Ped 236 Elementary Maths

COURSE GUIDE
PED 236: ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS
COURSE DEVELOPER- PROF G. A. BADMUS

SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA
VICTORIA ISLAND, LAGOS
COURSE WRITTER DR LUCY ERAKHUEME

FACULTY OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF BENIN
COURSE EDITOR PROF G. A. BADMUS

SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
OFFICER IN CHARGE DR DOROTHY OFOHA

SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
COURSE COORDINATOR DR C. A. OKONKWO

SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
i
TABLE OF CONTENT
Page
Introduction
Course aims
Course objectives
Working through this Course
Course materials
Assessment
How to get the most from this course
Study units
Tutors and tutorials
Attendance at Tutorials
ii
Introduction
PED 236: Elementary Mathematics is a one semester, 2 credit course. The course consists of
sixteen units which includes basic arithmetic operations in integers, indices, logarithm and surd,
fractions, number bases, approximation, rate, proportion and ratio, factorization, linear equation,
quadratic equation, simultaneous equation, algebraic graphs, change of subject of formulae,
linear inequalities, length, perimeter, circles, sector, triangles, area and volume of geometrical
solids and shapes.
Course Aim
This course is developed for students of the National Open University of Nigeria
(NOUN) who have poor background in Mathematics. It is intended to refresh and strengthen the
students’ knowledge of ordinary level (O/L) Mathematics.
Course Objectives
To achieve the aim spelt out above, the course is structured into modules with a module
comprising of at least 3 units. Each unit has specific objectives to be achieve and these objectives
are spelt out in section 2.0 of every unit. You are encouraged to refer to these objectives during
your study of the course in order for your to monitor your own progress. After completing a unit,
you should endeavour to look at the unit objectives to ascertain that you have done what was
required of you in the unit.
Working Through this Course
To complete this course, you are required to read the study units, reference books and
other materials provided by NOUN. Each unit contains Self Assessment Exercises and Tutor
Marked Assignments. At points in the course you will be required to submit assignments for
assessment purposes.
Course Materials
The major components of this course are as follows:
1. Course Guide
2. Study Units
3. Tutor Marked Assignment
iii
Assessment
There are two aspects of the assessment of this course. The first is the Tutor Marked
Assignments (TMAs) while the second is the end of the semester written examination. You are
expected to apply the information, knowledge and techniques gathered during the course during
these assessments.
There are sixteen Tutor-Marked Assignments in the course. Your tutor will tell you
which ones to submit to account for the 30% for continuous assessment. The end of semester
examination will contribute the remaining 70%.
How to Get the Most from this Course
One great advantage of distance learning is that study units replace the university
lecturer. You are expected to read and work through the specially designed study materials at
your own pace and at a time and place that suits you best. The study units have a common
format. The first item is an introduction to the subject matter of the unit and how a particular unit
is related to the other units and the course as a whole. The introduction is followed by learning
objectives that guides you on what you should be able to do by the time you complete the study
of the unit. These objectives should serve as a guide in your studying of the units.
Working through these units will help you achieve the objectives of the units and prepare
you for the assignments and examination. Every unit has a number of examples. You are
encouraged to study the examples carefully and do each self assessment exercise as you come to
it in the study unit.
The following is a practical strategy for working through the course.
1. Read this course guide thoroughly.
2. Organize a study schedule.
3. Stick to your study schedule strictly.
4. Adhere with unit 1 and read the introduction and objectives for the unit before reading
the main body.
5. Assemble all study materials.
6. Work through the unit carefully.
7. Do the exercises and assignment and ensure that you have mastered the unit.
8. Then, move to the next unit.
9. Go on like this until you get to the last unit.
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Study Units
There are sixteen study units in this course PED 236: Elementary Mathematics. They are as
follows:
Module 1: Number and Numeration
Unit 1: Basic Arithmetic Operations in Integers
Unit 2: Indices, Logarithm and surds
Unit 3: Meaning and types of Fractions
Unit 4: Number Bases
Unit 5: Approximation, Rate, Proportion and Ratio
Module 2: Algebraic Processes
Unit 1: Factorization and Linear Equations
Unit 2: Quadratic and Simultaneous Equations
Unit 3: Algebraic Graphs
Unit 4: Change of Subject of Formulae
Unit 5: Linear Inequalities
Module 3: Measurement
Module 4: Geometrical Solids and Shapes
Unit 1: Triangles
Unit 2: Circle
Unit 3: Area and Volume of Various Geometrical Solids and Shapes
Assignments are compulsory and it is a unique feature of your course delivery system. They are
called Tutor Marked Assignment (TMA). You must ensure that the assignments are answered
and returned to the study center on dates as agreed between you and the course tutor. There are
also some assignments, which are called Self Assessment Exercises. It is advisable that you
attempt all the questions yourself. They are meant to probe your understanding of the concepts in
the units.
You are going to be evaluated in this course by the Tutor Marked Assignments which
will contribute to final grade. It is compulsory for you to and submit all the assignment and they
will be graded. The grades for the best ones (the number to be decided by your tutor) will be
used in your assessment.
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Tutors and Tutorials
Your tutor will mark and comment on your assignments, your progress in the course will
be closely monitored by the course tutor. You are to report in difficulties encountered to the
course tutor who will give you necessary assistance in the course. You must mail your tutor
marked assignment to your tutor well before the due date.
Attendance at Tutorials
Tutorials is the only opportunity you have for a face-to-face contact with your Tutor. You
need to attend tutorials regularly sot that you can ask your Tutor necessary questions and get
clarifications. You will learn a lot from participating in class discussions.
I wish you success with the course and hope you will find it interesting, useful and
rewarding.
PED 236: ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS

TABLE OF CONTENT
Module 1: Number and Numeration Page
Unit 1: Basic Arithmetic Operations in Integers 1-8
Unit 2: Indices, Logarithms and Surds 9-34
Unit 3: Meaning and types of Fractions 35-74
Unit: 4: Number Bases 75-86
Unit 5: Approximations, Rate, Proportion and Ratio 87-97
Module 2: Algebraic Processes

Unit 1: Fractorisation and Linear Equations 98-116
Unit 2: Quadratic and Simultaneous Equations 117-137
Unit 3: Algebraic Graphs 136-153
Unit 4: Change of Subject of Formulae 154-162
Unit 5: Linear Inequalities 163-168
vi
Module 3: Geometrical Solids and Shapes
Unit 1: Triangles 169-182
Unit 2: Circle 183-195
Unit 3: Area and Volume of Various Geometrical Solids and Shapes 196-207
Module 4: Measurement
Unit 1: Length and Perimeter 208-218
Unit 2: Areas of Circles, Sectors and Segment of a Circle 219-228
Unit 3: Surface Area of Cube, Cuboid, Cylinder and Cone 229-239
vii
MODULE 1: NUMBER AND NUMERATION
Unit 1: Basic Arithmetic Operations in Integers
Unit 2: Indices, Logarithms and Surds
Unit 3: Meaning and types of Fractions
Unit: 4: Number Bases
Unit 5: Approximations, Rate, Proportion and Ratio
UNIT 1: Basic Arithmetic Operation in Integers

Content
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Body
3.1 Meaning of Integers and Basic Arithmetic Operation
3.2 Daily Life examples of positive and negative numbers
3.3 Integer and number lines
3.4 Addition of integers (addition involving integers)
3.4.1 Using number line
3.5 Subtraction of integers (subtraction involving integers)
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignments
7.0 References/Further Readings
1.0 Introduction
This unit is designed to give you an insight into positive and negative number system.
This can be conceived as steps of equal sizes along a line as shown below, with positive numbers
to the right of zero and negative numbers to the left of zero.
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
Figure 1: Number Line
1
This line is called a number line. We can use it to perform the operations of addition. A
walk forward can be taken as positive numbers and a walk backward can be taken as negative
numbers.
2.0 Objective
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
i. correctly interpret positive and negative integer
ii. carry out the basic operations on integer.
ii. identify daily life examples of position and negative number.
3.0 Main body
3.1 Meaning of Integer and Basic Arithmetic Operation
An integer is any positive or negative whole number.
Basic arithmetic operation in integers are the addition, subtraction, multiplication and
division of positive and negative numbers.
We have idea about counting numbers and all counting numbers are positive numbers.
The opposite of positive is negative in the number line. The numbers to the right of zero are
positive numbers and the numbers to the left of zero are negative numbers. The more a positive
number move away from zero the bigger the number, but the more a negative number move
away from zero the smaller the number i.e – 1 is greater than – 10.
3.2 Daily Life Example of Positive and Negative Numbers
1. Let us take the ground level as our zero point. A man that is tapping a palm tree is above
the ground level, so the position of that man is positive. On the other hand if a man is
digging a well, the man is below the ground level. The position of such a man is negative
since he is under the ground. So it can be said that positive distance are above the ground
and negative distance are below the ground.
2. If a man is said to moves ten (10) spaces to his right (forward) and then moves seven (7)
spaces to the left (backward). What is the man position from the starting point. The man
position forward is positive + 10 and the position backward is negative – 7. His position
is 3 spaces to the right from the starting point. This can be written as +3.
3. If a woman that lives in story building walks six (6) steps upstairs, and walks fourteen
(14) steps downstairs. What is her final position. Her final position is 8 steps downstairs.
This can be written as -8.
2
3.3 Integers and Number Lines
(a) Draw a horizontal line and divide it into equal parts. Mark the starting point as zero.
(i) To the right of zero are positive numbers as shown below. The arrow shows that the line
continues indefinitely.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Figure 2: Positive Number Line
(ii) To the left of zero are negative numbers as shown below. The arrow shows that the line
continue indefinitely.
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0
Figure 3: Negative number line

(iii) When the positive and negative lines are joined , it become a full number line.
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Figure 4: Full Number line
(iv) Similarly the number line can also be in a vertical form. With numbers on top of zero as
positive and the ones below zero as negative.
4
3
2
1
0
-1
-2
-3
-4
3
Figure 5: Verification Full Number line
Putting the horizontal and vertical number line together will give us the shape of a cardinal point.
North, South, East and West.
North
+ve
-ve
West East
+ve
South
-v
Fig. 6: The four cardinal point.

Examples
Location of points on the number line.
1. If a straight road runs east-west through point o. the distances east of 0 are positive and
the distances west of 0 are negative.
2. If a straight road also runs from North-South thought point 0. The distance north of zero
is positive and that of south of zero is negative.
3. Express the positions of the points below in terms of positive or negative distance.
(i) A is 15km west of 0.
(ii) B is 18km west of 0.
(iii) C is 20km east of 0.
(iv) D is 8km east of 0.
4
N
Answer
B A D C
W E
18km 15km 8km 20km
(i) The distance of A is – 15km

(ii) The distance of B is – 18km
(iii) The distance of D is + 8km
(iv) The distance of C is + 20km
(4) From the above question, what is the distance between
(i) A and D (ii) A & C (iii) B & D (iv) B & C (v) A & B (vi) C & D
Answer
(i) 15km + 8kn = 23km
(ii) 15km + 20km = 35km
(iii) 18km + 8km = 26km
(iv) 18km + 20km = 38km
(v) 18km - 15km = 3km
(vi) 20km – 8km – 12km
Self Assessment Exercise
(1) In the pairs of number below, put the correct sign (> or <) between them;
(a) -8, +6 (b) 0, -5 +4 (c) -2, +4 (d) -4, -8 (e) 10, -8
(2) Arrange the following numbers in orders, smallest first and represent it on a number line
-8, +8, 0, -1, -15, -6, + 18, +1.
5
(3) When you move 8 steps to the west and then 10 steps to the east. What is your present
position from the starting point?
(4) A bucket of water was drawn from a well 18m deep and was taken to a story building
20m above the ground what is the final position of the bucket of water.
3.4 Addition of Integers
Positive and negative numbers are called directed numbers. When we move to the right
hand or upwards we count positive numbers. We count negative, when we move to the left or
downward, depending on whether we use the horizontal or vertical number line. We use the
arrow signs to show the direction of movements.
3.4.1 Using Number Line
Example 1
If I Count 4 steps to the right from the point zero, and from the present position count
another 6 steps to the right. Where will my final stop be
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Therefore 4 + 6 = 10
Example 2
From point zero, count 8 steps to the right the count 6 steps to the left. The final stop is at
positive 2.
-8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Therefore +8 –(+6) = 2
Example 3
From point zero count 8 steps to the left and then 5 steps to the right. The final stop is at negative
-9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
6
(-8) + 5 = -3
Example 4
rom zero count 7 steps to the left and again another 6 steps to the left. The final stop is at
negative 13.
-15 -14 -13 -12 -11 -10 -9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
Therefore (-7) +(-6) = -13.

