiological functioning of the brain in action.
movement (because control of hands is contralateral, with the right side of the brain PET scans can assist in the diagnosis of disorders of cognitive decline like
controlling the left hand, and vice versa; Mtinte, Altenmtiller, & Jancke, 2002). We Alzheimer's by searching for abnormalities in the brain (Patterson et al., 2009).
tend to view the brain as controlling what we can do. This study is a good example PET scans have been used to show that blood flow increases to the occipital
of how what we do-our experience-can affect the development of the brain. MRI lobe of the brain during visual processing (Posner et al., 1988). PET scans also
also facilitates the detection of lesions, such as lesions associated with particular dis- are used for comparatively studying the brains of people who score high versus
orders of language use, but does not provide much information about physiological low on .intelligence tests. When high-scoring people are engaged in cognitively
processes. However, the two techniques discussed in the following section do pro- demandmg tasks, their brains seem to use glucose more efficiently-in highly
vide such information.
L
T Viewing the Structures and Functions of the Brain 125
task-specific areas of the brain. The brains of people with lower scores appear to changes in patient populations, including persons with schizophrenia and epilepsy
use glucose more diffusely, across larger regions of the brain (Haier et al., I 992). {Detre, 2004; Weinberger et al., 1996).
Likewise, a study has shown that Broca's area as well as the left anterior temporal A related p~ocedure is pharmacological MRI (phMRI). The phMRI combines
area and the cerebellum are involved in the learning of new words ( Groenholm ~RI m~thods with the study of psychopharmacological agents. These studies exam,
et al., 2005). me the mfluence and role of particular psychopharmacological agents on the brain.
PET scans have been used to illustrate the integration of information from They have allowed the examination of the role of agonises (which strengthen
various parts of the cortex (Castelli et al, 2005; Posner et al., 1988). Specifically, responses) ~nd antagonists (which weaken responses) on the same receptor cells.
PET scans were used to study regional cerebral blood flow during several activities !hese_ st udies have allowed for the examination of drugs used for treatment. The
involving the reading of single words. When participants looked at a word on a mvest igators ~an _predict the responses of patients to neurochemical treatments
screen, areas of their visual cortex showed high levels of activity. When they through exammat1on of the person's brain makeup. Overall, these methods aid in
spoke a word, their motor cortex was highly active. When they heard a word th e bun~erstan~ing_ of brain areas and the effects of psychopharmacological agents
spoken, their auditory cortex was activated. When they produced words related on ram functtonmg (Baliki et al., 2005; Easton et al., 2007; Honey & Bullmore
to the words they saw (requiring high-level integration of visual, auditory, and 2004i Kalisch et al., 2004 ). '
motor information), the relevant areas of the cortex showed the greatest amount A~othe_r procedure related to tMRI is diffusion tensor imaging (DTI). Diffusion
of activity. ~ensor l~agmg examines the restricted dispersion of water in tissue and, of special
PET scans are not highly precise because they require a minimum of about half mterest
. .' md axons
b · Water m · the bram · cannot move fr ee1y, b ut rath er, its
· movement
a minute to produce data regarding glucose consumption. If an area of the brain stn
~ re cte d .Y the a~ons and their myelin sheaths. DTI measures how far protons
shows different amounts of activity over the course of time measurement, the ave move m ~ particular direction within a specific time interval. This technique
activity levels are averaged, potentially leading to conclusions that are less than has bfe~ us~ful m the mapping of the white matter of the brain and in examining
precise. neu~a bci~cu~ts: Some applications of this technique include examination of trau-
Functional magnetic resonance imaging (£MRI) is a neuroimaging technique matic l ram mJury ' schizophrenia, · bram · maturation,
· and mu lnp
· Ie sc Ieros1s
· (Ard ekam·
2
et a·, 003i Beyer, Ranga, & Krishnan, 2002; Ramachandra et al., 2003; Sotak,
that uses magnetic fields to construct a detailed representation in three dimensions
of levels of activity in various parts of the brain at a given moment in time. This
2002; Sundgren et al., 2004 ).
