GREEN VALLEY COLLEGE FOUNDATION INCORPORATED

School of Education
City of Koronadal, South Cotabato

Note: This learning module was developed and is intended to be used in the
course Educ. 142 – The Teacher and the School Curriculum. Use the
material properly and respect the owner of this document.

Learning Module 2:
Curriculum Change: Process, Stakeholders, Products and Planning

Introduction

The previous module, Learning Module 1, introduces you to the concepts of curriculum,
curriculum design, types of curriculum and curriculum frameworks.

Learning Module 2, on the other hand, discusses the various factors leading to curriculum
change, the change process, the stakeholders involved in the change process, the products of
curriculum, and the concept of curriculum planning particularly the different principles governing
it. These concepts are fundamental in curriculum planning and development. For instance,
innovation is essential especially in the ever-changing context of society. Educational
innovations must align to the changing context of society. Curricular reforms are needed to
attune education to the trends happening in society to become relevant and meaningful.

As future educational leaders and managers, understanding these concepts and applying
them in the actual situations in your respective schools or classrooms could spell the difference
in terms of teaching and learning and in achieving your educational goals and targets.

Module Contents

This learning module contains topics about the curriculum change process, the
stakeholders in curriculum planning and development, the products of curriculum development,
and the concept of curriculum planning.

Learning Objectives

At the end of this module, the students are expected to:

a.) acquire and develop an understanding of the complexities of curriculum planning and
development, the change process, and the products of curriculum;
b.) determine the different roles of the stakeholders in the change process and
development of curriculum; and,
c.) determine the function and contribution of curriculum planning.

Curriculum Change

The ever-changing context of society plays an important role in any attempt for curriculum
change. Clearly, curricular change is a response to and is a product of due to the interactions of

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social forces, varying and differing philosophical positions, psychological principles,
accumulating knowledge, and educational leadership. The rapid technological advancements in
society challenges us to continue to seek for better ways to attune ourselves to these changes.
In the educational landscape, this means that curricular change is inevitable and necessary for
society to continue to exist and evolve. Education as a means to an end must always be
relevant. Being obsolete, in terms of curricular innovations and reforms must always be avoided
for society to progress.

Curriculum change requires people to lead the implementation of the change process. In
itself, it cannot happen, it always needs people to do it. It also needs time, interactions between
and among the members of the school, in-service trainings for teachers and other forms of
human resources support for its successful implementation (Fullan, 1993).

McBeath (1997) sees curriculum change as problematics. It is where conflicts will

eventually occur during the process. One cannot expect a smooth conduct of the different levels
of activities in implementing curriculum change. Accordingly, there are four stages in which
curriculum change can happen: 1) orientation needs; 2) initiation, mobilization and adoption; 3)
implementation and initial use; and, 4) continuation, incorporation, routinization, and
institutionalization.

In the works of Oliva and Gordon II (2013), there are ten axioms that we need to
remember about curriculum change:

1.) Inevitability of change. Everything changes. This is a reality encompassing all. We all
change. An ancient philosopher once said: You cannot step on the same river twice.
This means that change is always happening. In fact, change is a reality that is
constant, it never changes at all.

In human dimension, these changes could be traced to the changing values and
cultural diversity, changing morality, technological evolutions, wars, health and other
crises, ecological and environmental changes, etc. Consider the Corona virus which is
rampaging countries now. With all its ill-effects, various changes have been
implemented in all sectors of society to contain and avoid its further spread. With its
effect in society, the education sector must also adopt changes in the way we deliver
education.

2.) Curriculum as a product of time. This means that curriculum change is a response to
the different forces interacting in society. One example is the accumulation of
knowledge which resulted to the invention of modern gadgets; development of
modern vaccines and medicines, etc.

3.) Concurrent changes. This refers to the changes in curriculum which co-exist with the
previous curriculum. It implies that while a change in curriculum is happening, the
previous one is still used even for a longer period of time until the previous one is
phased out permanently. For instance, in the Philippines, the teaching of Spanish
subject still co-exists with the other foreign languages like English in the 80s but was
later deleted in the curriculum.

4.) Change in people. To effectively effect a curriculum change, curriculum developers

must first attempt to change the people who will implement it. As such, personnel
commitment on the curriculum to be implemented must be sought first. For example,
there was confusion that happened at the early stage of implementation of K to 12
BEP in the Philippines. During training of teachers, teachers were adamant to effect
the changes brought about by the change in curriculum for the reason that their
respective school heads would not believe in them. The underlying reason was that
the training of teachers was done first prior to the training of school heads.

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 5.) Cooperative endeavor. This is fundamental in effecting curriculum change. The
participation of all stakeholders is necessary. This means that parents, learners, the
community leaders, content experts, other school personnel, etc. must be involved
and work together in any curricular reforms.

6.) Decision-making process. In designing a curriculum, a lot of decisions need to be

made. These decisions are important because it will eventually affect the kind of
curriculum to be implemented in schools. Decisions on the methods to be used, the
organization of the subject matter or content, etc. require a collegial decision.

7.) Continuous process. Curriculum development is a never-ending process.

Achievement of the ideal curriculum could not be achieved, and yet there can always
be improvements that can be done. As the needs of society, advancements in
technology and the interests of learners continue to change overtime, so is the
development and improvement of curricula. When a curricular problem is resolved, it
does not mean the end of it. Rather, as new and emerging issues, concerns,
problems and changes happen around, so is the need to review and revise/upgrade a
curriculum.