3.5 Subtraction of Integers
Subtraction is the opposite of addition.
Example 1
From the point zero, move 10 steps to the right and then 4 steps to the left. The final stop is at
positive 6.
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
Therefore 10 – 4 = 6.
Example 2
From the point zero, move 5 steps to the right and 8 step to the left. The final stop is at negative
3.
-11 -10 -9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Therefore 5 – 8 = – 3 .
Note:
In subtraction, if the negative number is greater than the positive number the normal
addition should be done but the answer will taken a negative sign. i.e take the small number
away from the big number, but the answer will have a negative sign since the bigger number has
a negative sign.
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(3) Evaluating without number line
(a) (-9) – (-3)
When there is a negative (minus) sign in between two numbers (each in a bracket), the negative
sign will change whatever sign is in the following bracket. If it is positive sign, it will change to
negative sign and if it is negative signs, it will change to positive sign i.e (-9) – (-3) will now
read (-9) +3 which will be done as – (9-3) = -6.
(b) 29 – (-18) will now read
29 + 18 = 47
(c) (-17) – (-28) will now read
(-17) + 28 which will be done as
28 – 17 = 11
(d) -38 – (+ 5) will now read
- 38 – 5 which will be done as
- (38 + 5) = -43
4.0 Conclusion
This unit considered the basic operations on integer. The use of number lines in integer
operations.
5.0 Summary
The highlights of the unit includes the following.
 When to use positive and negative sign in real life problems.
 How number lines are used in the addition and subtraction in integers.
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment
1. Use number line to solve the following problems:
(a) -8 – 10 (b) 10 – 11 (c) 8 – 5 (d) -10 + 6
7.0 References/Further Reading

Channon, J.B. et. al (2002): New General Mathematics for Senior Secondary Schools. United
Kingdom: Longman Group (FE) Ltd.
Mathematical Association of Nigeria (2008): MAN Mathematics for Junior Secondary Schools
(3rd ed). Ibadan: University Press Plc.
UPE Teacher Education Project (1977)
8
MODULE 1: UNIT 2
UNIT 2: Indices, Logarithms and Surds
Content
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objective
3.0 Content
3.1 Fundamental Laws of Indices
3.2 Applying the law of division
3.3 Multiple indices
3.4 Rules for fractional, negative and zero indices
3.5 Logarithm
3.5.1 Calculation of logarithm to base 10
3.5.2 Using the four figure table
3.5.3 The laws of logarithm
3.6 Surds
3.6.1 Basic facts of surds
3.6.2 Basic arithmetic operation on surds
3.6.2.1 Addition and subtraction of surds
3.6.2.2 Multiplication and division of surds
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 Introduction
The short form of writing a number which multiplies itself a given number of time is
called Index Number. The laws help to make calculations easy using indices (plural of index).
Indices help to have a good understanding of logarithm. There is a relationship between the two.
Surds are irrational number that can’t be written in ratio form.
2.0 Objective
At the end of this unit you should be to: (i) solve problems whose indices are +ve/-ve
whole number (ii) apply it to multiplication and division (iii) solve simple equations involving
indices (iv) determine the logarithm of a number in relation to indices (v) use the four figure
9
table to solve logarithm problems (vi) perform basic arithmetic operations in surd and (vii)
rationalize surd operations.
3.0 Content
(1) Prime number are integer which is only divisible by 1 and itself; that is a prime number
has only two factors which is 1 and itself.
Examples of primes numbers are 2, 3, 5, and 7.
What is an Index?
It is an integer placed above and to the right of a number. For example 53, 3 is the index
of 5 and in 94, 4 is the index of 9.
In 53 above, 5 is the base number and 3 is the power. So it is in 186 and 94, 18 and 9 are
the base while 6 and 4 are the powers respectively. The number 53 are read as “5 raised to power
3”
Examples if prime numbers
(1) Express 16 as the product of power of its primes
2 16
16 = 2 x 2 x 2 x 2
2 8
That is 2 in 4 places which can also be written as 24
2 4
16 = 24
2 2
(2) Express 18 as a product of power of its prime
2 18
3 9 18 = 2 x 3 x 3
i.e 18 = 2 x 32
3 3
10
Express the number below as product of power of its prime.
(a) 42 (b) 108 (c) 675
Solutions
2 42
3 21 42 = 2 x 3 x 7
7 7
2 108
2 54
108 = 2 x 2 x 3 x 3 x 3
3 27
i.e 108 = 22 x 33
3 9
3 3
3 675
3 225
675 = 3 x 3 x 3 x 5 x 5
3 75
i.e 675 = 33 x 52
5 25
5 5
Self Assessment Test

Express the following numbers as a production of power of its prime
(a) 288
(b) 1404
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3.1 Fundamental Laws of Indices
(1) am x an = am+n
(2) am  an = am-n
1
(3) a n 
an
1 n
 a
n
(4) a
 a
m
m
(5) a n
 n
(6) ao = 1
(7) a m n
 a mn
Applying the law of multiplication
Example
(1) Simplify the following
(a) 52 x 53 (b) 64 x 62 (b) ao x b2 x b3
(a) 52 = 5 x 5
53 = 5 x 5 x 5
52 x 53 = (5 x 5) x (5 x 5 x 5) = 55
= 52+3 = 55
(b) 64 = 6 x 6 x 6 x 6
62 = 6 x 6
64 x 62 = (6 x 6 x 6 x 6) x (6 x 6) = 66
= 64+2 = 66
(c) ao = 1
ao x b2 x b3 = b2+3 = b5
In general, if you are ask to multiply two or more members having the same base, we add the
power (indices) and raise the base member to the sum of the indices i.e.
a8 x a6 x ab x ac = a8+6+b+c
(2) Simplify …
(a) 8a2 x 6a8 (b) 7a5 x 6a5 x 6a4 x 5ao
(a) 8a2 x 6a8 = 8 x 6 x a8 = 48a2+8 = 48a10
(b) 7a5 6a4 x 5ao = 7 x 6 x 5 a5+4 = 42a9
12
Simplify the following
(a) 43 x 45
(b) 15M2 x 2M4 x M6
3.2 Applying the Law of Division
Evaluate the following
(a) 56  54 (b) 69  66 (c) a8  a2 (d) a5  a5 (e) 5p8  5p6
Solution
5 x5 x5 x5 x5 x5
(a) 56  54   5 x5  5 2
5 x5 x5 x5
i.e 56-4 = 52
6 x 6 x 6 x6 x 6 x 6 x6 x 6 x6
(b) 69  66   6 x6 x 6  6 3
6 x 6 x 6 x6 x 6 x 6
i.e 69-6 = 63
axaxaxaxax axaxa
(c) a8  a5   axa xa  a 3
axaxaxaxa
i.e a8-5 = a3
axaxaxaxax 1
(d) a5  a5   1
axaxaxaxa 1
i.e a5-5 = a0 = 1
3
15 xPxPxPxPxP xPxPxP
(e) 15P 8  5P 6   3xP xP  3P 2
5 xPxPxPxPxP xP
15 86
i.e P  3P 2
5
(a) 18R6  3R2
(b) 45P10  15P6
13
3.3 Multiple Indices
An indexed number a4 raised to a given index say 2 is able to have multiple indices thus a 4   2
(1) Simplify a 4   2
a 4 2
= a4 x a4
= (axaxaxa) x (axaxaxa)
= axaxaxaxaxaxaxa
= a8
That is a 4   2
= a4x2 = a8
Note: When a number am is raised to another index n, we multiply the indices thus.
a m n
= amxn = amn
Example
(1) 8 2 3
(2) 6b  4 2
 
(3) 10 M 2
3
Solutions
(1) 8  = 82x3 = 86
2 3
(2) 6b  = 62b4x2 = 36b8

4 2
(3) 10M  = 10M2x3 = 10M6 2 3
3.4 Rules for Fractional, Negative and Zero Indices

Fractional Index
m
 1
 a
m
  a n 
m
a n
 n
 
 a
m
m
i.e a n
 n
m
Note: In case of the fractional index , n represents the root of the number and M represents
n
the power.
16 2 81 4 (3) 64 5 (4) 625 4

3 3 3 5
(1) (2)
14
16 2  16   4  64
3 2 3
(1)
81   81  3  27
3 3
4 3
(2) 4
64   64   2  8
3 3
5 3
(3) 5
625   625   5 
5 5
4 4
(4) 4 625
100 2 81 4
1 2
(a) (b)
Negative Index
1
a n 
an
Write the number as the denominator of a fraction with the index positive and with 1 as
numerator.
Examples
(1) Simplify (a) 2-5 (b) 6-2 (c) 6b-3 (d) (5a)-2
Solutions
1 1
(a) 2 5  5

2 32
1 1
(b) 6 5  2

6 36
1 6
(c) 6b 3  6 3
 3
b b
(d) 5a 2 

1

1

1
5a  2 2
5 a 2
25a 2
Zero Index
a0 = 1
Any number raised to the power of zero (0) is always equal to 1.
Examples
0
 81 
Simplify (a) a (b) 4a  (c) 100
0
(d)  
0 0
(1)
 19 
15
Solutions
a0 = 1 4a  = 40 x a0 = 1 x 1 = 1
0
(a)
810 1
(c) 7000  1 (d)  1
90 1
202 5a 0 121

1
(a) (b) 2
Note: Indices multiplication is simplified by addition. While that of division is simply done by
subtraction. The indices to be multiplied or divided must be of the base.
3.5 Logarithm
Using logarithms of numbers, multiplication problems can be done (solved) by simple
addition while division problem can be solved by simply subtraction. It can also be used in the
problem and roots of number.
Recall
(i) Log10 = 101 (ii) Log10 100 = 2
(iii) Log10 1000 = 3
Comparing 100 = 102 and Log10 100 = 2 it can be see that the index in the first equation which is
2 is the same as the logarithm of the second equation which is also 2. It is clear that the logarithm
of the number 100 to base 10 gives the power to which the number 10 must be raised to get 100.
Examples
10,000 = 104, Log10 10,000 = 4
10,000 = 105, Log10 10,0000 = 5
Note:
The representation of Log10 100 reads logarithm of 100 to base 10.
Looking for the logarithm of a positive number of base 10 is the power to which 10 must be
raised to obtain that particular member.
That is Log10 P = R which mean
10R = P
16
Now express the numbers below in form of logarithm.
(i) 1000 = 103 which is Log101000 = 3
(ii) 1 = 100 which is Log10 1 = 0
(iii) 10 = 101 which is Log10 10 = 1
(iv) M = 10n which is Log10 M = n
In most cases the base number is omitted. When the base is not written it is assumed to be in
base 10. The numbers are not always in tens. It can be any number. The logarithm of a number
are of two parts. The whole number part and decimal parts. The whole number part is called the
characteristics and the decimal part is called the mantissa.
The relationship between indices and logarithm.
Express the equations below in index form.
(i) Log10 1000 = 3 (ii) Log10x = C
(iii) Log10M = P
1. How many parts is the logarithm of a number made up of and what are the parts.
2. Express in the form of logarithm
(i) am = n (ii) Mx = P
3. Express in index form
(i) Log10 1.4 = 0.1461 (ii) Log10 5.02 = 0.7160
3.5.1 Calculation of Logarithm to Base 10
(1) Number Greater than 1
Any number of the form M x 10n is said to be in standard form. So a number can be
expressed in standard form.
Examples
Express in standard form
(i) 576.23 (ii) 0.05247 (iii) 0.000689
Solution
(i) 575.23 = 5.763 x 102
(ii) 0.05237 = 5.237 x 10-2
(iii) 0.000689 = 6.89x 10-4
17
The logarithm of a number is made up of the characteristics and the materials. In finding
the logarithm of a number the calculator can be used. In some calculator, the number is entered
before pressing the log button. In others you press the log button before you enter the number.
3.5.2 Using the Four Figure Table
First look for the characteristic of the number and then the mantissa.
Characteristics
The characteristics is always one less than the digits in a whole number (i.e the numbers
before the decimal point where there is a decimal number). Count these digits then subtract 1.
Examples
(1) Find the characteristics of the numbers below
(i) 5678 (ii) 678.902 (iii) 12 3 (iv) 93281.1
Solution
(i) 5678 has 4 digits
Therefore characteristic is 4 – 1 = 3
(ii) 678.902 has 3 digits before the decimal point
Therefore characteristics is 3 – 1 = 2
(iii) 93281.1 has 5 digits before the pt
Therefore characteristic is 5 – 1 = 4
Mantissa
This is read from the four figure table (logarithm table). Now get your logarithm table
and let start. We shall use the sample of the logarithm table below.
Consider Log 5678
18
Logarithms of Numbers
Antilogarithms of Numbers
19
Using the table to look at the mantissa of 5678 it is read like this; 56 under 7 difference 8. that is
look for the number 56 under the column x. When you get to 56 move along the row of 56 and
stop in column 7 of that row and the number corresponding to 56 index 7 is your answer, keep it.
This is 7536. Then go the differences section (column) index column under column 8 we have 6
which must be added to 7536 to give the final mantissa i.e 7536 + 6 = 7542.
What is the character i.e of 5678? 4 digits, character i.e. is 3.
Hence Log 5678 = 3.7542
Examples
Find the logarithm of
(1) 3875 (2) 14.32 (3) 432.1
Solutions
(1) Character i.e = 3
Mantissa – Read off 38 under 7
Differences 5 from the log logarithm table you will get 5883
Log3875 = 3.5883
(2) Log14.32 = 1.498
(3) Log432.1 = 2.6356
Number less than 1
These characteristic are usually less than 1 (that is negative). It is 1 greater than the
number of zero immediately in front of the decimal point. Write the number in standard form and
the index will be the characteristic.
Examples
(1) Write down the character of the following.
(i) 0.00234 (ii) 0.0456 (iii) 0.687.
Solutions
(i) 0.00234 = 2.34 x 10-3; characteristics = 3
(ii) 0.0456 = 4.56 x 10-2
Characteristic = 2
(iii) 0.687 = 6.87 x 10-4
Characteristic = 1
20
(2) Find the logarithm of the following
(i) 0.000678 (ii) 0.003256
Solutions
(i) Log0.0001678
0.000678 = 6.78 x 10-4
Check 67 index 8 in this question no difference
Log0.00678 = 4.8312
(ii) Log0.003256
0.003256 = 3.256 x 10-3
Log0.003256 - 3.5127
(1) Find the logarithm of the numbers below.
(a) 4568 (b) 0.00254 (c) 0.000765 (d) 0.01371
(2) 2268
(3) 1256
The Anti-Logarithm Table
The table is used to get the original number whose logarithm is given. To get the anti-
logarithm, you will read off the Mantissa only from the anti-logarithm table. That is helps us to
find the decimal point in the number gotten from the anti-logarithm table. That is done after
adding 1 to the characteristic. Your count should be from the left hand side of the answer.
Examples
Find the anti-logarithm of the numbers below.
(1) 2.7658 (2) 0.3254 (3) 2.6541
Solution
(1) In the anti-logarithm table look for .76 under 5 difference 8. You will get 5832. Add 1 to
the characteristic i.e 2 + 1 = 3. Count 3 decimal places from the left and place the point in
the appropriate place. 583.2
(2) In the same way, check .32 under 5 differences 4. It gives 2115, characteristic 0 + 1 =1.
Final answer 2.115.
21
(3) Check .65 under 4 differences 1. Gives 4509; characteristic 2 + 1 = -2 + 1 +1. That is
move backward is 4 by 1 place and place the decimal point i.e 0.4509. (which is the same
as 4.509 x 10-2).
Self Assessment Questions
(1) Find the anti-logarithm of the numbers below.
(a) 3.1285 (b) 0.2356 (c) 3.6214
3.5.3 The Laws of Logarithm
There are three basic laws which must be obeyed whenever you solve problems using the
logarithm table. They are known as the fundamental laws of logarithm. They are stated below.
Given A and B and C.
(1) Log(AxB) = LogA + LogB
 A
(2) Log    LogA  LogB
B
(3) LogAc = CLogA
or
LogBc = CLogB
Multiplication
Apply Law (1)
Examples
(1) Evaluate 32.56 by 9.563
Solution
No Log
32.56 1.5127
9.563 0.9806
2.4933
Find the anti-log of the number 4933. That is .49 under 3 difference 3, we have 3114, add 1 to
the characteristic which will now be 1 + 2 = 3. Starting the count from the left, the decimal point
will now be between 1 and 4. The answer is 311.4.
22
(2) Evaluate
0.06525 x 21.36
No Log
0.0652 2.8144
21.36 1.3296
0.1440
On anti-log table find 14 under 4 i.e 1393 1 + 0 = 1 final answer = 1.393