technique builds on MRI, but it uses increases in oxygen consumption to construct A recently ~eveloped technique for studying brain activity bypasses some of
images of brain activity. The basic idea is the same as in PET scans. However, t~el problem.s wi~h other techniques (Walsh & Pascual-Leone, 2005). Transcra ..
the fMRI technique does not require the use of radioactive particles. Rather, the nbia_ ~agne ~ic _sttdmulation (TMS) temporarily disrupts the normal activity of the
b ram
1 TM area · Thereco
. m a. 1m1te · can 1m1tate
ri re, it · • 1es1ons
· · t h e bram
m · 1ate
· or stimu
participant performs a task while placed inside an MRI machine. This machine typi,
cally looks like a tunnel. When someone is wholly or partially inserted in the tun, rat~ reg~ont S requires placing a coil on a person's head and then allowing
nel, he or she is surrounded by a donut-shaped magnet. Functional MRI creates a an e ec_tn~~ ldcurrent to pass through it (Figure 3.10). The current generates a
magnetic field that induces changes in the particles of oxygen atoms. More active mag~ettc ie · This ~ield disrupts the small area (usually no more than a cubic
areas draw more oxygenated blood than do less active areas in the brain. So shortly centimeter) b~neath It. The researcher can then look at cognitive functioning
after a brain area has been active, a reduced amount of oxygen should be detectable when. the particular area is disrupted. This method is restricted to brain regions
in this area. This observation forms the basis for fMRI measurements. These mea, that he dos~ to the surface of the head. An advantage to TMS is that it is possi-
surements then are computer analyzed to provide the most precise information cur, ble to _exam me ca~sal. relationships with this method because the brain activity in
rently available about the physiological functioning of the brain's activity during a particular area is disrupted and then its influence on task-performance is ob-
task performance. serv~d; m? st other methods allow the investigator to examine only correlational
This technique is less invasive than PET. It also has higher temporal resolution- relationships by the observation of brain function ( Gazzaniga, Ivry, & Mangun,
measurements can be taken for activity lasting fractions of a second, rather than only 2009). ~MS has been used, for example, to produce "virtual lesions" and investi,
for activity lasting minutes to hours. One major drawback is the expense of fMRI. ?ate which areas of the brain are involved when people grasp or reach for an ob,
Relatively few researchers have access to the required machinery and testing of parti, ~ect (Koch & Rothwell, 2009). It is even hypothesized that repeated magnetic
cipants is very time consuming. nnpuls~s (rT~S) can _serve as a therapeutic means in the treatment of neuropsy,
The fMRI technique can identify regions of the brain active in many areas, such cholog1cal disorders like depression or anxiety disorders (Pallanti & Bernard·
2009). l,
as vision (Engel et al., 1994; Kitada et al., 2010), attention (Cohen et al.; 1994;
Samanez-Larkin et al., 2009), language (Gaillard et al., 2003; Stein et al., 2009), Magnet?e~cephalography (MEG) measures activity of the brain from outside
and memory (Gabrieli et al., 1996; Wolf, 2009). For example, fMRl has shown the_ head_ (_similar. to EEG) by picking up magnetic fields emitted by changes in
that the lateral prefrontal cortex is essential for working memory. This is a part of hram activity. This ~echnique allows localization of brain signals so that it is possi-
memory that processes information that is actively in use at a given time (McCarthy hl_e to know wh~t different parts of the brain are doing at different times. lt is one
et al., 1994). Also, fMRI methods have been applied to the examination of brain of the m~st precise of the measuring methods. MEG is used to help surgeons locate
pathological structures in the brain (Baumgartner, 2000). A recent application of
l
1 Brain Disorders 127
MEG involved patients who reported phantom limb pain. In cases of phantom typically show marked loss of cognitive functioning. The nature of the loss depends
limb pain, a patient reports pain in a body part that has been removed, for exam, on the area of the brain that is affected by the stroke. There may be paralysis, pain,
ple, a missing foot. When certain areas of the brain are stimulated, phantom limb numbness, a loss of speech, a loss of language comprehension, impairments in
pain is reduced. MEG has been used to examine the changes in brain activity thought processes, a loss of movement in parts of the body, or other symptoms.