8.) Comprehensive process. This means an awareness of the impact of curriculum

development to everyone not only the learners, the planners, teachers, etc. It is
seeing the whole picture of the whole curriculum from planning to implementation to
evaluation, and even to those who are indirectly affected by its implementation.

9.) Systematic development. As a curriculum is considered comprehensive, it must also

be systematic by following the established standard processes and procedures. It is
not a “hit and miss.” This means that all who participate in the development of a
curriculum must follow on an agreed upon frameworks, models, philosophy,
development outlines, etc.

10.) Starting from the existing curriculum. All curriculum development starts with the
existing curriculum. A curriculum does not exist overnight, it has to go through a
process. As such, it has to start from where it should be.

These axioms are important considerations when we speak about changes in the
curriculum. All the changes that we plan to execute as part in any curriculum development must
always be in the context of the changes happening in society, as well as the needs of the
learners to which the curriculum is developed for. However, curriculum change has to undergo
certain processes, and these processes are outlined below.

Change Process

Personnel in an organization play an indispensable role in setting the motion of

operations. They carry on the tasks to be accomplished. As such, they impact the way
schools develop a curriculum as each person is a unique individual. In some cases,
schools invite curriculum development experts to partake in the development process.

However, the education sector cannot remain and maintain the status quo; otherwise,
it will become outmoded and obsolete. There must be change – a development of
curriculum to address the ever-changing context of society.

For Oliva and Gordon II (2013 citing Leavitt and Bahrami, 1988), there are four
variables to be considered in the change process, they are as follows:

a) Structure. Every organization has its own structure. In the school contexts, each
school has its own structure. This impacts the way curriculum is planned and
developed. As such, in the development of curriculum, one has to factor in the kind
of organizational structure the school has.

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b) Technology of managing. This pertains to the technological equipment and
procedures used by the schools in achieving its goals and targets. These
technologies are in the schools’ disposal in accomplishing their tasks. Putting
these technologies into good use could help in the development of curriculum.
Barriers Tactics
Fear of change on the part of those  The group should proceed slowly. The leader
likely to be affected gives repeated reassurance to those affected by
the change.
 Involvement of those affected in decision
making.
 The changed status must be made more
attractive than the old pattern.
Lack of clear goals The group must set clear goals before proceeding
further
Lack of competent leadership Superiors must appoint or peers must elect
persons as leaders who are most qualified.
Leaders who prove to be incompetent should be
removed.
Lack of ability of group members to Training in group process should be conducted.
function as a group
Lack of research on problems before The leader should have the ability to conduct
the group research, to locate pertinent research data, and to
interpret research studies to the group.
A history of unsuccessful curriculum The group must be made to feel that progress is
efforts being made continuously.
Lack of evaluation of previous Efforts should be made to evaluate previous
curriculum efforts efforts, and an evaluation plan for current efforts
must be designed.
Negative attitudes from the community School personnel must call parents and citizens
for discussion, involve them in the process, and
try to change their attitudes.
Lack of resources Adequate resources both to carry out curriculum
planning and to implement plans decided on must
be made available. Needed personnel must also
be available.
External pressures such as state and  Efforts must be made to work within the
federal legislation, regional framework of laws and regulations or to try to
accreditation, and regulations of the get the laws and regulations changed.
state departments of education  Responses to laws and regulations, which are
broad and general, may vary from school to
school.
Lack of experience or knowledge about The group may call in consultants for assistance,
particular curricular problem or the school may provide training for its
personnel.

Table 1. Common Barriers to Change.

(Oliva & Gordon II, 2013)

The tasks of the schools are referred to as the aims, goals, aspirations,
mission, objectives of the schools. The kind of products produced depend on the
kind of learner developed because of curriculum implementation. The changes
happening in an individual due to exposure to a school curriculum is good
evidence of curriculum development.

c) People who carry the operations and implements the tasks. Each personnel in the
school is a unique individual which makes the task even more dynamic and
challenging. A change agent, an expert in human behavior, have to be trained to
help in the change process.

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 d) Task or tasks refers to the vision, mission, aims, goals, targets, and objectives.
Schools perform various tasks in curriculum development areas and provide the
fundamental service which is the education of the children. These learners are the
education’s products, the next generation of the future. They are the learners
whose skills, competencies, values and attitudes are changed due to exposure in
schools.

For Powley (n.d.), change process involves the decisions of the leaders. This is
similar to the views of Oliva and Gordon II (2013). These decisions revolved around:

1. Planning which refers to the determination of objectives of the curriculum

development process. (What do we want to do?)
2. Structuring which refers to the design procedures in the whole curriculum
development process. (What are procedures to be observed or utilized?)
3. Implementing which refers to the utilization of the procedures and products of
the process; the control to be used and the eventual refinement of the
procedures based on the results of the implementation. (What do we want to
achieve in implementing it? How are we going to do it?)
4. Recycling which refers to the utilization of previous systems or procedures or
products which were determined to be of value in the current undertakings.
(What are the available systems which could be usable in the current
undertaking?)

The Group Process

Part of the change process is the group process. As mentioned earlier, change
is inevitable. Humans and human society continue to grow and develop unlike the
institutions of society. Institutions resist change. They resist because they find
maintaining the status quo with ease and safety. They resist change due to the
demands of time and efforts, the lack of rewards, lack of established protocols /
policies, and the seemingly endless school routines (Oliva and Gordon II, 2013).
These factors impede growth and development in schools, and even in curricular
development.