Division
 A
Apply low (2) Log    LogA  LogB
B
Examples
(1) Divide 76.783 by 0.6421
No Log
6.783 0.8315
0.6421 1.8076
1.0239
Anti-log
0.02 under 3 difference 9.
= 1056 . The decimal place 1+1 = 2. Final answer = 10.56
Note: 0-(T)  0-(-1) = 1
(1) 22.65 x 81.11
(2) 0.7641 x 1.786
(3) 1.7815  8.326
(4) 0.01561  1.321
23
Power/Roots of Numbers
Use Law(3): LogAc = CLogA
Find the log. of the number and multiply by the power. As for roots, write the number in
index form, find the log and multiply by the index which is a fraction.
Note:
1 1 1
P P , 2 3
aa , M  M
3 n n
Examples
Evaluate (a) 6.623 (b) 0.07813
4 5
(1) (c) 56.72 (d) 0.6423
Solutions
No Log No Log
6.623 0.8211 6.6234 0.8211 x 4
3.2844
Anti-log of .2844
= 1925
(b) No Log
No Log
0.0781 2.8927
0.07813 2.8927 x 3
4.6781
Anti-log of .67814
= 4764
= 0.0004764
= 0.0005
24
56.72  56.72 2
1
(c)
No Log
No Log
56.72 2 . 1
1
56.72 1.7538 1.7538 x
2
0.8769 1.7538
2
Anti-log .8769
= 7.732
(1) Evaluate the following
 78.68 
3
90.772 x 45.61
(a)   (b) 237.1 x 67.89 (c)
 91.23  16.743 x 66.45
3.6 SURDS
There are two types of numbers. They are rational and irrational (non-rational) numbers.
1
Rational numbers are numbers that can be expressed as exact fractions or ratios; such as 2, 3 ,
2
2 7 4
0.8, 64 which will give , , ,  8.
1 2 5
Irrational numbers are numbers that cannot be written as ratios, such as  '.
 '  3.141592....., the decimal containing without recurring. Other examples
3  1.752050..., 28  5.291502.... etc

Irrational numbers of this types are referred to as surds.
Surds that have number under the square root sign as the same are called like surds, for
5
example 5, are like surds.
4
3.6.1 Basic Facts of Surds
(1) Mn  M x n
(2) M n  M n
25
M M
(3) 
n M
(4) Mn  M n
(5) n
M  n M
2
These factors are useful when simplifying surds.

Simplification of Surds
As much as possible, express the number under the square root sign as product of two
factors, one such be a perfect square. Then simplify the surd by taking the square root of the
perfect square.
Examples
(1) Simplify (a) 8, (b) a 2 b, (c) 128, (d) 75

Solution
(a) 8  2 x2 x2  4 x2, 8  4 x2  4 x 2  2 x 2  2 2
(b) a 2b  a2 x b  axa x b  a b
(c) 
128  64 x2 
128  64 x 2  8 x 2 8 2
(d) 2 75  2 25 x 3  2 25x 3  2 x5x 3  10 3

There can also be a reverse process of the last example.
Examples
Express the following as a square root of a single number
(a) 4 3, (b) 2 5 (c) 8 4
Solution
(a) 4 3 42 x 3  16 x 3  16 x3  48
(b) 2 5  22 x 5  4 x 5  4 x5  20
(c) 8 4  82 x 4  64 x 4  64 x4  256
26
3.6.2 Basic Arithmetic Operation on Surds
3.6.2.1 Addition and Subtraction of Surds
We can add two or more of such surds. Simplification of such surds must first be done
before any addition or subtraction.
Examples
Simplifying the following
(1) 3 2 8 2 (2) 7 6  5 6
(3) 4 5 2 5 (4) 3 18  50  8 8
Solutions
(1) 3 2  8 2  3  8 2 11 2
(2) 7 6  5 6  7  5 6  12 6
(3) 4 5  2 5  4  2 6  2 5
(4) 3 18  50  8 8
 3 9 x2  2 5x2  8 4 x2
 3 9 x 2  2 5 x 2  4 4x 2
 3x3 2  5 2  4 x2 2
 9 2  5 2 8 2
 9  5 2  8 2  14 2  8 2
 14  8 2  6 2
(1) 2 2  3 8  4 32
(2) 5  45  80  2
(3) 3 27  12   3 2
(4) 49  28  63
27
3.6.2.2 Multiplication and Division of Surds
Multiplication of Surds
In multiplying surds, simplification must first take place as much as possible. Then the
whole numbers will be taken with whole numbers and surds will be taken with surds.
Examples:
(1) Simplifying the following:
(a) 50 x 75 (b) 3 32 x 5 8 x 3 18 (c) 5 5 2
Solutions
(a) 50 x 72  25x2 x 36 x2
= 5 2 x 6 2  30 2 x2  30 4  30 x2  60
(b) 3 32 x 5 8 x 3 18
 3 16 x2 x 5 4 x2 x 3 9 x2
 3 x 4 2 x 5 x 2 2 x 3 x3 2 s
 12 2 x 10 2 x 9 2  12 x 10 x 9 2 x 2 x 2
 12 x 10 x9 8  1080 x 2 2

 2160 2
(c) 5 5   5 5 x 5 5
2
 5 x 5  5 x 5 
 25 25  25 x 5 125
Division of Surds
If the denominator of a fraction is a surd, it is usually best to rationalize the denominator.
To rationalize the denominator means to make the denominator into a rational number, usually a
whole number. To do this, you have a multiply the numerator and the denominator of the fraction
by a surd that makes the denominator rational which will not in any way affect the original
numbers.
Example 1
Rationalize the denominators of the following.
28
12 8 40 9
(a) (b) (c) (d)
3 12 5 12
Solutions
12 12 3
(a)  x
3 3 3
12 3 3
Multiplying by is like multiplying it by 1 since is the same as 1.
3 3 3
12 3 12 3 12 3 12 3 12 3
 x    
3 3 3 x3 9 9 3
 4 3
8 8 8 8 3 8 3
(b)    x 
12 4 x3 2 3 2 3 3 2 9
8 3 8 3 4 3
  
2 x3 6 3
40 40 5 40 5 40 3
(c)  x  
5 5 5 5 x5 25
40 5
 8 5
5
9 9 9 2 9 2
(d)   x 
18 2 x9 3 2 2 3 2 x2
9 2 3 2
 
3x 2 2
Example 2
16 18 12 3 6 x2 7
(a) (b) (c) (d)
2 6 7 2 24 x 28
Solutions
16 16 2 16 x 2 32 2 x 16
 x   
2 2 2 2 x2 4 2
(a)
4 2
2 2
2
29
18 18 6 18 x6 108 36 x3
(b)  x   
6 6 6 6 x6 36 6
6 3
 3
6
12 12 12 7 12 x7
(c)   x 
7 7 7 7 7 x7
84 4 x 21 2 21
=  
49 7 7
3 6x 2 7 3 6 x2 7
(d) 
2 24 x 28 2 4 x6 x 4 x7
3 6x 2 7 3 6
 3
4 6 x2 7 4 6 4
Further examples
(a) 3 2  53  6
(b) 2 3  5 4 3  4 5 
(c)  6  5 10  2
Solution
(a) 3 2 5  2 6 
 3 2  2  6 x 3 2 5 2 5x6
 3 4  18 2  5 2  30
 3 x 2  8 2  5 2  30
 6  30  8 2  5 2  36  8 2  5 2  36  13 12 s
(b) 2 3  5 4 3   4 5 
 2 3 4 3  2 3 4 5  4 3  5  4 5  5
 8 9  8 15  4 15  4 25
 8 x 3  4 15  4 x 5
30
24  4 15  20
 4  4 15  4 1  15  
(c)  6  5 10  2
 6 5 10  6  5 10    6 2
6. x 5 10  5 10  6  5 10 5 10
 6  5 60  5 60  25 100
 6 10 4 x15  2 5 10 x10
 6  250  20 15
Conjugate of a Binomial Surd
Any expression that contain two terms in which one or both of the terms are surd is call a
binomial surd expression. To rationalize this surd, we use the idea of the difference of two
squares. For example, to rationalize M  n we multiply it by M  n to give  M 2

n,
which is a rational number M  n and M  n are said to be conjugate of another.

Examples
(a) 3 
2 6 3 2 6 
8 5 5 3 8
(b) (c) (d)
2 3 1 4 53 5 2
Solutions
(a) 3  
2  6 3 2  6  9 4  18 2 18 2  36
9 4  36  18  36
  18
Recall a 2  b 2  a  ba  b
8

8 2 3 1   16 3  8
(b)
2 3 1 2 3  1 2 x
3  1 2 3   1
2 2
16 3  8 16 3  8
 
12  1 11
31
5 5 3  x 4 5 3 
4 5  3 5 5  3
(c)
20 x 5  15 5  12 5  9

16 x 5  12 5  12 5  9
100  27 5  9 109  27 5

80  9 71
6 5 2
(d) x
5 2 5 2

6 5 2   30  6 2  30  6 2
52  2 25  2 23

(1) 2x 3x 5x 6x 20
(2) 50 x 72
(3) 6 7  2
32 128
(4) (b)
6 8
10 10 5
(5) (6) x
72 5 50
(7) 
3 6  24 
2 5 23 3
(8) (9)
3 5 2 23 3
2
 2 3 62
(10)   (11)
 2 3 5 7
 
4.0 Conclusion
This unit considered prime numbers and its relationship with indices. The law of indices
and how it is used in the basic operation. The relationship between indices and logarithm and the
use of four figure table. Surds and the basic arithmetic operation were also studied.
32
The unit considered how surds operations, addition, subtraction, multiplication and
division are carried out. The conjugate of surd was finally considered.
5.0 Summary
 How numbers are express as product of its prime.
 How the fundamental laws of indices are used in the solving of basic problems.
 The basic operation about surds was treated.
 The rationalization of surds was also treated.
 The conjugate of surds.
 The relationship between indices and logarithm.
 How to use the four figure table for numbers greater than one and numbers less than
one.
 Using logarithm table for the production, quotient, powers and roots of number.
(1) Express the following as a product of power of prime.
(a) 15288 (b) 5184
3

 81  2
(2) Evaluate (a) 81a  3a 6 3
(b)  
 16 
(3) Simplify
 13 
 27 
 1 
 4 
84a 5 b0 3  16 
(a) (b) 1
4a 8 5 6 27 2
 2 12 
125 
1 2 4
2 2
(c) (d) 2   2  1 3 
3
 
1 3 1

(e) 4 2
x 16  4
4 2
(5) Evaluate
(a) 34.83 x 42.87
17.83 x 246.9
(b)
256.2 x 3.28
33
(6) Evaluate
36.124 x 92.5
218 x 3.12
36 81
(a) (b)
6 5
(c) 5  12  27
(d) 3 8  3 2  4 18
 
2
 1 
(e)  3   (f) 2 3 89  6
 3 
(g)  
3 2 2 5 6 
 2  5
(h) 1 4 5  2
(i) 