before, during, and after electrical stimulation. These changes in brain activity Two kinds of stroke may occur (NINDS stroke information page, 2009). An ische-
corresponded with changes in the experience of phantom limb pain ( Kringdbach mic stroke usually occurs when a buildup of fatty tissue occurs in blood vessels over a
et al., 2007 ). period of years, and a piece of this tissue breaks off and gets lodged in arteries of the
Current techniques still do not provide unambiguous mappings of particular brain. lschemic strokes can be treated by clot,busting drugs. The second kind of
functions to particular brain structures, regions, or even processes. Rather, some dis, stroke, a hemorrhagic stroke, occurs when a blood vessel in the brain suddenly breaks.
crete structures, regions, or processes of the brain appear to be involved in particular Blood then spills into surrounding tissue. As the blood spills over, brain cells in the
cognitive functions. Our current understanding of how particular cognitive functions affected areas begin to die. This death is either from the lack of oxygen and nutri,
are linked to particular brain structures or processes allows us only to infer suggestive ents or from the rupture of the vessel and the sudden spilling of blood. The progno,
indications of some kind of relationship. Through sophisticated analyses, we can in, sis for stroke victims depends on the type and severity of damage. Symptoms of
fer increasingly precise relationships. But we are not yet at a point where we can stroke appear immediately on the occurrence of stroke.
determine the specific cause-effect relationship between a given brain structure or Typical symptoms include (NINDS stroke infonnation page, 2009):
process and a particular cognitive function because particular functions may be influ,
• numbness or weakness in the face arms or legs (especially on one side of the
enced by multiple structures, regions, or processes of the brain. Finally, these techni, body) ' '
ques provide the best information only in conjunction with other experimental • c?~fusio_n, difficulty speaking or understanding speech
techniques for understanding the complexities of cognitive functioning. These com, • v~s1?n disturbances in one or both eyes
binations generally are completed with human participants, although some research, • d1zzmess, trouble walking, loss of balance or coordination
ers have combined in vivo studies in animals with brain,imaging techniques • severe headache with no known cause
(Dedeogle et al., 2004; Kornblum et al., 2000; Logothetis, 2004 ).
~ COINICIEPl CIHlfECD(
Brain tumors, also called neoplasms, can affect cognitive functioning in very serious
1. In the investigation of the structure and functions of the brain, what methods of study ways. T ur~ors can occur in either the gray or the white matter of the brain. Tumors
can be used only in nonhuman animals, and what methods can be used in humans? of the white matter are more common (Gazzaniga, Ivry, & Mangun, 2009).
Tw~ types of b~ain tumors can occur. Primary brain tumors start in the brain.