To mitigate such resistance, groups are organized for the purpose of curriculum
development, to form part of the team working for curriculum development. One of the
challenges of a curriculum leader is keeping the group on task. Leaders need to be
aware of the three types of behavior within a group:

a) Individuals bring their motivations, personal feelings, desires or goals, into

the group. Disliking a proposal is not about the proposal per se but because
he/she dislike the person who made the proposal.
b) Individuals in groups behave indifferently from their individual behaviors.
When some is in the group, one behaves differently when he/she is alone.
c) The group itself assumes a personality of its own. This means the individuals
in the group react and interact with each other creating a unique blend, a
mixture of diverse personalities.

The members of the group have different functional roles that leaders need to
understand. Benne and Sheats (1948 in Oliva and Gordon II, 2013) classify these
roles into: group task roles, group building and maintenance roles, and individual
roles. A group is considered as in the group task role when they seek to move to
achieve the formulated goals and solve the problems arising during the process.
When the group is at the building and maintenance role, they are concerned about the
functioning of the group. When a group indulges in individual roles, then the members
are considered as in the individual roles.

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 Curriculum development groups are considered task-oriented groups as they
are given specific works to do, do it, then either accept another task or cease to
function after accomplishing the previous task. The product of a productive group
could be seen in the successful development of a curriculum and the personal and
professional growth they achieved while doing the task.

Oliva & Gordon II (2013) characterize a productive group. Accordingly, a

productive group is effective when:

1. Leaders and members support each other

2. Trust is apparent among members
3. Goals are understood and mutually accepted
4. Adequate opportunity exists for members to express their own feelings and
perceptions
5. Roles played by group members are essentially positive
6. Hidden agendas of members do not disrupt the group
7. Leadership is competent and appropriate to the group
8. Members possess the necessary expertise
9. Members have the necessary resources
10. Members share in all decision making
11. Communication is at high level
12. Leadership is encouraged from within the group
13. Progress in accomplishing the task is noticeable and significant
14. The group activity satisfies members’ personal needs
15. Leaders seek to release potential of the members
16. The group manages its time wisely

Interpersonal Relations

Another element of the change process is the interpersonal relations between and
among the personnel involved in the change process. Among these are:

1. Leadership styles. What kind of leadership is existing in the group? It is

authoritative, repressive style, controlling, focused on task maintenance or
empowering and giving responsibility, liberating and developmental in style?
2. Hidden agenda. What is the purpose or the reason for the change? What does
the organization want to achieve?
3. Balance between task and ego orientations. During interactions between and
among the group, are the interactions done professionally?
4. Inner or outer directed personalities. What kind of personalities existing in the
group?
5. Group influences on individuals. Who are the dominant personalities among
the group? How do they influence the individuals in the group? What kind of
influences do they have to the group members?

Leadership Skills

Leaders could either make or break an organization, says an old adage. For
curriculum change to happen smoothly, effectively and efficiently, there must be a
good leader leading the whole process.

Leadership skills is an important element in the change process. It is crucial in the

change process as it makes or breaks the productivity of the group. A good leader is
one that keep the group focused on the task; one who is prefers the democratic
approach in leading that the authoritarian form; one who imbibed a relationship-
oriented style (Oliva & Gordon II, 2013).

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 A leader is also an agent of change. A leader must be an expert in the subject
matter, an organizer, a team builder. In addition, these character traits are considered
essential among curriculum development leaders: intelligent, experienced, assertive,
articulate, innovative, dynamic, and charismatic.

Experts classify leaders into two: bureaucratic and collegial – autocratic and
democratic. The former is known also as Theory X (traditional leaders) while the
former is known as Theory Z (pluralistic leaders).

Leadership style is potent factor in an organization, in the productivity of a group.

Autocratic and laissez-faire leadership styles were known to be ineffective leading to
discontent, lack of group initiative and greater reliance on the leader. On the other
hand, a democratic leadership is most likely to be the best style in curriculum
development.

In the school contexts, school principals as leaders, play an important role in

curriculum leadership particularly in articulating educational goals and priorities of the
school, in influencing teachers the perceptions of teachers, in using and aligning test
results with the curriculum (Glatthorn, Boschee, Whitehead and Boschee, 2012)

Communication Skills

Curriculum development is considered an exercise of written and oral behavior. A

good curriculum development leader must be a proficient leader. His/her proficient
when he/she possesses high degree of communications skill and being able to help
the members of the team to communicate with proficiency. It is through
communication that leaders successfully influence their group members. When there
is absence of communication, either oral, written or non-verbal one, then it is likely
that the group efforts will end up in failure.

Schwartz (2017), identified five communication skills for leaders: listening,

complimenting, delegating tasks clearly, managing meetings, and positive verbal and
non-verbal communication.

1.) Listening. This is considered the most important communication skill for
leaders. By listening, it means listening for the message, the emotions behind
the message, and the relevant questions about the message. It is listening
about the facts communicated without prejudging what is communicated, the
stresses of the voice of the communicator as they indicate emotions.
2.) Complimenting. Other than the salaries and benefits received, people want to
be noticed and praised. In the hierarchy of needs by Maslow, this is considered
as one of the psychological needs of human beings. Giving compliments could
be done through writing notes or by personally saying it to the person to be
complimented.
3.) Delegating Tasks Clearly. As a leader, the 5Ws and 1H should be mastered. In
delegating tasks to personnel, these are important so that the person being
delegated to do the tack has a clear picture of what is going to be done, when
to do it, where should it be done, why it should be done, and how it will be
done. It is also better that datelines are establish to facilitate the completion
and submission of assigned tasks.
4.) Managing Meeting. Meetings are for discussions and not just for simply for
sharing information. This means that clear agenda need to be established, and
the matters to be discussed are pre-floated so that everyone has the change to
be informed of what is going to be discussed and share their insights or
opinions of what is going to happen or is happening in the organization.
5.) Positive Verbal and Non-Verbal Communication. Members of the organization
observe their leaders. So, even if you are not in the good mood or have
received bad news, act positively. Greet your members by their names. Imbibe

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 positive working environment in the organization. A tap on the shoulder gives
comfort to an employee in sorrow.