 2 5 
2 33 5
(j) (k)
6x 8 3 3 5 5
Channon, J.B. et. al (2002): New General Mathematics for Junior Secondary Schools.1,2,&3
Lagos: Group (FE) Ltd.
34
MODULE 1: UNIT 3
Unit 3: Meaning and Types of Fraction
Content
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objective
3.0 Main Body
3.1 Meaning of Fractions
3.2 Equivalent Fractions
3.3 Ordering Fractions in Terms of Magnitude
3.4 Improper Fractions and Mixed Numbers
3.4.1 Changing Mixed Numbers to Improper Fractions
3.4.2 Changing Improper Fractions to Mixed Number
3.5 Operations of Addition and Subtraction on Fractions Including World Problem
3.5.1 Addition of Fractions
3.5.2 Subtraction of Fractions
3.5.3 Addition and Subtracting Fraction Together
3.5.4 Addition and Subtraction of Mixed Numbers
3.5.5 Word Problems Leading to Addition and Subtraction of Fractions
3.6 Multiplications of Fraction
3.7 Division of Fraction
3.8 Decimals (Addition and Subtraction)
3.9 Changing Fractions to Decimals
3.10 Changing Decimals to Fraction
3.11 Multiplication of Decimals
3.12 Division of Decimals
3.13 Percentages
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
35
1.0 Introduction
In this unit we will examine fractions as a class of numbers. We will be able to add,
subtract, multiply and divide fractions, decimals and percentages. We will also consider, the use
of fractions in our daily life and human activities and how fractions can be changed to decimals
and percentages and vice versa.
2.0 Objectives
By the end of the unit, you will be able to:
1. describe a fraction
2. demonstrate a fractional part of a whole
3. find an equivalent fraction to a given fraction and determine whether the two given
fractions are equivalent or not.
4. state what proper and improper fractions are.
5. represent a named fraction in symbol.
6. reduce a given proper fraction to its lowest term or lower an equivalent fraction to the
least denomination.
7. carry out basic operation in decimals.
8. change decimals to percentages and percentages to decimals.
3.0 Main Body
3.1 The Meaning of Fractions
The above circle is divided into 4 equal parts. One (1) of the parts is shaded. The shaded portion
can be represent in a fraction form. This fraction tells how the shaded part is related to the whole.
The shaded part can be written as 1 with one as numerator and four (4) the denominator.
4
36
Note: The number above the line is called the numerator, while the one below is called the
denominator. The numerator represents the shaded part of the whole and the denominator also
represent the equal parts into which the whole has been divided.
In the same way, if a whole is divided into ten (10) equal parts and three (3) parts are
shaded, the faction representing this is written as 3 . The three is number while ten (10) is the
10
denominator.
Note: A common fraction can be seen as a short form of writing a division problem. If you are
5
asked to share 5 mangos between 8 people which can be written as 58 or . The fraction line
8
indicates division. The numerator is called the dividend and the denominator is called the divisor.
Note: A fraction represents a whole (number) and not two numbers.
Take a look at the figure above again the shaded portion is one of the four equal parts. It is one
1
quarters, it is . The three unshaped parts called three quarter, is written as 3 .
4 4
Naming and representation of fractions go on as illustrated above. The table below extends the
system.
Description Name Symbol
One of two equal parts A half ½
One of ten equal parts One tenth 1
10
One of five equal parts One fifth 1
5
One of four equal parts One quarter 1
4
Two of three equal parts Two thirds 2
3
37
Self Assessment
Complete the table below
Description Name Symbol
One of six equal parts - -
Seven of ten equal parts - -
- Four ninths -
- Eight fifteenths -
- - 5
17
- - 11
20
3.2 Equivalent Fractions

Two or more fractions are said to be equivalent or `same’ if they represent the same
value.
Example
Take four orange of equal sizes
(1) Take the first one and cut into two equal parts. Paint one part, that is half of the orange
and write down the result.
Painted parts
1
Of the orange is painted
2
38
(2) Take the second orange and cut into four equal parts paint two out of the four parts.
Painted parts
2
4 of the orange part is painted
(3) Take the third orange and cut into eight equal parts. Paint four out of the eight parts.
Painted parts
4
of the orange parts is painted
8
(4) Take the last orange and cut into 16 equal parts. Paint eight out of the sixteen parts.
Painted parts
8
0f the orange parts is pointed
16
If you look at the four diagrams carefully, you ca observed that in all it is half of the orange that
is painted.
The painted parts are:
1 2 4 8
, , &
2 4 8 16
39
1 2 4 8
   
2 4 8 16
1 2 4 8
The fraction , , represent the same area and they are therefore called equivalent
2 4 8 16
fraction.
Note: that :
1 2 3
 
5 10 15
2 1 2
 x
10 5 2
3 1 3
 x
15 5 3
In each case, the numerator and the denominator have been multiplied by the same number to get
equivalent fraction.
Examples
1. The equivalent fractions of
1 3 2 3 2
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv) & (v)
3 5 7 8 9
1 2 2 1 3 3 1 4 4
(i) x  , x  , x  etc
3 2 6 3 3 9 3 4 12
2 2 6 3 3 9 3 4 13
(ii) x  , x  , x  etc
5 2 10 5 3 15 5 4 20
2 2 4 2 3 6 2 4 8
(iii) x  , x  , x  etc
7 2 14 7 3 21 7 4 28
3 2 6 3 3 9 3 4 12
(iv) x  , x  , x  etc
8 2 16 8 3 24 8 4 32
2 2 4 2 3 6 2 4 8
(v) x  , x  , x  etc
9 2 18 9 3 27 9 4 36
3.3 Ordering Factions in Terms of Magnitude
In ordering fractions, we have to find the greatest or the least of the given fractions then
compare their results. To find out if two given fractions are equivalent, reduce each fraction to
lowest term and compared the result.
40
Examples
24
(1) Express in its lowest term
48
Solution
24 = 2 x 2 x 2 x 3
48 = 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 3
By multiplication
24 12 x2 6 x2 3x2 3x1 1
    
48 24 x2 12 x2 6 x2 3x2 2
Or
By division
24 24 2 12 2 6 2 3 3 1
        
48 48 2 24 2 12 2 6 3 2
Prime Factors
24 2 x2 x2 x3 1x1x1x1 1
  
48 2 x2 x2 x2 x3 1x1x1x2 x1 2
Example 2
7 9
(a) Is equivalent to ?
28 36
6 8
(b) Is equivalent to ?
18 24
8 9
(c) Is equivalent to ?
64 81
Solutions
7 9
(a) Is equivalent to ?
28 36
7 1 7 1
 x 
28 4 7 4
9 1 9 1
 x 
36 4 9 4
7 1 9
  
28 4 36
41
6 8
(b) Is equivalent to ?
18 24
6 1 6 1
 x 
18 3 6 3
8 1 8 1
 x 
24 3 8 3
6 1 8
  
18 3 24
8 9
(c) Is equivalent to ?
64 81
8 1 8 1
 x 
64 8 8 8
9 1 9 1
 x 
81 9 9 9
1 1
is not equal to
8 9
8 9
So, is not equivalent to
64 81
Examples 3
3 
Mr. Musa is to send money to John and Mary. If John is to take three quarters  th  of
4 
2 
the amount and Mary is to receives two fifths  th  . Who receives the bigger amount?
5 
Solution
To answer this question, we must make the denominator of the two fractions equal. This
will enable us to know which of the two fractions is bigger.
3 3 5 15
 x 
4 4 5 20
2 2 4 8
 x 
5 5 4 20
15 8
Since the two fraction, , have the same denominator, we check the numerator to see
20 20
which is bigger 15 is bigger than 8.
42
15 8 3 2
So,  or 
20 20 4 5
So, John gets more money than Mary
Example 4
Which fraction is bigger among the following pairs.
3 2 2 3
(a) , (b) ,
7 8 7 9
43
Solution
3 3 8 24
(a)  x 
4 7 8 56
2 2 7 14
 x 
8 8 7 56
3 2
Since 24 > 14  
7 8
Note: Look for the L.C.M. of 7 & 8 which is 56. Which means the denominator of the two
fractions must be 56.
2 3
(b) &
7 9
LCM of 7 & 9 = 63
2 2 9 18
 x 
7 7 9 63
3 3 7 21
 x 
9 9 7 63
3 2
Since 21 > 18,  
9 7
Self Assessment Question
1. Which of the following pairs of fractions are equivalent or not.
15 21 24 18 50 16 75 60 2 3
(a) , (b) , (c) , (d) , (e) ,
25 35 120 54 150 48 100 75 22 33
2. Which fraction is greater?
7 5 12 3 3 2 2 2
(a) , (b) , (c) , (d) ,
10 6 15 5 9 5 5 6
3. Reduce the fractions to their lowest terms
100 75 648 675
(a) (b) (c) (d)
120 150 972 1125
4. Arrange the fraction in ascending order of magnitude
2 5 6 2 3 5
(a) , , (b) , ,
3 8 11 5 7 9
44
3.4 Improper Fractions and Mixed Numbers
Fractions in which the numerators are less than their denominator is called proper
fraction, otherwise they are improper fraction. For example if you are ask to divide 20 by 4 & 35
by 3. Both can be written as
20
20  4  5
4
35
35  3   11 remainder 2
3
20 35
The fraction and are called improper fraction; because the numerators are not less than
4 3
their denominator i.e the denominators are less than the numerators.
2 35 2
Note: When we divide 35 by 3 it will give 11 i.e  11
3 3 3
2
The fraction 11 is called a mixed number. This is because it has a whole number as well as a
3
fraction part. All numbers that have a whole as well as a fraction are called mixed numbers e.g
5 1
1½ , 3 , 3 etc
6 8
3.4.1 Changing Mixed Numbers to Improper Fractions
Mixed number can be express as a single fraction. Recall that a whole number can be
express as a fraction with a denominator 1. That is, we can express 5 as 5/1 or 5  1 = 5.
1 5 1
5  
3 1 3
L.C.M of 1 and 3 is 3
5 1 15  1 16
  
1 3 3 3
Method I
Converting the whole number into the given fraction.
5 5 3 15
That is  x 
1 1 3 3
15 1 15  1 16
Then   
3 3 3 3
45
Method II
Multiplying the denominator of the fraction by the whole number and add it to the
1
numerator of the fraction and base the final result on the original denominator. 5 i.e
4
1 16
5 x 3 = 15 + 1 = 16. 5 
3 3
3.4.2 Changing Improper Fractions to Mixed Numbers
You will recall that improper fraction has its numerator greater than the denominator. In
this operation, we divide the numerator by the denominator and write the result as a whole
number and a remainder. This remainder is now expressed as a fraction.
Examples
17
1. Change to mixed member
3
17
 17  3  5 remainder 2
3
2
2 3
3
17 2
 5
3 3
63 34
2. Change (a) (b) to mixed number
8 15
63
(a)  63  8  7 remaining 7
8
7 63 7
7 8   7
8 8 8
34
(b)  34 15  2 remaining 4
15
4 34 4
4 15   2
15 15 15
3.5 Operations of Addition and Subtraction on Fractions including word Problems
In this section, we are going to learn how to carry out addition and subtraction on
fractions. First the addition, followed by the subtraction then the addition and subtraction
simultaneously. Finally, we will solve word problems related to addition and subtraction of
fractions.
46
3.5.1 Addition of Fractions
We can add two or more fractions if the fractions have the same denominators.
Examples
2 5 1 3 5 3 2 1 3 1
(1) Add (a) to (b) to (c) to (d) to (e) to
8 8 5 5 9 9 7 7 4 4
Solution
Since both have the same denominator add the numerators and retain the denominator.
2 5 25 7
(a)   
8 8 8 8
1 3 1 3 4
(b)   
5 5 5 5
5 3 53 8
(c)   
9 9 9 9
2 1 2 1 3
(d)   
7 7 7 7
3 1 3 1 4
(e)    1
4 4 4 4
3 6 5 3 6 5 4 2 1 2 4 9 8
(2) Add (a) , & (d) , & (c) , & (b) , , &
11 11 11 7 7 11 5 5 5 15 15 15 115
Solution
Method I
3 3 9 27
 x 
8 8 9 72
2 2 8 16
 x 
9 9 8 72
5 5 6 30
 x 
12 12 6 72
27 16 30 27  16  30 73 1
    1
72 72 72 72 72 72
Method II
Step 1: Get the LCM of the denominators of the fractions.
3 2 5
 
8 9 12
47
LCM = 72
3 2 5
   72
8 9 12
Step 2: Divide the LCM by the various denominators and multiply each by its various numerator
For 3/8, divide 72 by 8 = 9
3 x 9 = 27
for 2/9, divide 72 by 9 = 8 i.e 2 x 8 = 16
for 5/12, divide 72 by 12 = 6
5 x 6 = 30
step 3: Add the answers in step 2
3 2 5 27  16  30
i.e   
8 9 12 72
73 1
 1
72 72
Example (b)
3 6 5 3 6  5 5
(a)    1
11 11 11 11 11
3 6 5 3 6  5 4
(b)     2
7 7 7 7 7
4 2 1 4 21 7 2
(c)     1
5 5 5 5 5 5
2 4 9 8 2  4  9  8 23 8
(d)      1
15 15 15 15 15 5 15
3 2 5 1 2 1 1 3 4 1
(3) Simplify (a)   (b)    (c)  
8 9 12 4 5 8 2 7 5 3
Solution
3 2 5
(a)  
8 9 12
48
The L.C.M. of 8, 9, & 12 is
2 8, 9, 12
2 4, 9, 6 L.C.M. 2 x 2 x 2 x 3 x 3
2 2, 9, 3 8 x 9 = 72
3 1, 9, 3
3 1, 3, 1
1, 1, 1
2 4, 5, 6, 2
2 2, 5, 3, 1 2 x 2 x 2 x 3 x 5 = 60
3 1, 5, 3, 1
5 1, 5, 1, 1
1, 1, 1, 1
Method I
1 1 25 25
 x 
4 4 25 60
2 2 12 24
 x 
5 5 12 60
1 1 10 10
 x 
6 6 10 60
1 1 30 30
 x 
2 2 30 60
25 24 10 30 25  24  10  30 89 29
     1
60 60 60 60 60 60 60
Method II
1 2 1 1
   