2. What are typical questions that are investigated with EEGs, PETs, and fMRls?
Most childhood bram tumors are of this type. Secondary brain tumors start as tumors
3. Why is it useful to have imaging methods that display the metabolism of the brain? somewhere else in the body, such as in the lungs. Brain tumors can be either benign
4. What are the advantages and disadvantages of in vivo techniques compared to or malignant. Benign tumors do not contain cancer cells. They typically can be re,
postmortem studies? moved and will not grow back. Cells from benign rumors do not invade surrounding
cells or spread to other parts of the body. However, if they press against sensitive
areas of the brain, they can result in serious cognitive impairments. They also can be
life-threatening, unlike benign tumors in most other parts of the body. Malignant
brain tumors, unlike benign ones, contain cancer cells. They are more serious and
A number of brain disorders can impair cognitive functioning. Brain disorders can
usually t~reaten the victim's life. They often grow quickly. They also tend to invade
give us valuable insight into the functioning of the brain. As mentioned above,
surroundmg healthy brain tissue. In rare instances, malignant cells may break away
scientists often write detailed notes about the condition of a patient and analyze
and cause cancer in other parts of the body. Following are the most common symp,
the brain of a patient once the patient has died to see which areas in the brain
toms of brain tumors (What you need to know about brain tumors, 2009):
may have caused the symptoms the patient experienced. Furthermore, with the in
vivo techniques that have been developed over the past decades, many tests and di, • headaches (usually worse in the morning)
agnostic procedures can be executed during the lifetime of a patient to help ease • nausea or vomiting
patient symptoms and to gain new insight into how the brain works. • changes in speech, vision, or hearing
• problems balancing or walking
• changes in mood, personality, or ability to concentrate
Sff'irclke • problems with memory
Vascular disorder is a brain disorder caused by a stroke. Strokes occur when the flow • muscle jerking or twitching (seizures or convulsions)
of blood to the brain undergoes a sudden disruption. People who experience stroke • numbness or tingling in the arms or legs
i I
128 CHAPTER 3 o Cognitive Neuroscience Intelligence and Neuroscience 129
Iii BELIEVE IT OR NOT Generally, brain damage can result from many causes. When brain damaoe occurs
it always should be treated by a medical specialist at the earliest possible rim;. A neu~
BRAIN SURGERY CAN BE PERFORMED like vision or memory. The brain itself does not contain ropsychologist may be called in to assist in diagnosis, and rehabilitation psychologists
WHtLE You ARe AwAKE! any pain receptors, and when doctors stimulate a pa- can be helpful in bringing the patient to the optimal level of psychological function-
Can you imagine having major surgery performed on you tient's brain during open-brain surgery while the patient ing possible under the circumstances.
while you are awake? It's possible, and indeed some- is awake, the patient does not feel any pain. You can
times it is done. When patients who have brain tumors nevertheless get a headache, but that is because the tissue
or who suffer from epilepsy receive brain surgery, they are and neNes that surround the brain are sensitive to pain, <>/ COINICIEIP1' CHIECIK
often woken up from the anesthesia after the surgeons not the brain itself. The communication with the patient
have opened their skull and exposed the brain. This enhances the safety and precision of the procedure as 1. Why is the study of brain disorders useful for cognitive psychologists?
way the surgeons can talk to the patient and perform tests compared with brain surgery that is performed solely on 2. What are brain tumors, and how are they diagnosed?
by stimulating the patient's brain in order to map the dif- the basis of brain scans that were performed using imag- 3. What are the causes of strokes?
ferent areas of the brain that control important functions ing technologies discussed in this chapter. 4. What are the symptoms of head injuries?
The diagnosis of brain tumor is typically made through neurological examina-

tion, CT scan, and/or MRI. The most common form of treatment is a combination Dtrilii'e~~oSJellil«:e arnd Neuroscience
of surgery, radiation, and chemotherapy.
The human brain is clearly the organ that serves as a biological basis for human in-
telligence. Early studies, such as those of Karl Lashley, studied the brain to find bio-
Head lniuroes logical indices of intelligence and other aspects of mental processes. They were a
resounding failure, despite great efforts. As tools for studying the brain have become
Head injuries result from many causes, such as a car accident, contact with a hard more sophisticated, however, we are beginning to see the possibility of finding phys-
object, or a bullet wound. Head injuries are of two types. In closed-head injuries, the iological indicators of intelligence. Some investigators believe that at some point
skull remains intact but there is damage to the brain, typically from the mechanical we will have clinically useful psychophysiological indices of intelligence
force of a blow to the head. Slamming one's head against a windshield in a car acci-
(e.g., Matarazzo, 1992). But widely applicable indices will be much longer in com-
dent might result in such an injury. In open-head injuries, the skull does not remain ing. In the meantime, the biological studies we now have are largely correlational.
intact but rather is penetrated, for example, by a bullet.
They show statistical associations between biological and psychometric or other
Head injuries are surprisingly common. Roughly 1.4 million North Americans measures of intelligence. They do not establish causal relations.
suffer such injuries each year. About 50,000 of them die, and 235,000 need to be
hospitalized. About 2% of the American population needs long-term assistance in
their daily living due to head injuries (What is traumatic brain injury, 2009).