There are ways in which change can happen in organizations or even society. The
following are examples of change process in the educational landscape particularly in
curriculum development.

Innovation

Aquino (2008 citing Klaus, 1969) defines innovation as “solutions to problems

which represent a change or departure from current practice as opposed to progressive
improvements within an existing framework. As opposed to creativity, which implies
bringing something new into reality, innovation is bringing something new into use. This
understanding implies that an existing material or framework is already existing but being
improved into something for good use.

The inevitability of innovations is attributed to man’s quest for development (Bilbao,

et.al., 2008). In the educational landscape, curriculum innovation is a reality that every
educator, whether teacher or school leader or manager, has to grappled with. With the
ever-changing landscape, education must keep pace, educators must innovate.

According to Hunter (1972 in Aquino 2008), in education, there are three kinds of
innovation: structure, content, and process. The way schools and classrooms are
organized speak about structure. We speak about structural innovations particularly the
way a classroom is organized. How do you arrange you desks or seats? What is the
sitting arrangement of your learners? These are some questions in we can apply
structural innovation.

Content innovation refers to the introduction of learning areas not included in the
previous curriculum. For instance, the introduction of the Senior High School Program in
the country also bring about new learning or subject areas which were not included in the
previous Basic Education Curriculum. As an example, the subject Empowerment
Technology is not in the BEC or RBEC but now it is in the SHS Program.

Innovation in process, on the other hand, pertains to the interactions introduced in

the teaching and learning. The different innovative activities used in the teaching and
learning process which underpins the characteristics of the learners.

Curriculum innovation could be both a product and a process. By product, it means

that new ideas are being introduced in the teaching and learning or in the curriculum as a
whole, the new methodologies used, the new devices, the arrangement of the lesson plan
or the new organization of the learning areas, or the new technology being used in the
conduct of teaching and learning.

Curriculum innovation as a process refers to the different activities or elements

involved in the development process: planning, organizing, implementing, controlling of the
resources and activities, and evaluating of the procedures and outcomes.

The need for curriculum change presupposes certain influential factors like
learners’ needs and developmental tasks; cultural values, social problems and demands;
vision, mission, aims, goals and objectives of schools; acquisition of cultural heritage;
multidimensional process of learning; the internal learning and external environments of
schools; availability of the skills and resources; trends and current development in science
and technology; motivation and morale of school personnel; and curriculum controls
exercised by external agencies. These could be factors that can lead to curriculum
innovation in the form of content, structure, and technology, etc.

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 Bilbao, et.al., (2008) illustrates the following examples of innovations in the
Philippine context:

a. The 2002 Basic Education Curriculum. By setting the parameters of the Basic
Education to include the objectives, content, materials, teaching and learning
process, and materials, and by putting emphasis on integrative teaching as
mode of instructional delivery. This was further enhanced under the K to 12
BEC.
b. Integrative Teaching is holistic, collaborative and innovative. The focus is more
of the learner. An example to this is the Content-Based Instruction (CBI) which
integrate content learning with language teaching. The language curriculum
crosses the barriers of the learning areas. For example: Social Studies content
is used to develop the language skills of the learners in Filipino.
c. Third Elementary Education Program (TEEP) and the Project SEDIP
(Secondary Education Improvement and Development Program, the
Ladderized Curriculum for Bachelor of Technical Teacher Education (BTTE),
etc.

Dissemination

Curriculum dissemination is considered an essential component in curriculum

development as it connects curriculum theory and its eventual implementation in schools.
The failure in adopting or adapting the new curriculum could be attributed to failure in
successfully disseminate it to the field. This implies that for dissemination to effectively
achieve its goals, it must be traverse a planned pathway for the transmission of new
curriculum ideas and concepts to all the members of the organization as well as to the
whole of society.

McBeath (1997) defines dissemination as a process of informing instructors about

new or revised curriculum ideas, so that they understand and accept the innovation –
teachers are informed by the management so that they understand it in their own terms
and that they accept it as worthwhile to pass unto their learners. How new ideas are
spread down from where it begins for successful adoption is an essential element in doing
educational change.

This understanding of dissemination implies that any action for effective

dissemination of a new curriculum must be done through a two-way process of 1) initiation,
decision-making and support from the school managers and leaders; and 2) awareness
raising, joint ownership, collaboration and involvement from the users. For effective
dissemination to happen, these two are crucial processes to be observed.

Carl, Volschenk, Franken, Ehlers, Kotzek, Louw, and Van Der Merwe, (1998)
underscore curriculum dissemination as an activity that involves the distribution or
publication of information about the new curriculum, the reflections and decisions made. In
fact, dissemination is a required process, in the whole curriculum change, for meaningful
and successful curriculum change implementation. This understanding could be applied to
the implementation of the K to 12 BEP of the Department of Education. Prior to its
implementation, various activities which included dissemination of information were
conducted at different levels and sectors of society.

School leaders and managers must provide support while teachers must be made
aware about the new curriculum so that they will treat it as their own, thus being able to
effectively cascade its contents to the learners. When a new curriculum change is fully
disseminated and understood by the members of the school community, they will likely
support and put them into practice.