4 5 6 6 60
Divide 60 by 4 = 25
1 x 25 = 25
60  5  12 x 2  24
60  6  10 x 1  10
49
60  2  30 x 1  30
25 24 10 30 25  24  10  30 89 29
     1
60 60 60 60 60 60 60
3 4 1
Example (c):  
7 5 3
LCM of 7, 5 & 3
3 7, 5, 3
5 7, 5, 1 LCM = 3 x 5 x 7 = 105
7 7, 1, 1
1, 1, 1
Method I
3 3 15 45
 x 
7 7 15 105
4 4 21 84
 x 
5 5 21 105
1 1 35 35
 x 
3 3 35 105
45 84 35 45  84  35 164 59
    1
105 105 105 105 105 105
Method II
3 4 1
 x 
7 5 3 105
105  7 x 3  45
105  5 x 3  84
105  3 x1  35
45 84 35 45  84  35 164 59
    1
105 105 105 105 105 105
Examples 3
3 1
(a) Add 5  7
5 5
50
7 5 9
(b) Add 3 6 7
12 12 12
16 4 1
(c) Add 3 2 6
18 9 3
Solutions
In this type of fractions, add the whole number parts of the mixed numbers first, then add the
fractional parts.
3 1
(a) 5 7
5 5
3 1 3 1 31
5  7    12    12
5 5 5 5 5
4
 12
5
7 5 9 7 5 9
(b) 7 6 7  3 6  7   
12 12 12 12 12 12
7 5 9 75  9
16     16
12 12 12 12
21 9
 16  16  1
12 12
9
 17
12
3
 17
4
16 4 1
(c) 3 2  6
18 9 3
16 4 1
 3 2  6   
18 9 3
16 4 1
 11  
18 9 3
LCM of 18, 9, 3 is 18.
16  8  6
 11
18
i.e 18 18 x 16 16
18  9 x 4  8
18  3 x 1  6
30 12 12
 11  11  1  12
18 18 18
51
12 2
 12  12
18 3
3.5.2 Subtraction of Fractions
The procedure for subtraction of fractions is similar to that of addition, but instead of
adding the numbers, we subtract.
Examples
4 1 1 1 8 1 1
(1) Simplify (a)  (b)  (c)  
5 5 2 4 9 3 2
Solution
4 1 41 3
(a)   
5 5 5 5
1 1
(b)  LCM = 4
2 4
1 1 2 2
 x 
2 2 2 4
1 1 1
 x1 
4 4 4
2 1 2 1 1
  
4 4 4 4
8 1 1
(c)  
9 3 2
LCM of 9, 3 & 2 = 18
8 8 2 16
 x 
9 9 2 18
1 1 6 6
 x 
3 3 6 18
1 1 9 9
 x 
2 2 9 18
16 6 9 16  6  9 16  15 1
    
18 18 18 18 18 18
Evaluating fractions involving mixed numbers
Simplify
52
4 2 3 1 2 1 6 3
(a) 6 1 (b) 5  3 (c) 3  (d) 9  2
11 11 4 2 5 3 14 42
Solutions
4 2 42
 6  1      5 
4 2
(a) 6 1
11 11  11 11  11
2 2
 5 5
11 11
3 1
 3  5  3    
3 1
(b) 5
4 2  4 2
3 1 32
 2    2
4 2 4
1 1
 2 2
4 4
 2 1
 3  0    
2 1
(c) 3 
5 3  5 3
 2 1 65
 3      3
 5 3 15
1 1
 3 3
15 15
6 2 3
(d) 9 3  2
14 7 42
6 2 3 
 9  3  2     
 14 7 42 
6 2 3
 4     
 14 7 42 
The LCM of 14, 7 & 42 is 42
4
42
i.e 42  14 x 6 18
42  17 x 2 12
42  42 x 3  3
53
18  12  3 18  15
4  4
42 42
 3 3
 4  
 42 3 
1 1
4 4
42 14
Evaluating fractions where the fraction you are to subtract is great than the other.
Examples
3 4 5 7 2 3 5 4 1
(1) Simplify (a) 1  (b) 6  1 (c) 3  2 (d) 5  3 
5 5 9 9 5 5 9 9 3
3 4 34 34
(a) 1  1 1
5 5 5 5
34
1
5
4 is greater than 3 and since there is one whole number yet used, change it to improper
fraction. i.e.
5 5 3 8
i.e 1  ,  
5 5 5 5
8 4 84 4
Now it will be ,  
5 5 5 5
5 7
1  1  6  1      5 
5 7 5 7
(b)
9 9 9 9 9 9
This can’t be done since 7>5. What we need to do is to borrow (take) 1 from 5 and convert it to
improper fraction. Then you can work it out.
5 7
 41 
9 9
14 7 14  7 7
4  4 4
9 9 9 9
 2 3 1
3  2   3  2  0     
2 3 1
(c)
5 5 5  5 5 5
2 3 1
1  
5 5 5
54
2
Convert 1 to improper fraction before working it out.
5
2 7
1 
5 5
The question will now look like this
7 3 1 7  3  1 7  3  1
   
5 5 5 5 5
74 3

5 5
 5 4 1
5  3   5  3  0     
5 4 1
(d)
9 9 3  9 9 3
5 4 1
2  
9 9 3
First convert the fractions to their equivalents that have the same denominator
5 4 1 5 4 3
5 3  2  
9 9 3 9 9 9
Since the sum of 4 & 3 is greater than 5, do not attempt to subtract 4 and 3 from 5. Borrow (take)
5
1 from 2, remaining 1. Convert the 1 borrowed (taken) and to improper fraction.
9
5 4 3 5 4 3
2   1  1  
9 9 9 9 9 9
14  4  3 14  4  3
1 1
9 9
14  7 7
1 1
9 9
3.5.3 Addition and Subtraction (together) of Fractions
3 6 4 9 3 5 3 5 4 7 13 5
(1) Evaluate (a)   (b)    (c)    
6 9 18 16 8 6 4 12 5 8 30 6
These problems are solved by converting the fractions to equivalent fractions having same
denominator.
55
Solutions
3 6 4
(a)   , LCM = 18
6 9 18
3 9 6 12 4 4
 ,  & 
6 18 9 18 18 18
3 6 4 9 12 4 9  12  4
     
6 9 18 18 18 18 18
9  4  12 13  12 1
  
18 18 18
9 3 5 3
(b)    , LCM = 48
16 8 6 4
9 27 3 18 5 40 3 36
 ,  ,  , 
16 48 8 48 6 48 4 48
9 3 5 3 27 18 40 36
      
16 8 6 4 48 48 48 48
27  18  40  36 27  40  18  36
 
48 48
27  40  18  36 67  54 13
 
48 48 48
5 4 7 13 5
(c)     , LCM 120
12 5 8 30 6
5 50 4 96 7 105
 ;  ; 
12 120 5 120 8 120
13 50 5 100
 ; 
30 120 6 120
50 96 105 52 100
    
120 120 120 120 120
50  96  100  105  52

120
246  157 89
 
120 120
56
3.5.4 Addition and Subtraction of Mixed Number
5 4 1 6
(1) 6 4  
7 7 7 7
15 7 17 5
(2) 11 8  2
18 9 18 6
2 7 1 2
(3) 14  5  4 
5 10 2 3
Solution
5 4 1 6
6  4    6  4      
5 4 1 6
(1)
7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7
5 4 1 6
2   
7 7 7 7
 7 5 4 1 6
1    
 7 7 7 7 7
7  5  4 1 6
1
7
7  5 1 4 1 13  10 3
1 1 1
7 7 7
15 7 17 5
(2)  11 8  2
18 9 18 6
 15 7 17 5 
 11  8  2    
 18 9 18 6 
15 7 17 5
LCM = 18, 1   
18 9 18 6
7 14 5 15
 , 
9 18 6 18
15 7 17 5 15 14 17 15
1    1   
18 9 18 6 18 18 18 18
15  14  17  15 15  17   14  15
1 1
18 18
32  29 3 3
1 1 
18 18 3
57
1
1
6
2 7 1 2
(3) 14 5 4 
5 10 2 3
 2 7 1 2
 14  5  4      
 5 10 2 3 
2 7 1 2
5    ; LCM =30
5 10 2 3
2 12 7 21 1 15 21 15 20
 ,  ,    
5 30 10 30 2 30 30 30 30
12  21  15  20 12  21  15  20
5 5
30 30
12  56
5
30
In this case we can not continue the way it is. We have to borrow (take) two (2) from five (5) and
12
convert it and add it to 12 and then conclude the work. The 12 at the pin side should read
30
60 60 12 72
2 , then  
30 30 30 30
72  56 16 2 8
3 3   3
30 30 2 15
3.5.5 Word Problems Leading to Addition and Subtraction of Fractions
Word problems should be thoroughly read and translated into addition or subtraction of
fractions before you proceed as explained before to solve.
Lets start with simple examples
(1) What is the sum of 2 divided by 5 and three divided by seven?
Solution
2
The main terms in the question are the sum of 2 divided by 5  2  5  , and 3 divided by
5
3
73  7 
7
2 3 14  15 29
The sum   
5 7 45 35
58
(2) What is the difference between four fifth of one object and three quarters of the same
object?
Solution
4 3
Four fifth = & three quarters =
5 4
Differences is given by subtraction
4 3 16  15 1
   
5 4 20 20
(3) If I walked one quarter of a journey, ran one fifty of it and rode on a motorcycle for the
rest of the journey. By what fraction of the journey is the distance 1 rode, greater than the
distances 1 walked and ran put together?
Solution
1 1 1 1
I walked , & ran of the journey put together my walk and ran will give  of the journey
4 5 4 5
1 1 54 9
  
4 5 20 20
9 11
The journey is an entity (whole) i.e 1. The rest of the journey is 1  
20 20
11 9 11  9 2 2 1
    
20 20 20 20 2 10
(4) John is a student of the University of Benin. At a given day, he plays football for one and
three quarter hours, then watches home video for one and half hours, and does his
assignment for one and three fifth hours. How long did he taken in doing the activities?
Solution
Total time taken = (Time for football + the time for home video time + for assignment)
3 1
Football = 1 hrs, home video = 1 hrs.
4 2
3
Assignment = 1 hrs
5
 3 1 3
Total time taken = 1  1  1  hrs
 4 2 5
59
15  10  12
3
20
37  17 
 3 hrs   3  1  hrs
20  20 
17
4 hrs
20
3
(5) In an election there were three candidates, of the electors voted for the winner. The
5
5
rumber-up received of the remaining votes (a) what fraction of the electors voted for
7
the third candidate (b) if the winner received 6321 votes how many electors voted. (c)
What did runner-up received and the least.
Solution
Three candidates: A, B & C
Let the total votes cast be x
3 3x
A received  of x 
5 5
3x 5 x  3x
The remaining votes is x  
5 5
2x

5
5 2 x 5 2 x 10 x
B Received of  x 
7 5 7 5 35
 2 x 10 x 
C. vote = x    
 5 35 
 14 x  10 x 
x  
 35 
24x
 x
35
35 x  24 x 11x
 