Loss of consciousness is a sign that there has been some degree of damage to ~ntelligence and Brain Size
the brain as a result of the injury. Damage resulting from head injury can include One line of research looks at the relationship of brain size or volume to intelligence
spastic movements, difficulty in swallowing, and slurring of speech, among many (see Jerison, 2000; Vernon et al., 2000; Witelson, Beresh, & Kiga, 2006). The evi-
other cognitive problems. Immediate symptoms of a head injury include (Signs and dence suggests that, for humans, there is a modest but significant statistical relation-
symptoms, 2009): ship between brain size and intelligence (Gignac, Vernon, & Wickett, 2003;
• unconsciousness McDaniel, 2005). The amount of gray matter in the brain is strongly correlated
• abnormal breathing with IQ in many areas of the frontal and temporal lobes (Haier, Jung, Yeo, Head,
• obvious serious wound or fracture & Alkire, 2004 ). However, the brain areas that are correlated with IQ appear to
• bleeding or clear fluid from the nose, ear, or mouth differ in men versus women. Frontal areas are of relatively more importance in
• disturbance of speech or vision women, whereas posterior areas are of relatively more importance in men, even if
• pupils of unequal size both genders are matched for intelligence (Haier, Jung, Yeo, Head, & Alkire,
• weakness or paralysis 2005). This finding opens the question of whether there are two different brain
• dizziness architectures in men versus women that both result in roughly equal levels of intel-
• neck pain or stiffness ligence (Haier, 2010). It is important to note that the relationship between brain
• seizure size and intelligence does not hold across species (Jerison, 2000). Rather, what holds
• vomiting more than two to three times seems to _be a relationship between intelligence and brain size, relative to the rough
• loss of bladder or bowel control general size of the organism.
J-
130 CHAPTER 3 ° Cognitive Neuroscience Intelligence and Neuroscience 131
llrrnfl'ellDogerrnce 011rudl 1Nleuirc!l'1ls of the more intelligent participants performing the hard task. These results again
suggest selectivity of brain areas. What could be driving the increases in glucose
The development of electrical recording and imaging techniques offers some appeal- metabolism? Currently, the key factor appears to be subjective task difficulty. In
ing possibilities. For example, complex patterns of electrical activity in the brain, earlier studies, smarter participants simply found the tasks to be too easy. Matching
which are prompted by specific stimuli, appear to correlate with scores on IQ tests task difficulty to participants' abilities seems to indicate that smarter participants in-
(Barrett & Eysenck, 1992). Several studies initially suggested that speed of conduc- cr~ase gluc~se metabolism when the task demands it. The preliminary findings in
tion of neural impulses may correlate with intelligence, as measured by IQ tests this area will need to be investigated further before any conclusive answers arise.
(McGarry-Roberts, Stelmack, & Campbell, 1992; Vernon & Mori, 1992). A
follow-up study, however, failed to find a strong relation between neural-conduction
velocity and intelligence (Wickett & Vernon, 1994 ). In this study, conduction Bioiogical !Bases cf Dnfl'emgerrnce resting
velocity was measured by neural-conduction speeds in a main nerve of the arm. Intel- Some ne~ro~sychological research suggests that performance on intelligence tests
ligence was measured by a Multidimensional Aptitude Battery. Surprisingly, neural- may not mdicate a crucial aspect of intelligence-the ability to set goals, to plan
conduction velocity appears to be a more powerful predictor of IQ scores for men how t? mee~ them, and to execute those plans (Dempster, 1991). Specifically, peo-
than for women. So gender differences may account for some of the differences ple with_ lesions on the frontal lobe of the brain frequently perform quite well on
in the data (Wickett & Vernon, 1994 ). As of now, the results are inconsistent standardize~ IQ_ tests. These tests require responses to questions within a highly
(Haier, 2010). st_ructured Situation. But they do not require much in the way of goal setting or plan-
ning. These teS ts frequently use what could be classified as crystallized intelligence.