Adaptation

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 The changing conditions and needs of society affect the kind of education to be
offered to the learners. The curriculum to be used should be flexible enough to adopt to
this ever-changing context of society while the teachers are also prepared and developed
to effectively implement the changes of the curriculum.

According to Endres, Taylor and Penuel (2014), curriculum adaptation is a form of

professional development for teachers that promotes understanding about the features of
teaching and learning for the promotion of learners’ learning. Teachers are the ones
implementing the curriculum at the classroom level. As such, they have to be equipped,
they must have understood the aims, goals and objectives which the curriculum prescribed
during the dissemination process. They must have ingrained the curriculum into their own
system to fully appreciate it, thus be able to delivery it effectively and efficiently to the
clienteles – the learners.

On the other hand, curriculum adaptation also applies to the learners, particularly
on the curriculum being implemented in schools. There had been debates on the issue of
curricula being “exclusive, reproductive, domesticated, and uncritical” which calls for a
change into an all-inclusive one. A curriculum that does not only accommodate those with
disabilities or other special needs but a new form of curricular concept that accounts the
diversity of the whole learners’ body (Glat and Oliveira, n.d.).

Skilbeck (1976 in Kelly, 2004) argues that school-based curriculum development

provides more scope for the continuous adaptation of curriculum to individual learner
needs than do other forms of curriculum development. This simply means school-made
curriculum could better address the needs of the individual leaners. For one, schools can
use flexibility, for instance time and content which can facilitate adaptation in learning
experiences to individual learners’ needs than a nationally-made and prescribed
curriculum.

For adaptation to happen in schools, there are nine type of curriculum adaptation
which could be used for learners according to Wright (2005):

1. Quantity – refers to the number of items and activities that a learner is expected
to accomplish before he/she will be given assessment for mastery.
2. Input – refers to the way instruction is delivered to the learner.
3. Participation – refers to the extent in which the learner is actively involved in the
learning task.
4. Time – refers the allotted and allowed time for a learning, task completion, or
testing.
5. Difficulty – refers to the level, problem type, or the rules on how the learner will
approach the task given.
6. Alternate goals – refer to the expected outcomes while using the same
materials.
7. Level of support – refers to the amount of assistance provided to a learner to
keep him/her on task. It also refers to the physical space and environment
provided to the learner.
8. Output – refers to how learner can respond to the instructions given.
9. Substitute curriculum (functional curriculum) – refers to the provision of different
instruction and materials to the learners to achieve his/her goals.

Stakeholders

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 Critical to curriculum development are the stakeholders. Stakeholders are people
or a group of individuals who are interested in the curriculum being implemented in the
schools for the reason that they are affected by the curriculum. In many ways, they help
shape the curriculum. These personalities. The following were the stakeholders of
curriculum according to Bilbao, et.al., (2008):

a) The learners; the center of the curriculum. The reason why a particular
curriculum is developed is because of the learners. A curriculum is
developed for them; thus, they are the ones directly affected by its
implementation. As the curriculum is being implemented, the learners also
contribute in the realization of curricular aims, goals and targets. In the
development of the curriculum, all considerations have to be included in
the development like what appropriate pedagogies are to be used given
the age, gender, physical attributes, mental abilities, psycho-emotional
development, cultural affiliations, levels of interests, their goals and
aspirations in life, among others. These are fundamental as they dictate
the topics to be considered, the teaching and learning activities, the
learning experiences to be used, as well as the modalities, etc.

b) The teachers as curriculum developers and implementers. Teachers are

the ones who give life to the curriculum – it is developed and shaped by
them. A curriculum is a general map of what are the things to be taught,
and it is the teachers who give meaning through the development of
lesson plans where the learners goals, needs, and interests of the learners
are included in the designs of the teaching-learning activities. Given the
notion of inclusion, teachers can design, modify, enhance a curriculum to
address the differing and varying characteristics of each learner.

Teachers implement the curriculum through the actual classroom teaching-

learning episodes. The written lesson plan is now being given life. It
becomes more meaningful through the interactions by the learners in the
different activities designed. A good curriculum, if not implemented well by
a teacher, is a failure not of the curriculum but by the teacher.

c) Curriculum managers and administrators. This refers to the school

principals or school heads. Although they have various duties, roles and
responsibilities in the school, their primary function is to ensure that the
curriculum is implemented. They can suggest enhancements of the
curriculum or recommend improvement of the teaching-learning process
after observing classes if needed. It is their duty and accountability that the
educational aims, goals, targets, the vision and the mission of the
institution should be achieved through the implementation of the
curriculum.

d) Parents as supporters to the curriculum. Parents are important in the

curriculum implementation. They even pay large sums of money so that
their child or children can get the best of education a school can offer. The
support that they accord to their child’s or children’s curricular activities are
good inputs to curriculum development or improvement.

e) Community members are curriculum resources. This refers to members of

the community who extend their help to schools to augment their scarce
resources by providing teaching-learning materials and resources. In the K
to 12 BEP implementation, one salient of the curriculum is that it should
localized; hence, the elders of the community could be a good source of
information in localizing the curriculum.

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 f) Other stakeholders in curriculum implementation. This refers to the
professional organizations that provide expertise in curriculum reviews.
The government is another stakeholder which has a great stake in the
education of Filipino children. Businesses and other organizations, the
labor market, etc.

Curriculum Products

In the process of curriculum development, various products are expected to be

generated. These products need to be used in the actual teaching and learning
activities and scenarios. They must be practiced, tried out, revised or enhanced as
needed, implemented, revised, and so on. Examples of these products are the aims,
vision, mission, core values of schools, assessment and testing tools and materials,
lesson plans, curriculum guides, curriculum policies, etc. These products are
evidences of the productivity of curriculum developers (Wiles and Bondi, 2011).