35 35
60
3x
(a)  6321
5
6321x5 31605
x   10,535
3 3
(b) To know the remaining votes is 10,535 – 6324 = 4,214
5
Note the runner-up receive of the remaining votes.
7
5 4214
x  3,010
7 1
(c) Those that voted for the last candidate = 10,535 – (6321+3010)
(10,535-9331)
= 1204
Assignment
1 1 1 1 2 4 16 2 1 5 3 2 6
(1) Add (a) , & (b) , , & (c) 1 ,3 _ 2 (d) ,2 & 3
2 3 5 4 8 16 32 3 6 6 13 7 9
3 4 2 1 3 4 4 1 4
(2) Simplify (a)  (b) 4  3 (c) 2  1 (d) 15  4  3
7 5 9 5 4 5 9 8 6
1 2 2 10 4 1 3 13 4 1 15
(3) Evaluate (a)   (b)    (c) 16  9  3 
2 3 9 15 30 5 10 18 9 6 18
3 4 1 5
(d) 16  6  3 
5 10 3 6
3
(4) In a mixed school with 840 students of them are boys. How many girls are there.
4
3.6 Multiplication of Fractions
We have learn how to carry out addition and subtraction on fractions. In this section, we
are going to learn about the multiplication of fractions. This we will do in four ways:
(1) multiplication of fraction
(2) division of fraction
(3) simultaneous multiplication and division of fractions and
(4) word problems leading to multiplication or/and division of fractions
Objective
At the end of this section, you should be able to:
i. multiply two or more fractions together and express the product in its lowest terms
61
ii. divide a fraction by another fraction and express the results in lowest terms.
iii. carry out multiplication and division simultaneously
iv. solve some word problems that involves multiplication or division over fraction.
If we have fractions of the form
a c ac
x 
b d bd
If can be seen that in multiplication of fraction we multiply the numerators together and the
denominators together. The product numerators becomes the numerator of the answer and the
product of the denominators becomes the denominator of the answer. If the numerator and
denominator have common factor(s), you reduce the answer to its lowest term.
Example
2 3 5 3 4 3 5 3
(a) x (b) x (c) x (d) x
5 7 9 4 7 8 6 15
Solutions
2 3 2 3 6
(a) x  x 
5 7 5 7 35
5 3 5 3 15
(b) x  x 
9 4 9 4 36
4 3 4 3 12 4 3
(c) x  x   
7 8 7 8 56 4 14
5 3 5 x3 15 15 1
(d) x    
6 15 6 x15 90 15 6
Even if mixed fractions are involved the procedure is the same.
1 3 6 16 3 6 3 1
2. Evaluate (a) x x x (b) x x x
2 5 11 18 7 11 4 2
Solutions
3
1 3 6 15 1x1x1x3 3
(a) x x x  
2 5 11 18 2 x1x11x1 22
3 3
3 6 3 1 3x3x3x1 27
(b) x x x  
7 11 4 2 7 x11x4 x1 308
62
3.7 Division of Fraction
1 1
The reciprocal of is n, the reciprocal of m is . So to divide 1.5 by 3, we multiply 15
n m
1
by the reciprocal of 3 which is .
3
1 15
This is 15  3  15 x   5
3 3
Also
1 40
40  8  40 x  5
8 8
2 7
The reciprocal of is . A number multiply by its reciprocal is one.
7 2
2 7 14
x  1
7 2 14
The parts of divisions are identified as follows. Dividend
3 7 3
x 
7 13 13
When you interchange the positions of the dividend and the divisor, it affect the quotient. So in
the division of one fraction by another fraction. We multiply the dividend by the reciprocal of the
divisor.
Examples
2 6 3 1
(a) divide by 4 (b) divide by (c) divide 50 by
5 15 10 20
Solutions
2 2 4 2 x1 2
(a) 4  x 
5 5 1 5 x4 20
2 2 1
 
20 2 10
6 3 6 10 6 x10 60 15 4 1
(b)   x     1
15 10 15 3 15 x3 45 15 3 3
OR
6 3 6 10 6 x10 2 x2 4 1
  x    1
15 10 15 3 15 x3 3x1 3 3
63
1 50 1 50 20 50 x20 1000
(c) 50         1000
20 1 20 1 1 1x1 1
If a mixed number is involved change it to an improper fraction and proceed.
Example
(1) Evaluate
1 1 1 7 1 3 1
(a) 2 x 4  6 ( b) 6 x 
2 4 4 20 3 5 40
Solution
1 1 1
(a) 2 x4  6
2 3 4
Change to improper fraction first
5 13 25
 x 
2 3 4
5 13 4 5 x13x4 1x13x2 26 11
 x x    1
2 3 25 2 x3x25 1x3x5 15 15
7 2 3 1
(b) 6 x 
20 3 5 40
7 2 3 1
6 x 
20 3 5 40
7 3 3 40
x x x
20 20 5 1
7 x3x3x1 63 13
  1
1x10 x5 x1 50 50
Assignment
1. Evaluate the following
2 6 7 4 1 1 7
(a) 7 x (b) 7  (c) 3 x6 
7 21 9 5 2 4 16
3.8 Decimals (Addition and Subtraction)
In decimal, the work must be set out correctly. That is units must be under units, the
decimal points under the decimal points…. and so on. For example, if you are ask to add 75.32
and 7.5.
The work must be set out as:
75.32
+5.5
64
After the work have be set out in the right order as above, addition and subtraction are done ine
the same way as you do for whole numbers, but always remember to write down the decimal
point when you come to it.
Examples
1. Add 25.36 and 2.68
2. Add 81.02 and 61.2
3. Add 1.23 and 31.01
4. Subtract 1.23 from 3.72
5. Subtract 7.05 from 9.14
6. A string is 82.61m long when new. Lengths of 12.36M and 28.51M and 16.76M are cut
off.
(a) What length of string is cut off altogether (b) How much string is left.
7. Find the difference between 91.21 and the sum of 36.82 and 45.78.
(1) 25. 36
+2. 68
28. 04
(2) 81. 02
+61. 20
142.22
(3) 1.23
+31.01
32.24
(4) 3.72
-1.23
2.49
(5) 9.14
-7.05
2.09
65
6(a) Length cut off
12.36m
+28.51m
16.76m
57.63m
(b) 82.61m
-57.63m
24.98m
7(a) 91.21  36.82  45.78

36.82
+ 45.78
82.60
(b) 91.21
- 82.60
8.61
3.9 Changing Fractions to Decimals

It is usually quicker to divide the numerator of the fraction by its denominator, taking
care to write down the decimals point as it raises.
Examples
(1) Express the following as a decimal
1 4 3 1 1 7
(a) (b) (c) (d) 1 (e) (f)
2 5 4 8 3 9
1
(a) = 0.5
2
2 10
10
66
Two into one cannot, write down zero (0) and put a decimal in front of the zero. Add zero
to the one (1). Next two into ten, that will give five. Write the five down in fount of the decimal
point. So
1
 0.5
2
4
(b) 0.8
5
5 40
40
4
i.e  0.8
5
3
(c) 0.75
4
4 30
28
20
20
3
i.e = 0.75
4
1 9
(d) 1 = 1.125
8 8
8 9
8
10
8
20
16
40
40
Question (a) to (d) are terminating decimal
1
(e) 0.3333
3
3 10
9
10
9
10
9
1
67
7
(f) 0.777…
9
9 70
63
70
63
70
63
7
1 7 1 7
and are never-ending decimal fraction. = 0.333… & = 0.777….
3 9 3 9
The digits 3 and 7 are respected as often as we like. We say they are recurring decimal.
0.333… is zero point three recurring and is written as 0.3.
0.777… is zero point seven recurring and is written as 0.7.
Many fractions give rise to recurring decimals. For example
4
= 0.363636 …. 0.36.
11
1
= 0.166666… = 0.16
6
(1) Express the following as decimals
1 3 1 5 1 7 8 5 1 7
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) 1 (f) (g) (h) (i) (k)
4 5 25 8 8 16 9 11 7 12
3.10 Changing Decimals to Fraction
Any decimal can be expressed as a fraction with denominator which is a power of ten.
For example
1 73
0.6 = , 0.73 =
10 100
125
0.125 =
1000
Examples
Express the following as fractions
(a) 0.8 (b) 0.75 (c) 0.135 (d) 1.25
68
Solutions
0.8 8 4
(a) 0.8  
10 10 5
After writing the decimal number, put one under the decimal point and put zero under every
other number in fount of the decimal point.
0.75 75 15 3
(b) 0.75   
100 100 20 4
0.135 27
(c) 0.135 
1000 200
1.25 125 25 5 1
(d) 1.25     1
100 100 20 4 4
3.11 Multiplication of Decimals
In multiplication, multiply the given numbers without decimal points. Then count the
digits after the decimal points in the numbers being multiplied. Place the decimal point so that
the product has the same number of digits after the point.
Examples
(1) Find the products of the numbers below:
(a) 0.61 x 2 (b) 0.78 x 0.4 (c) 0.113 x 0.31
(d) 0.003 x 0.15 (e) 2.013 x 0.55
(2) A car need 3.5 litres of petrol of a journey. If a litre of petrol cost 62 kobo, low much will
the journey cost.
Solutions
(a) 0. 6 1
x 2
1. 2 2
(b) 0. 7 8
x 0. 4
0.3 1 2
69
(c) 0. 1 1 3
x 0.31
339
113
0.03503
(d) 0. 0 0 3
x 0. 1 5
003
0015
0.0 0 0 4 5
(e) 2. 0 1 3
x 055
10065
10065
1. 1 0 7 1 5
(2) 3.5
x 0. 6 2
210
70
2. 1 7 0
OR
3. 5
x62
210
70
2 1 7. 0 kobo
2 1 7 kobo N2.17
70
3.12 Division of Decimals
In division of decimal numbers, if the divisor is a whole number, divide in the usual way
care must be taken to include the decimal point in the correct place. But if the divisor contains a
decimal fraction, make an equivalent division such that the divisor is a whole number. To do
that:
(a) count how many places to the right the digits in the divisor must move to make it a whole
number.
(b) move the digits of both numbers to the right by this number of places.
(c) divide as usual.
Examples
(1) 10.71  63 (2) 1.305  0.29
(3) 40.2  0.006 (4) 1.936  3.4
Solutions
(1) 10.71  63
1
0.17….
3
63 10.71
6.3
4.41
4.41
10.71  63 = 0.17
(2) 1.305  0.29 = 130.5  29
4.5
29 130.5
116
14.5
14.5
1.305  0.29 = 130.5  29 = 4.5
(3) 40.2  0.0.006 = 40200  6
71
6700
6 40200
36
42
42
00
00
00
40.2  0.006 = 40200  6 = 6700
(4) 1.938  3.4 = 19.38  34
0.57
34 19.38
17.0
2.38
2.38
1.938  3,4 = 19.38  34 = 0.57

1. Find the product of
(a) 0.251 and 6.63
(b) 6.83 & 0.63
(c) 54.3 & 0.056
2. A ream of paper contains 510 sheets. Each sheet is 0.016cm thick. Find the thickness of
the ream of paper.
3. Find the value of the following division
(a) 1800  0.06
30 0. 3
(b) (c)
0 .5 0.05
4. A test car travels 98.6km on 7.25 litres of petrol. How many km does it travel on 1 litre of
petrol?
72
3.13 Percentages
15
Remember that 15% means . Thus 15% is same as 0.15.
100
15
15%   0.15
100
This shows that to change a percentage to a decimal fraction, divide the percentage by 100. To
change a decimal fraction to a percentage, multiply by 100.
For example,
0.653 = (0.653 x 100)% = 65.3%
Examples
(1) Express the following percentages as decimals.
(a) 10% (b) 80% (c) 75% (d) 24%
(2) Express the following decimals as percentages
(a) 0.35 (b) 0.12 (c) 0.22 (d) 0.05
Solution
10 1
(1) (a) 10%    0.1
100 10
80 8
(b) 80%    0.8
100 10
75
(c) 75%   0.75
100
24
(d) 24%   0.24
100
0.35
(2) (a) 0.35   35%
100
0.12 2
(b) 0.12    12%
100 100
0.22 22
(c) 0.22    22%
100 100
0.05 5
(d) 0.05    5%
100 100
Self Assessment of Questions
(1) Express (a) 55% (b) 68% (c) 75% as decimals
73
(2) Express (a) 0.11 (b) 0.62 (c) 0.73 as percentages
4.0 Conclusion
The unit considered fractions and its various form and the basic operations on fractions.
Decimal was also considered and how to change from fraction to decimal and decimal to
fraction. The basic operation in decimal was also carried out. The unit also considered
percentages and it various form.
5.0 Summary
The highlights of the unit include the following;
 Fractions and its various form.
 Basic operation on fractions.
 Decimals and its basic operation.
 Changing from fractions to decimal and decimals to fractions.
 Percentages.
6.0 Tutors Marked Questions
7 5
(1) What is the sum of 2 and 4 .
12 8
3 2 1
(2) Find the sum of 8 and 6 . Find the difference between this sum and 18
5 3 3
3 1 2
(3) By how much is the sum of 2 and 14 less than 25
5 2 5
3
(4) A tank holds 25 litres of water. The capacity of a cup is of a litre. How many cups of
10
water does the tank hold?
5 3
(5) A farmer uses of a field for growing cassava. He uses of the remainder for growing
16 4
corn, what is left to grow yam?
(6) In a box of 400 oranges, 28 are bad. What percentage is bad and what percentage is good.
(7) The distance between two towns is 18km. A man walks from one town to the other. He
walks most of the way runs the last 480 metres what percentage of the journey did he
run?
New General Math J.S.S.S. 1, 2, & 3.
Mathematical Association of Nigeria (2008): MAN Mathematics for Junior Secondary School
1,2,&3 (3rd ed.) Ibadan: University Press Plc.
74
MODULE 1 UNIT 4
Unit 4: Number Bases
Content
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Body
3.1 Numbers in base ten (Denary)
3.2 Numbers in other bases
3.3 Conversion of numbers from one base to another
3.4 Basic operation in number bases
3.4.1 Addition and subtraction
3.4.2 Multiplication and division in different number bases
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 Introduction
In this unit, we will learn how to express numbers in different bases. We have learnt how
to expressed numbers in the power of prices. There will be three sections. Section 1 will deal
with numbers in base ten, section 2 will be number in other bases and section 3 will be
conversion from one base to another.
2.0 Objective
(1) Write numbers in base ten
(2) Write numbers in other bases
(3) Convert number from one base to another
3.0 Main Body
3.1 Numbers in Base Ten (Denary)
Some people traditionally count in 5s or use market days. When counting week days we
count in 7s. When counting seconds or minutes will count in 60s. In the present days it is general
for people to count in 10s.
75
The digits that are used to represent the numbers are 0,1,2, 3,4,5,7,8,9. The value of the
digit is known by the place it occupied in the number. For example 6825 is the same as
6000
+ 800
+ 20
+ 5
6825
In standard form we have
6000 = 6 x 103
800 = 8 x 102
20 = 2 x 101
5 = 5 x 100
When, we put all together, we have :
6835 = 6 x 1000 + 8 x 100 + 2 x 10 + 5
= 6 x 103 + 8 x102 + 2 x 101 + 5 x 100
Note:
Since it is based on the power of ten it is called the base ten system.
Examples
(1) Write the expansion form of the following base ten numbers.
(i) 34568 (ii) 132571
Solution
(i) 34568 =
30,000 = 3 x 104
+ 4000 = 4 x 103
+ 500 = 5 x 102
+ 60 = 6 x 101
+ 8 = 8 x 100
34568
34,568 = 3 x 104 + 4 x 102 + 5 x 102 + 6 x 101 + 8 x 100
(ii) 132571 =
76
100,000 = 1 x 105
+ 30,000 = 3 x 104
+ 2,000 = 2 x 103
+ 500 = 5 x 102
+ 70 = 7 x 101
+ 1 = 1 x 100
132,571
 132,571 = 1 x 105 + 3 x 104 + 2 x 103 + 5 x 102 + 7 x 101 + 1 x 100