Damage to the posterior regions of the brain seems to have negative effects on mea-
llll'1lil'ell~ogell'1lce 01ll'1ldl Biraoll'1l Meil'C11bc~osm
s~res of cryS tallized intelligence (Gray & Thompson, 2004; Kolb & Whishaw, 1996;
More recent work suggests that the flexibility of neural circuitry, rather than speed of Piercy, 1964 ). In patients with frontal lobe damage, impairments in fluid intelligence
conduction, is key (Newman & Just, 2005). Hence, we would want to study not just are observed (Duncan, Burgess, & Emslie, 1995; Gray, Chabris, & Braver, 2003;
speed but neural circuitry. An alternative approach to studying the brain suggests Gray & Thompson, 2004 ). This result should come as no surprise, given that the
that neural efficiency may be related to intelligence. Such an approach is based on frontal lobes are involved in reasoning, decision making, and problem solving (see
studies of how the brain metabolizes glucose (a simple sugar required for brain activ- Ch~pters 11 and 12). Other research highlights the importance of the parietal
ity) during mental activities. Higher intelligence correlates with reduced levels of regmns for performance on general and fluid intelligence tasks (Lee et al., 2006;
glucose metabolism during problem-solving tasks (Haier et al., 1992; Haier & Jung, s~e also Glaescher et al., 2009). Intelligence involves the ability to learn from expe-
2007). That is, smarter brains consume less sugar and therefore expend less effort nence and. to adap~ to the surrounding environment. Thus, the ability to set goals
than less smart brains doing the same task. Furthermore, cerebral efficiency increases and_ to design and implement plans cannot be ignored. An essential aspect of goal
as a result of learning on a relatively complex task involving visuospatial manipula- settmg and planning is the ability to attend appropriately to relevant stimuli.
tions, for example, the computer game Terris (Haier et al., 1992). As a result of Another related ability is that of ignoring or discounting irrelevant stimuli.
practice, more intelligent participants not only show lower cerebral glucose metabo-
lism overall but also show more specifically localized metabolism of glucose. In most ihe P-IFDT Theory of Drntemgence
areas of their brains, smarter participants show less glucose metabolism. But in se-
lected areas of their brains, believed to be important to the task at hand, they The discovered importance of the frontal and parietal regions in intelligence tasks has
show higher levels of glucose metabolism. Thus, more intelligent participants may ~ed to the development of an integrated theory of intelligence that highlights the
have learned how to use their brains more efficiently. They carefully focus their importance of these areas. This theory, called the parietal-frontal integration theory
thought processes on a given task. (~-FIT), st r_ess~s th~ importance of interconnected brain regions in determining
Other research, however, suggests that the relationship between glucose me- differences m mtelhgence. The regions this theory focuses on are the prefrontal
tabolism and intelligence may be more complex (Haier et al., 1995i Larson cortex, the inferior and superior parietal lobe, the anterior cingulated cortex, and
et al., 1995 ). On the one hand, one study confirmed the earlier findings of in- portions of the temporal and occipital lobes (Colom et al., 2009; Jung & Haier, 2007).
creased glucose metabolism in less smart participants, in this case, part1c1pants P-FIT theory describes patterns of brain activity in people with different levels of
who had mild mental retardation (Haier et al., I 995 ). On the other hand, an- intelligence; it cannot, however, explain what makes a person intelligent or what in-
other study found, contrary to the earlier findings, that smarter participants telligence is.
had increased glucose metabolism relative to their average comparison group We cannot realistically study a brain or its contents and processes in isolation
(Larson et al., 1995). without also considering the entire human being. We must consider the interactions
There was a problem with earlier studies-the tasks participants received were of that h_uma~ being with the entire environmental context within which the per-
not matched for difficulty level across groups of smart and average individuals. The son acts mtell1gently. Many researchers and theorists urge us to take a more contex-
study by Larson and colleagues used tasks that were matched to the ability levels of tual view of intelligence. Furthermore, some alternative views of intelligence
the smarter and average participants. They found that the smarter participants used attempt to broaden the definition of intelligence to be more inclusive of people's
more glucose. Moreover, the glucose metabolism was highest in the right hemisphere varied abilities.