Standards. Setting the standards ensure accountability among the teachers

and school leaders and managers to the learners who are being taught in the
classrooms. With the establishment of curriculum standards, it allows the
achievement of higher levels of learning, guides the teachers in the assessment of
learning outcomes, and helps them track the performance of the learners
(Professional Learning Board, n.d.).

The notion of standardization is a result of improving achievement, equity, and

efficiency based on the argument that when a curriculum is standardized it will
generate higher achievement among the learners. As every learner gets the same
curriculum, the expected higher achievement could be assured. When a curriculum is
standard, then it is more efficient compared to the non-standard one (Glatthorn,
Boschee, Whitehead and Boschee, 2012).

For Wiles & Bondi (2011), they identify two benefits achieved by US education
because of curriculum standardization:

a) The curriculum has been narrowed and simplified.

b) The kind of content being taught at all high levels has been skewed by
high stakes testing. This means, teachers teach only those that will be
tested.

Furthermore, they identified the characteristics of a standards-based curriculum:

1. All learners are required to master an identified subject content or set of

skills at a level of performance that was being tested.
2. Not all subject areas are seen as important. Learning areas that are not
tested are not taught.

At the school level, to manage effectively the standards-based curriculum,

school leaders and managers must ensure that the following concerns are managed
well:

1. Ensuring proper resources in the library or text materials for the teaching
and learning.
2. Aligning various instructional components by integrating reference aids
like maps, glossaries, pictures, and bibliographies, as well as ensure the
readability of reading materials, or even reflect a skill emphasis or have
obvious conceptual organizers
3. Organizing instruction materials to avoid skipping over parts of
curriculum which is part of the standard to be tested.

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 4. Checking for developmental appropriateness by helping teachers
translate curriculum standards into educational logic.
5. Helping teachers pace content by articulating the curriculum thus
organizing the subject matter and skills around concepts of importance
for long-term learning and retention.
6. Addressing student motivation by preparing them for any standardized
test develop confidence, understanding and test motivation.

Another important thing to be factored in a standard-based curriculum is

technology. Technology is a tool for learning which could be of great help among
teachers particularly when providing individualized instruction. The world wide web
also is good source of information that learners can readily access as well as meeting
their needs. Teachers can create virtual classes, upload learning materials, even use
technology in the conduct of assessment of learning.

With the global pandemic brought about by COVID-19, the role of technology is
indispensable. As face-to-face classes are temporarily suspended for the meantime,
on-line sessions using different platforms are now being used.

Guides. A curriculum guide covers a single set of study and is used as a

teaching aid with helpful suggestions. It covers a single subject for a particular grade
level or all subjects at a particular level or a sequence in a discipline (Oliva and
Gordon II, 2013).

For some, a curriculum guide might be subject and/or grade specific and
contains the outlines of the materials to be covered for a set time frame. It also
provides details on what is to be taught, when it shall be taught, and how it shall be
taught (What is a Curriculum Guide?, 2016).

The American Board (n.d.) points out the role of curriculum guides as a
document containing valuable information that teachers could refer to. Information
like content, instructional timeline, sample lessons or resources giving them the idea
what the school has taught, to whom it was taught, the timeline of the lesson delivery,
and the performance of the learners before and after undergoing the lesson.

Moreover, curriculum guides provide clear understanding of the parameters and

focus of instructions. To ensure the achievement of the class goal, the following were
suggested: Identifying the time element required to teach the unit or lesson; Writing
assessment for the unit or lesson; Teaching of the skills and content required for the
standards involved; Reviewing for the assessment; Giving of assessment; Evaluating
the effectiveness of instruction based on assessment results; and, Redesigning and
repeating instruction when needed.

Curriculum Planning

Curriculum planning occurs on many levels. As a multi-level activity, it involves the

teachers, supervisors, administrators and other stakeholders. It accounts the past and
present realities of the school or society.

Curriculum planning is the first stage process in curriculum development. One

cannot do curriculum development unless a plan is designed for the purpose of
developing a curriculum. It refers to the creation of a curriculum
(http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/en/Curriculum_planning).

An effective curriculum is planned with clearly articulated learning intentions,

coupled with feedback and monitoring, and evaluated in partnership with students and
practitioners. It is a well-coordinated, quality teaching, and assessment programs which

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help the learners achieve knowledge, skills/competencies, values, and other physical,
personal and social capacities (Gilbert, 20102).

For Aquino (1994), curriculum planning is a continuous process involving

individuals who work together in studying, planning, developing, and improving the
curriculum. It also includes the formulation of broad goals and specific objectives based
on the results of assessment; the planning of the content, strategies and assessment
designs of the curriculum; its design implementation; and the evaluation of the curriculum
implementation which can lead to modification of the curriculum.

Wiles & Bondi (2001) stipulate that planning a curriculum requires comprehensive
planning. Accordingly, it starts with the analysis stage where the results of learner
assessments form the basis for changing or enhancing the curriculum. This is the stage
in which endorsement from the curriculum development team and the support of the
external stakeholders is made for the change to successfully happen. At this stage, there
is a need to clarify the purpose and goals of the planned change by asking the following
questions:

a) Are the goals realistic?

b) Are the goals specific?
c) Are the goals related to performance?
d) Are the goals suggestive of involvement?
e) Are the goals observable?