(2) Write the base ten numbers expanded numbers in their usual form.
(i) 7x104 + 6x103 + 9+102 + 4x101 + 2x100
(ii) 9 x 105 + 7 x 102 + 2 x 101 + 3 x 100
Solutions
(i) 7 x 104 = 7 x 10000 = 70,000
6 x 103 = 6 x 1000 = 6,000
9 x 102 = 9 x 100 = 900
4 x 101 = 4 x 10 = 40
2 x 100 = 2 x 1 = 2
76942
(ii) 9 x 105 = 9 x 100,000 = 900,000
7 x 102 = 7 x 100 = 700
2 x 101 = 2 x 10 = 20
3 x 100 = 3 x 1 = 3
900,723
(1) Write the base 10 number below in expanded form
(a) 32576 (b) 2005 (c) 3456 (d) 13902
(2) Write down the following base 20 expanded numbers in their usual form.
(a) 6 x 105 + 7 x 103 + 6 x 102 + 4 x 101 +1 x 100
(b) 8 x 106 + 5 x 105 + 5 x 102 + 2 x 101 + 8 x 100
(c) 9 x 104 + 8 x 103 + 7 x 102 + 5 x 101 + 5 x 100
77
Section 2
3.2 Numbers in Other Bases
The binary (base two) system is of the number two. The binary system is one of the most
importance system after the base ten system. Its importance is because it is used all over the
world by all counters for numerical calculations. The binary system are made up of, only two
number (digits), that is 1 and 0. Computer contains a large number of switches. There are two
switches, one of the switch represent 1 which is `on’ and the other represent 0 which is `off’. The
diagram below shows the first ten binary number in respect to binary number (base ten).
Binary Value in Powers of 2 Binary Numbers (base ten)

1 1 x1 1
10 1 x 21 + 0 x 1 2
1
11 1x2 +1x1 3
100 1 x 22 + 0 x 21 + 0 x 1 4
101 1 x 22 + 0 x 21 + 1 x 1 5
110 1 x 22 + 1 x 21 + 0 x 1 6
111 1 x 22 + 1 x 21 + 1 x 1 7
1000 1 x 25 + 0 x 22 + 0 x 21 + 0 x 1 8
1001 1 x 23 + 0 x 22 + 1 x 1 9
1010 1 x 23 + 0 x 22 + 0 x 21 + 0 x 1 10
Numbers can also be written in other base numbers such as base eight which is also very
important, base three, base four, base five, and so on.
To write a base ten number in other bases, we have to divide the base ten number by the
lower base numbers.
Examples
(1) Write the following base ten numbers in base 2, 5, and 8
(i) 156 (ii) 345
78
Solution
2 15610 Read the answer in the direction of the arrow.
2 78R0 From the bottom to the top
2 39R0
2 19R1
2 9R1
2 4R1
2 2R0
1R0 15610 = 100111002
We can also convert 15610 to base 5

5 156
5 31R1
5 6R1
1R1 15610 = 11115
Conversion of 15610 to base 8

8 156
8 19R4
2R3
15610 = 2348
Examples
2 345
2 172R1
2 86R0
2 43R0
2 21R1
2 10R1
2 5R0
2 2R1 34510 = 1010110012
1R0
79
5 34510
5 69R0
5 13R4
2R3
34510 = 23405
8 34510
8 43R1
5R3
345010 = 5318
(1) Name the three most important base numbers.
(2) How does the computer use base two?
(3) Convert the following base ten numbers to base 2, 7 and 9
(i) 132 (ii) 716 (iii) 431
3.3 Conversion Of Numbers From One Base To Another

In converting a number from a given base to a number of another base, first convert such
number to base 10 and then convert the new member to the new base.
Examples
(1) Express 6829 to base 4
Solution
First convert 6829 to base ten
6 x 92 + 8 x 91 + 2 x 90 = 6 x 81 + 8 x 9 + 2 x 1
= 486 + 72 + 2
486
+ 72
+ 2
5 6 010
6829 = 56010
80
Now convert 56010 to base 4.
4 560
4 140R0
4 35R0
4 8R03
4 2R0
203004
6829 = 203004
2. Express 101100112 to base 5

Solution
Convert 101100112 to base 10
101100112 = 1 x 27 + 0 x 26 + 1 x 25 + 1 x 24 + 0 x 23 + 0 x 22 + 1 x 21 + 1 x 20
= 1 x 128 + 0 x 64 + 1 x 32 + 1 x 16 + 0 x 8 + 0 x 4 + 1 x 2 + 1 x 1
= 128 + 0 + 32 + 16 + 0 + 0 + 2 + 1
= 128 + 32 + 16 + 3
= 17910
Then; convert 17910 to base 5
5 179
5 35R4
5 7R0
1R2 i.e 120455
= 101100112 = 120455
(1) Express (a) 13567 to base 3 & 7
(b) 14235 to base 9 & 6
3.4 Basic Operation in Number Bases
The basic operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication and division can also be
carried out in number bases.
3.4.1 Addition and Subtraction
You can only add or subtract numbers of the same bases.
81
Examples
(1) Add 2134 & 3214
2 1 34
+ 3 2 14
1200
Our addition is in base 4, so when we add and get a 4 or a number greater than 4, we divide such
number by 4 and write the remainder down under the digits being added and carry the quotient to
the higher digit.
(2) Add 10213 and 110112 write the answer in base 2
Solution
Since the final answer is going to in base 2, we have to convert 1021 base 3 to base 2
first before the addition can take place.
10213 to base 10 before to base 2
10213 = 1 x 33 + 0 x 32 + 2 x 31 + 1 x 30
= 1 x 27 + 0 x 9 + 2 x 3 + 1 x 1
= 27 + 0 + 6 + 1 = 3410
2 34
2 17R0
2 8R1
2 4R0
2 2R0 100102
1R0
You then add both number since they are in base 2

1000102 + 110112
1000102
+ 110112
1111012
(3) Subtract
82
(a) 324215 from 432105
(b) 10112 from 110112
(c) 23456 from 16548 answer in base 8
Solutions
(a) 432105
- 324215
102345
In this case when you carry 1 it will be called 5 since our operation is in base five and add
to the number before we subtract.
(b) 1 1 0 1 12
- 1 0 1 12
1 1 02
(c) To be able to carry out the operation of subtraction, the two number must be in the same
base number. Since the answer will be in base 8, we have to convert to 2345 base 6 to
base 8.
2345 base 6 to base 10 then to base 8
23456 = 2 x 63 + 3 x 62 + 4 x 61 + 5 x 60
= 2 x 216 + 3 x 38 + 4 x 6 + 5 x 1
= 432 + 108 + 24 + 5
= 56910
23456 = 56910 to base 8
8 569
8 71R1
8 8R6
1R0 10618
= 56910 = 10618
23456 = 10618
83
Finally 16458 – 10618
1 6 5 48
- 1 0 6 18
5 7 38
(i) 10112 + 101112
(ii) 23124 + 13224
(iii) 3244 + 1324 answer in base 5
(iv) 121324 – 32214
(v) 21345 – 13435
(vi) 34567 – 54326 answer in base 7
3.4.2 Multiplication and Division in Different Number Bases
In this operation, it may be only one of the number that will be of number base. The other
will be ordinary number.
(1) Multiply (a) 12345 by 4 (b) 5617 by 51 (c) 3216 by 356
Solution
(a) 1 2 3 45
x 4
111015
Multiply 4 by 4 to get 16 divide 16 by 5 it will give 3 remainder 1. Write down 1 under the unit
section and carry 3. Multiply 3 by 4 and add the previous 3. i.e 12 + 3 = 15  5 = 3 R0. Write
down 0 carry 3. Continue in this way till the last number.
(b) 5 6 17
x 5
41257
(c) 3 2 16
x 356
2445
+ 1403
205156
84
Examples
(1) Divide (a) 211013 by 2 (b) 45708 by 6
(c) 23024 by 2
Solution
(a) 2 211113
102023
The division is a digit in base 3, we find how many 2 are in 2. This gives 1 with no remainder.
Next digit, since 2 is greater than 1, 2 in 1 is 0 remainder 1 write down 0 under 1. We now
convert the 1 to 3 since the base of the divided is 3, and add it to the next digit to give 3 + 1 = 4.
How many 2 in 4. There are two 2 remainder 0. Write down the 2 under the next 1. Next 2 divide
1 is 0 remainder 1, write down under 1. We now convert the 1 to 3 since the base of the dividend
is 3 and add it to the next digit which is 1 to give 3 + 1 = 4. How many 2 in 4. There are two 2 in
4 remainder 0. Write down the 2 under the last 1. The division is over when you multiply the
answer by 2, you will get the divisor.
(2) 75708
6 75708
1224
6 into 7 gives 1 remainder 1. Write down the 1 under 1. Since it is of base 8, the one remaining
will be call 8 and added to 5 i.e 8 + 5 = 13.6 into 13 will give 2 remainder 1. Write down the 2
under 5 and carry 1. Call the one 8 and added to 7 i.e 8 + 7 = 15, 6 into 15 will give 2 remainder
3 write down the 2 under 7 and convert the 3 to base 8 i.e 3 x 8 = 24 add the 24 to the next digit
which is 0 i.e 24 + 0 = 24, 6 into 24 will give 4 without remainder.
(3) 2 23024
11212
Divide as in examples 1 and 2 above.
Note that whenever you have a remainder after dividing by the divided you convert the
remainder using base 2.
(1) 12023 x 2 (2) 23415 x 3 (3) 3461 x 151
(4) 43215 x 3125 (5) 4236 x 356
(6) 32345  3 (7) 66217  6 (8) 3224  3
85
4.0 Conclusion
This unit considered number bases. The conversion from one base to another. Finally,
basic operations using base numbers were treated.
5.0 Summary
The highlights of the unit are as follows:
 How the counting system is carried out.
 What to do when converting from one base to another.
 The basic operations in base numbers.
Solve the problems below:
(1) 32156 x 5 (2) 1234 x 3 (3) 6879 x 8 (4) 23314  3
(5) 2316  4 (6) 10463677  267

National Teacher’s Institute, Kaduna (2002).