T Key Terms 133
o/ COINIC:IE!Plf' CMr'.:(C{ studies based on computer analyses of blood investigators believe that the two hemispheres
flow and metabolism within the brain (positron are specialized: In most people, the left hemi,
1. Is there a relationship between brain size and intelligence? emission tomography and functional magnetic sphere primarily controls language. The right
2. Why does higher intelligence in many instances correlate with reduced levels of resonance imaging). hemisphere primarily controls visuospatial pro,
glucose metabolism during problem-solving tasks? 3. What have researchers found as a result of cessing. The two hemispheres also may process
studying the brain? The major structures of information differently.
3. What is the P-FIT theory of intelligence?
the brain may be categorized as those in the Another way to view the cortex is to identify
forebrain (e.g., the alUmportant cerebral cortex differences among four lobes. Roughly speaking,
and the thalamus, the hypothalamus, and the higher thought and motor processing occur in
O<ey Vlhemes limbic system, including the hippocampus), the the frontal lobe. Somatosensory processing oc,
In Chapter 1, we reviewed seven key themes that pervade cognitive psychology. midbrain ( including a portion of the brain, curs in the parietal lobe. Auditory processing
Several of them are relevant here. stem), and the hindbrain (including the occurs in the temporal lobe, and visual proces,
Biological versus behavioral methods. The mechanisms and methods described medulla oblongata, the pons, and the cerebel, sing occurs in the occipital lobe. Within the
in this chapter are primarily biological. And yet, a major goal of biological research, lum). The highly convoluted cerebral cortex frontal lobe, the primary motor cortex controls
ers is to discover how cognition and behavior relate to these biological mechanisms. surrounds the interior of the brain and is the the planning, control, and execution of move,
For example, they study how the hippocampus enables learning. Thus, biology, cog, basis for much of human cognition. The cortex ment. Within the parietal lobe, the primary so,
nition, and behavior work together. They are not in any way mutually exclusive. covers the left and right hemispheres of the matosensory cortex is responsible for sensations
Nature versus nurture. One comes into the world with many biological struc, brain. They are connected by the corpus calla, in our muscles and skin. Specific regions of
tures and mechanisms in place. But nurture acts to develop them and enable them sum. In general, each hemisphere contralater, these two cortices can be mapped to particular
to reach their potential. The existence of the cerebral cortex is a result of nature, but ally controls the opposite side of the body. regions of the body.
the memories stored in it derive from nurture. As stated in Chapter 1, nature does Based on extensive split,brain research, many
not act alone. Rather, its marvels unfold through the interventions of nurture.
Applied versus basic research. Much of the research in biological approaches to irlhln(l'j}lknll'D9J <ailb>@lUJfl' 1rlhoirnkolnlg: Airn<a1ly1to«:ca1~, ~ire~tove,
©Jll'D<dl !Pir@ccito«:<a1~ ©llUJesfro@irns ---=--------==----"""""""'==--=
cognition is basic. But this basic research later enables us, as cognitive psychologists,
to make applied discoveries. For example, to understand how to treat and, hopefully,
help individuals with brain damage, cognitive neuropsychologists first must under, I. How have views of the nature of the relation the difficulty of reaching the hippocampus
stand the nature of the damage and its pervasiveness. Many modern antidepressants, between brain and cognition changed over without causing other kinds of brain damage,
for example, affect the reuptake of serotonin in the nervous system. By inhibiting time? how might researchers try to treat Alzheimer's
reuptake, they increase serotonin concentrations and ultimately increase feelings of z. Briefly summarize the main structures and disease?
well,being. Interestingly, applied research can help basic research as much as basic functions of the brain. 6. In your opinion, why is it that some discoveries,
research can help applied research. In the case of antidepressants, scientists knew 3. What are some of the reasons that researchers such as that of Marc Dax, go unnoticed? What
the drugs worked before they knew exactly how they worked. Applied research in are interested in finding out the localization of can be done to maximize the possibility that key
creating the drugs helped the scientists understand the biological mechanisms under, function in the human brain? discoveries will be noticed?
lying the success of the drugs in relieving symptoms of depression. 4. ln your opinion, why have the hindbrain, the 7. Given the functions of each of the cortical
midbrain, and the forebrain evolved (across the lobes, how might a lesion in one of the lobes be
human species) and developed (across human discovered?