The second phase is the design stage involves the identification of goals of the
planned curriculum or the desired program. All curriculum plans must work within the set
parameters of the design.

The third phase is the implementation stage. Once the objectives and the goals
are clarified, the implementation happens. At this stage, timeframe is established,
resources are provided, and all other elements for the planning to happen in the natural
order and as planned. Refinement or revisions of concepts and programs happen in this
stage. When all things are done as planned based on the set parameters, then
instructional prescriptions can be done.

The fourth stage is the evaluation stage. As an activity, evaluation happens

throughout the curriculum development process. It happens in all the other stages of
development. The data to be gathered in this stage are critical in improving the planning
process. More so, these data are critical in ensuring the continuity of learning
experiences included in the curriculum design, thus ensuring maximum learning. The
data also establish clear focus, as well as timelines for the periodic conduct of
assessment to guide the review and updating of the curriculum.

Others propose a five-cycle model for curriculum planning; namely, Observing or

collecting information; analyzing learning; Planning; Implementing; and reflecting or
evaluating (Aquino, 1994 citing Michaelis, et.al, 1975; ACECQA, n.d.).

Curriculum planning ensures the achievement of a shared vision, at the school

level. It also fosters shared understanding and common language among those who
implement the curriculum, as well as optimum coverage of all curricular domains and the
continuity of learning across year levels. Through curriculum planning, a full range of
learning needs, opportunities to develop understanding among the students, cohesion
among teaching, and learning and assessment is achieved. By curriculum planning, there
is avoidance of repetitive learning activities which lead to cover all quality teaching and
learning thus generate improved student learning outcomes (Gilbert, 2012).

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Educ. 257-Curriculum Planning
 Figure 1. The ten-step curriculum planning process model.
(Adopted from Clarry Sada – ELT Curriculum and Instructional Development 1.
https://www.slideserve.com/zilya/elt-curriculum-instructional-development-1)

In the works of Zenger and Zenger (1982), the four stages of curriculum planning
was further expanded into a ten-step process: 1) identifying or stating a curricular need;
2) developing curricular goals and objectives; 3) planning and organizing resources and
identifying constraints; 4) organizing and stating the functions of curriculum committees;
5) establishing the roles and responsibilities of personnel involved; 6) identifying and
analyzing new curriculums or programs to meet the curricular need; 7) assessing and
selecting the new curriculum; 8) designing the new curriculum; 9) implementing the new
curriculum; and, 10) evaluating the curriculum.

Curriculum Planning Principles

In the development of curriculum, there are principles that need to be factored for
the curriculum to work efficiently and effectively. Oliva & Gordon II (2013) identifies
various sources of curriculum principles like empirical data, experimental data, the
folklore of curriculum, and common sense. They further assert that when curriculum
planning is made out of careful deliberations, decision-making, and common sense, then
a decision can be made for a particular curriculum. In this sense, there must be
irrefutable reason and data so that a decision can be made.

Generally, there are three types of principles according to Oliva and Gordon II
(2013) in which curriculum development depends upon:

1) Whole truths refer to the obvious facts or concepts which could not be refuted
for they are borne out of experimentation. As such, they accepted and no
longer challenged.
2) Partial truths refer to truths based on limited data. As such, they can be
applied selectively depending on the situation or context.
3) Hypotheses refer to truths that are neither whole nor partial but are considered
tentative working assumptions.

On the other hand, the Department of Education and Communities (2012) identify
key features of effective curriculum planning based on the five principles. They are as
follows:

1. Curriculum planning aims to be responsive to student needs. Learners are

diverse with differences on their individual needs. Teachers need to differentiate

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Educ. 257-Curriculum Planning
 teaching-learning on the basis of this reality. It requires adaptations in content,
process, product and learning environment.

2. Curriculum planning aims to provide a seamless progression of learning within

and across year levels which implies scoping and sequencing the curriculum
requirements. This provides a systematic and clear plan on how to build
learners’ knowledge, skills and understanding, values and attitudes to be
acquired in each stage and level.

3. Curriculum planning aims to focus on learning high intellectual quality and

significance because of clear connections between learners’ experience,
interests, knowledge, skills and understanding. This enable the learner to
develop and demonstrate deep understanding and apply learning in other
contexts.

4. Curriculum planning aims to make explicit high expectations for learning and
achievement which is demonstrated in a clear and achievable expected learning
and achievement at a given point of time.

5. Curriculum planning aims to enhance professional practice through

collaborative development and evaluation through provision for opportunities for
professional learning to help improve the quality of teaching and learning,
assessment and reporting in school. There must be monitoring and evaluation
so as to identify systematically the needs of those implementing the curriculum
and areas for improvement of learning outcomes.

Approaches to Curriculum Planning

There are many ways to approach curriculum planning, and schools can decide the
best way to approach curriculum planning depending on the context of the school or
organization. The following are curriculum planning models, which can be adapted to shape
a curriculum planning process, is suggested by SDPI (n.d.).

1. Early Action Planning Model gives priority to the identification issues of concern
thereby develop plans to address them. When matters relating to values, aims,
policies and procedures arise during the course of the planning cycle, they are
immediately dealt with. Generally, this model starts with review and proceeds to
development of action plans to resolve the concern.

2. Foundational Planning Model generally starts with the formulation of vision-mission

statements, the aims of the school, and the school policies. The identification
development priorities are based on the clarified fundamental purpose and values
which serve as the frame of reference for the establishment of curriculum-related
policies and procedures.

On the other hand, the National Center for the Study of Adult Learning Literacy
(NCSALL, n.d.) has proposed three approaches to curriculum planning: the traditional
approach, learner-driven approach, and critical approach. Each approach is driven by
the different issues confronting curriculum development like 1) who determines the
curriculum?, 2) what does knowledge look like?, 3) what are the underlying
assumptions?, 4) what might this look like in action, and 5) how is learning assessed?

Why Curriculum Planning?

No plan for teaching and learning means wasting time. Schools must ensure that
effective learning will happen, that is, students’ educational needs are addressed.
Addressing the learning needs of the students eventually lead to addressing the needs of
the greater society and country.

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Educ. 257-Curriculum Planning
 Aquino (1994) stipulates the importance of curriculum planning in the growth and
development of the learners which is the essential business of education. A curriculum
consists of the desired learning experiences which are aimed at developing knowledge,
skills, attitudes and values of learners, then it has to incorporate a well-planned teaching
and learning activities, methodologies and pedagogies. Planning, then, becomes
essential.

Rath (2000) points out the need to re-think and re-vision the kinds of learning
environments schools offer so that it will produce creative, generative and critical thinkers
so that in the end they can be of service to society. This implies the need to facilitate
among learners to develop their full potential. The provision of inspiring and relevant
content and an appropriate breadth and depth of subject knowledge ensures the
progression of learners.

Curriculum planning is not only about identifying and focusing on what topics to be
included in the curriculum but also the skills that the learners need to acquire in a specific
subject and period of time. It also means translating curriculum requirements into
teaching, assessing and reporting of students’ progress over a period of time.

Structure of knowledge
Cognitive activity
Fragmented ––––––––––––> Meaningfully organized
Problem Surface features and Underlying principles and relevant
representation shallow understanding concepts
Problem solving by Efficient, informative and
Strategy use
undirected trial and error goal oriented
Self Monitoring Minimal and sporadic Ongoing and flexible
Explanation Single statement of fact Principled and coherent
or description of
superficial factors

Figure 2. Cognitive activity and structure of knowledge

It also aims to provide a seamless progression of learning within and across grade
levels through sequentially planned courses or subject areas. In each stage of learning,
the scope and sequence are systematically and explicitly planned in order to solidly build
student understanding, knowledge, skills, competencies, values and attitudes.

Moreover, the idea that knowledge starts from a fragmented structure to an

organized one implies a good curriculum plan in which the progress of the students is
described. Baxter and Glaser (1998) succinctly describes this process of moving from
shallow understanding to underlying principles and concepts (Figure 5).

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Educ. 257-Curriculum Planning
 Furthermore, the idea that knowledge starts from a fragmented structure to an
organized one implies a good curriculum plan in which the progress of the students is
described. Baxter and Glaser (1998) succinctly describes this process of moving from
shallow understanding to underlying principles and concepts (Figure 2).

Given this notion, curriculum planning needs to recognize the logical dimension of
a subject which entails knowing the concepts and principles; the psychological dimension
which concerns how concepts can be developed out of the interest, experience, and prior
knowledge of the students; the sociocultural dimension which concerns how knowledge is
produced and confirmed in the relevant discipline or field; and, the pedagogical
dimension which focuses on how concepts and principles can be represented and
reformulated for teaching and learning.
Worksheet #2

Please answer Worksheet No. 2. After accomplishing the worksheet, submit it via email
to [email protected].

Reminders:

1) Please attend the Google Classroom (Asynchronous Sessions) as scheduled. There

is a learning material posted in that online classroom. Read/watch the material
posted.
2) After reading, log in to the NDMU AcadLMS to access the Reflection Paper templates.
3) Please be guided on the mechanics indicated in NDMU AcadLMS in preparing and
submitting your RF.

References

Aquino, G.V. (1994). Curriculum planning for better schools. Rex Printing Company. Quezon
City.

________. (2008). Curriculum innovation. National Bookstore. Mandaluyong City.

Baxter, G. and Glaser, R. (1998). Investigating the cognitive complexity of science

assessments, Educational Measurement: Issues and practice, 17, 3, 37-45

Bilbao, P.P., Lucido, P. I., Iringan, T.C. & Javier, R.B. (2008). Curriculum Development. Lorimar
Publishing, Inc., Quezon City.

Carl, A.E., Volschenk, A., Franken, T., Ehlers, R., Kotzek, K., Louw, N., Van Der Merwe, C.
(1988). Curriculum development in primary school: A modular approach. Cape Town:
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Fullan, M. G. (1992). Successful School Improvement: The Implementation Perspective and

Beyond. Milton Keynes: Open University Press.

Glatthorn, A.A., Boschee, F., Whitehead, B.M. & Boschee, B.F. (2012). Curriculum Leadership:
Strategies for Development and Implementation 3 rd Edition. SAGE.

Kelly, A.V. (2004). The curriculum. Theory and practice, Fifth Edition. SAGE Publications,
London.

Wiles, J. W. & Bondi, J. C. (2011). Curriculum Development: A Guide to Practice 8 th Edition.

Pearson.

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Educ. 257-Curriculum Planning
Online materials

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American Board (n.d.). Understanding the curriculum. Retrieved on May 31, 2020 from
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Glat, R. & Oliveira, E. (n.d.). Curriculum adaptation. Inclusive education in Brazil, World Bank –
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Powley, R. L. (n.d.) Curriculum planning; The human dimension. Retrieved on June 1, 2020
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Rath, A. (2000). Multiple intelligences: Curriculum and Assessment Project. National Academy
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Schwartz, K. (2017). 5 important communication skills for leaders. Retrieved on June 7, 2020
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Educ. 257-Curriculum Planning