Summccury o:::::::::a::::===========--=====---====-======-~---==-- prenatal development) in the sequence men, 8. What is an area of cognition that could be
1. What are the fundamental structures and pro.- of electron microscopes and sophisticated tioned in this chapter? Include the main studied effectively by viewing the structure or
chemical analyses to probe the mysteries of functions of each in your comments. function of the human brain? Describe how
cesses within the brain? The nervous system,
governed by the brain, is divided into two main individual cells of the brain. Additionally, sur, 5. Researchers already are aware that a deficit of a a researcher might use one of the techniques
gical techniques on animals (e.g., the use of neurotransmitter, acerylcholine, in the hippo, mentioned in this chapter to study that area
parts: the central nervous system, consisting of
selective lesioning and single,cell recording) of, campus is linked to Alzheimer's disease. Given of cognition.
the brain and the spinal cord, and the periph,
eral nervous system, consisting of the rest of the ten are used. On humans, studies have included
nervous system (e.g., the nerves in the face, electrical analyses (e.g., electroencephalograms
legs, arms, and viscera). and event,related potentials), studies based on O<ey iieirms ======-===-==-=-================
2. How do researchers study the major struc- the use of X,ray techniques (e.g., angiograms amygdala, p. 97 cerebellum, p. 102 contralateral, p. 103
tures and processes of the brain? For centuries and computed tomograms), studies based on axon, p. 112 cerebral cortex, p. 102 corpus callosum, p. 103
scientists have viewed the brain by dissecting it. computer analyses of magnetic fields within brain, p. 93 cerebral hemispheres, p. 103 dendrites, p. 112
Modem dissection techniques include the use the brain (magnetic resonance imaging), and brainstem, p. 101 cognitive neuroscience, p. 93
------
elecrroencephalograms (EEGs), magnetic resonance imaging primary motor cortex, /J. 108
p. 118 (MRI), p. 122 primary somatosensory cortex,
event,related potential (ERP), magnetoencephalography p. 109
p. 118 (MEG), p. 125 reticular activating system (RAS),
frontal lobe, p. I 07 medulla oblongata, p. 101 p. 99
functional magnetic myelin, p. 112 septum, p. 97
resonance imaging (fMRI), nervous system, p. 94 soma, p. 112
p. 124 neurons, p. 112 split,brain patients, JJ. 105
hippocampus, p. 97 neurotransmitters, p. 113 synapse, p. 113
hypothalamus, p. 99 nodes of Ranvier, p. 113 temporal lobe, JJ. 108
ipsilateral, p. 103 occipital lobe, p. 108 terminal buttons, p. 113
Korsakoffs syndrome, p. 97 parietal lobe, p. 107 thalamus, p. 99
limbic system, p. 97 pons, p. 102 transcranial magnetic
lobes, p. 107 positron emission tomography stimulation (TMS), fJ. 125
localization of function, P. 94 (PET), p. 123 visual cortex, p. 111
Media R e s o u r c e s - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Visit the companion website-www.cengagebrain.com-for quizzes, research articles, chapter outlines, and more.
Coglab
Explore Coglab by going to http://coglab.wadsworth.com. To learn more, examine the following experiments:
Brain Asymmetry

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Here are some of the questions we will explore in this chapter:

~ Mid brain _____, , , / ~ ~

A major goal of present research on the brain is to study localization of function.

This loss is believed to be associated with deterioration of the hippocampus and is

Lobes of the Cerebral Hemispheres

Dorsal movement, particularly of movement invO I ·

Figure 3.6 Four Lobes of the Brain.

Right eye Left eye

128 CHAPTER 3 o Cognitive Neuroscience Intelligence and Neuroscience 129

The diagnosis of brain tumor is typically made through neurological examina-

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