Pivotal Teacher Training Programme (PTTP) (2000).
86
MODULE 1: UNIT 5
Unit 5: Approximations, Rate, Proportion & Ratio
Content
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objective
3.0 Main Body
3.1 Rounding off Numbers
3.2 Decimal Point and Significant Figure
3.3 Estimations
3.4 Rate at which things Happen
3.5 Proportion
3.5.1 Direct Proportion
3.5.2 Ratio
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 Introduction
Approximation is writing a number to a desired degree of accuracy, either rounding up or
down. When we give the distance and the time that cars, planes or trains use to cover distances, it
is always written in approximate, when we talk of populations of a place or state it is always the
estimated one. The population of Benin is estimated to be 8.1 million.
In this unit, you will be taught various forms of approximations and how they are
computed.
You will also learn how to deal with problems involving sharing commodities,
contributions, and consumptions and making provisions in our world of inequalities.
2.0 Objectives
At the end of this unit you should able to:
(1) Round off number
a. to the nearest whole number
87
b. to a given number of decimal places
c. to a given number of significant
2. Solve problems involving:
a. Rate of doing things when the right information is given
b. proportions when enough information is given and
c. ratios when necessary and sufficient information are given
3.0 Main Body
3.1 Rounding off Numbers
When we round off numbers, the digits 1, 2, 3, 4 are rounded down, while the digit 5, 6,
7, 8, 9 are rounded up. When we round down, the digits from 1 to 4 are call zero and while when
rounding up, the digits from 5 to 9 is call 1 and added to the next digit.
We can also round off numbers to the nearest tens, hundreds, thousands or millions.
Examples
1. Approximate each of the following to the nearest tens, hundreds and thousands.
(a) 12567 (b) 66532 (c) 78537
Solutions
(a) TH H T U
12 5 6 7
Since we are stopping at the tens column, so round up 7 units to gives one ten i.e 6 tens + 1 ten =
7 tens.
(i) 12567 becomes 12570 to the nearest ten
(ii) In case of the hundred, we will stop at the column of hundred, so round up 6 tens to give
1 hundred, i.e. 5 hundreds + 1 hundred = 6 hundreds.
 12567 becomes 12600 to the nearest hundred
(iii) In the same way, in thousand 12567 = 13000 i.e round off 500 to give 1 thousand and add
it to 12 to give 13,000.
(b) TH H T U
66 5 3 2
(i) 66 3 3 2 = 66530 to nearest 10 round down
(ii) 66 3 3 2 = 66500 to nearest 100 round down
(iii) 66 3 3 2 = 67000 to nearest 1000 round up
88
(b) TH H T U
78 5 3 7
(i) 78537 = 78540 to nearest 10
(ii) 78537 = 78500 to nearest 100
(iii) 78537 = 79000 to nearest 1000
Approximate the numbers below to the nearest (a) ten (b) hundred (c) thousand (1) 56781
(2) 8236 (3) 95788
3.2 Decimal Point and Significant Figure
Numbers can also be round off to decimal places. Numbers can also be approximated to
various significant figures. The number zero is only significant if it is situated after any none
zero real number in the whole number part e.g. in 2508, the zero is significant, but in 0.054,
12.30 and 0.00048 the zeros are not significant.
Examples
(1) Round off each of the numbers below to:
(i) one decimal place
(ii) two decimal places
(iii) three decimal places
(a) 0.006 (c) 7.7010
(b) 4.715 (d) 16.8077
Solutions
(a) 0.0066 = 0.0 to 1d.p
= 0.00 to 2d.ps
= 0.007 to 3d.ps
(b) 4.2715 = 4.3 to 1d.p
= 4.27 to 2d.ps
= 4.272 to 3d.ps
(c) 16.8077= 16.8 to 1d.ps
= 16.81 to 1d.ps
= 16.808 to 1d.ps
89
(d) 7.7010 = 7.7 to 1d.p
= 7.70 to 2d.ps
= 7.701 to 3d.ps
(2) Approximate 186.75 to
(a) 1s.f. (b) 2s.f. (c) 3s.f. (d) 4s.f.
Solutions
(a) 186.75 = 200 to 1 sf.
(b) 186.75 = 190 to 2 sf.
(c) 186.75 = 187 to 3 sf.
(d) 186.75 = 186.8 to 4 sf.
Here, the rounding off is carried after the number of significant figures are indicated.
(3) Approximate 0.08567 to
(a) 1 st. (b) 2 sf. (c) 3 sf.
Solutions
(a) 0.08567 = 0.09 to 1 st.
The zeros before the first real number is not a significant figure. The rounding off is done
after the first real number.
(b) 0.08567 = 0.086 2 sf.
(c) 0.08567 = 0.0857 3 sf.
(1) Round of the each of the following numbers to
(a) 1 dp (b) 2 dps (c) 3 dps (d) 1 sf (e) 2 sf. (f) 3 sf.
(1) 0.006875 (2) 0.06759
(3) 7.5426 (4) 10.678
3.3 Estimations
This is rounding off of values before or after calculation has taken place. It means given a
round idea of the answers.
Examples
(1) A school with 52 class has 41 students in one of the SS 1 class. What is the estimated
populations of students in the school.
90
Solution
1. Since we are estimating the student population, we round off the number to 1 sf i.e
52 = 50 & 41 = 40
No of Class = 50
No of students per class = 40 population of students in school = 50 x 40 = 200 or
(2) Assume all class has the same number of students
= 51 x 41 = 2019
= 2000 students to 1 sf.
Assignment
(1) Approximate each of the following to 2 and 3 sf.
(a) 0.02356 (b) 3.456 (c) 40582
(2) Approximate each of the following to 2 and 3 decimal places
(a) 45.325 (b) 3.8136 (c) 40582
(3) A school has 9 classes. One of the classes has 43 students. Estimate the numbers of
students in the school.
3.4 Rate at which things Happens
The expressions 60km/h, N100/day 10km/litre are all examples of rates. The first rate
tells the distance done in 1 hour. The second tells how much money is made per/day. While the
third tells the distance traveled on 1 litre.
Examples
1. A car goes 180km in 3 hours. What is its rate in km/h?
In 3 hours the car travels 180km.
180
In 1 hour the car will travel km  60km
3
The rate of the car is 60km/h.
2. Mr. John gets 18,00 for 6 days work what is the rate of pay per day? In 6 days Mr. John
gets N18,000
N 8000
In 1 day Mr. John will get  N 3000
6
Mr. John rate of pay is N3000/day
91
3. A car uses 50 litres of petrol to travel 850km. Express its petrol consumption as a rate in
km per litre.
On 50 litres the car travels 850km
180
On 1 litre the car will trave km  17km
50
The petrol consumption is 17km/litre
4. Calculate the tax on N150,000.0, if the rate of tax is 3 kobo in (a) a naira (b) N50.00
3
(a) In N1.00, tax is 3 kobo = N
100
 3 150,000 
 in N 150,000.00, the tax = N  x 
 100 1 
N 4500
3
(b) In N50.00, tax is 3 kobo = N
100
 3 150,000 
In N 150,000.00, the tax = N  x 
 500 1 
N 90
Assignment
1. A boy cycles at a rate of 10km/h for 3½ hours. How far does he travel?
2. A trader reduces all his prices by 20kobo in the naira. Find the new price of a shirt which
originally cost N800.
3. A farmer needs 10 men to clear his farm in 5 days. How many men will he need, if he
must finish clearing the farm in 3 days.
3.5 Proportion
This is a relation between two variable in which one of the variable is as multiple of the
other.
Example
1. A man gets N1000 for 10 days of work. Find the amount for (a) 5 days (b) 30 days
(c) y days
Solution
For 10 days the man gets N1000
For 1 day the man will get N1000  10 = N100
92
(a) For 5 days the man will get 5 x N100
= N500
(b) For 30 days the man will get 30 x N100
= N 3000
(c) For y days the man will get y x N100
= N100y
The above method is call the unitary method. By unitary method, we first find the rate for one
unit before answering the set question.
Examples
Mr. Ojo bought 20 birds for N600.00
(a) How much will buy 13 birds?
(b) How much will buy 8 birds?
(c) How many birds can N4,620.00 buy?
Solution
(a) 20 birds cost N6600.00
1 bird will cost N6600 20 = N330
6600 13
For 13 birds = N x  4290 (or N330 x 13)
20 1
6600 8
(b) For 8 birds = = N x  2640 (or N330 x 8)
20 1
(c) If N330 can buy 1 bird.
How man birds can N4,600.00 buy
4020
  14 birds
30
3.5.1 Direct Proportion
A direct proportion is a proportion in which one variable increases as a result of the other
variables increase.
Example 3
The cost of 5 books is N480.00. Find the cost of 8 books.
Here as the books increase in number, the money to buy it also increases.
5 books cost N480.00
93
480.00
1 book cost N  96.00
50
2 books will cost N96.00 x 2
3 books will cost N96.00 x 3 and so on
 10 books will cost N96.00 x 10 = N9600.00
Such proportion are called direct proportion. There are some proportion that are not direct.
Example 4
Six man can weed a plot in 18 days. How many days will it take 9 men to weed the same plot?
6 men weed the plot for 18 days
1 man will weed the plot for 18 x 6 day
18x16
 9 men will weed the plot for N  12 days
9
In the above example, the number of days decreases as the number of men increases. Proportion
of this natural is called inverse proportion.
3.5.2 Ratio
This is a way of comparison, it allows us to compare the magnitude of two or more things
that are related.
Both parts of a ratio may be multiplied or divided by the same number. It is usual to
express ratios as whole numbers in their lowest terms.
Notation
a
By way of notation, ratio can be written as (i) atob (ii) a:b (iii)
b
In (i) & (ii), the number corresponding to the first number of the ratio is usually written first
while the number corresponding to the second number of the ratio comes next.
In (ii) ratio is expected as a fraction. The first number of the ratio becomes the numerator
while the second number of the ratio becomes the denominator. Since ratio can be express as
fraction it behaves like fraction. But ratio are usually reduced to the lowest form. Note that in
ratio;
(a) the quantities being compared must be in the same unit.
(b) Ratio has no unit
94
Expressing One Quantity as a Ratio of Another Quantity
Examples
(1) Express 60 kobo as a
(a) ratio to N1.00
(b) ratio to N1.80
Solution
(a) 60 kobo: N1.00
60 kobo: 100 kobo
= 60:100
= 6:10 = 3; 5
(b) 60 kobo: N1.80
60 kobo: 100 kobo
60:180
6:18
1:3
(c) Express 10mm as a ratio of 7cm
3. Express 3 days as a ratio of 3 weeks
4. Express 15mins as a ratio of 1 hr
Solutions
= 10mm: 7cm
Since 10mm
10mm:70mm = 1cm
= 10:70
= 1:7
3. 3 days: 3 weeks
3 days: 21 days Since 7 days
= 1 weeks
3:21
1:7
Sharing Quantities in a given Ratio
The sharing of quantities is usually best done through the use of ratio, in our every day
activities. The Federal Government use ratio in the sharing of nation resources to states based on
95
their population. In financial partnerships, profits are usually shared in the ratio of the amount
contributed by the partners. Sharing are done in our homes based on needs or age of the children.
Examples
1. Share the sum of N50,000.00 between John and Joseph in the ratio of 6:2. Calculate
John’s and Joseph’s shares.
Solution
Quantity to share = N50,000.00
Sum of ratio = 6 + 2 = 8
50,000
 value of a share N  6250
8
John’s share to Joseph’s share 6:2
 John’s share = 6 x N6250.00
=N37,500.00
Joseph’s share = 2 x N6250.00
= N12,500.00
(2) Share 120 bags of rice between two villages in the ratio of 5:3.
Solution
Quantity to share 120 days of rice sum of ratio = 5 + 3 = 8
120
one village share  15 bags
8
The first village will get 15 x 5 = 75 bags
The second village will get 15 x 3 = 45 bags
(3) Three sons are aged 16 years, 13 and 11 years. Two hundred and forty (240) sheep are
shared between them in the ratio of their ages. How many sheep does each get?
Solution
Ratio of son’s ages = 16:13:11
Sum of ratio = 16 + 13 + 11 = 40
240
1 share = sheep
40
= 6 sheep
Age 16 = 16 x 6 sheep = 96 sheep
96
They will get 96, 78 and 66 sheep respectively
4.0 Conclusion
The unit considered rounding off numbers, decimal point and significant figure,
estimations and rate at which thing happen
5.0 Summary
The highlights of the unit are as following:
 How decimal point and significant figure are carried out.
 How to estimate.
 Rate of which things happens.

Solve the problems below;
(1) Approximate (a) 23467 (b) 556782 to the nearest ten, hundred and thousands.
(2) Round off (a) 8.7658 (b) 6.6815 to (i) 2dp (ii) 3dp
(3) Approximate (a) 0.0056 (b) 10.678 to (i) 2dp (ii) 3dp
(4) Share the sum of N100,000.00 between Mary and John in the ratio of 5:2. Calculate their
shares .

National Teacher’s Institute, Kaduna (2002).

Pivotal Teacher Training Programme (PTTP) (2000).
97
MODULE 2: Algebraic Process
Unit 1: Factorisation and Linear Equations
Unit 2: Quadratic and Simultaneous Equations
Unit 3: Algebraic Graphs
UNIT 1: Factorisation and Linear Equations

Content
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Body
3.1 Expansion by removing brackets.
3.2 Factorisation by taking common factors.
3.3 Factorising algebraic expressions involving fractions.
3.4 Simplifying algebraic expressions involving fractions.
3.5 Solving linear equations.
3.6 Solving linear equations involving fractions.
3.7 Solving linear equations involving word problems.
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 Introduction
This unit is designed to give you an understanding of the nature of algebraic expression
and linear equations. It will acquaint you with the techniques of factorizing and simplifying
algebraic expressions and solving linear equations. You are therefore encouraged to study the
unit carefully.
98
2.0 Objectives
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
(1) expand algebraic expressions by removing brackets;
(2) factorise algebraic expressions by taking common factors;
(3) factorise algebraic expressions involving fractions;
(4) simplify algebraic expressions involving fractions;
(5) solve linear equations;
(6) solve linear equations involving fractions;
(7) solve linear equations involving word problems.
3.0 Main Body

3.1 Expansion by Removing Brackets
An algebraic expression may be of the form a(b+c). In order to expand this expression,
you remove brackets. In removing the brackets, you must observe certain rules. These includes:
1. if there is a positive (+) sign in front of the bracket, any sign connecting the terms inside
the bracket must remain unchanged. For example, a(b+c) = ab+ac.
2. if there is a negative (-) sign in front of the bracket, any sign connecting the terms inside
the bracket must change. For example, -a(b+c) = -ab-ac.
Examples
Remove brackets from the following expressions.
(1) P(q  2) (2) 5( P  b) (3) r (7s  15) (4)  3t (2s  t )
(5)  3(a 2  2) (6) 6(a  1)  5(a  3)

Solutions
1. P(q  2)  Pq  2P
2. 5( P  6)  5P  30
3. r (7s  15)  7rs  15r
4.  3t (2s  t )   6st  3t 2
5.  
 3 a 2  2   3a 2  6
6. 6(a  1)  5(a  3)  6a  6  5a  15  a  21
99
Remove brackets from the following expressions.
(1)  a(a  1) (2)  a(a  1) (3) 3(a  3)  b
3.2 Factorisation by Taking Common Factors
When factorizing an algebraic expression involving two or more terms, you look for the
common factor among the terms and take it out. A common factor is number of letter you can
find in all the terms of the expression. Taking out the common factor will imply introducing
brackets. The common factors(s) could be a letter, a number or both. Consider the expression,
rp  rs  rt. You can observe that r is common to the three terms in the expression. If you take
out this common factor r you will have:
rp + rs + rt = r (p + s + t). Consider another expression; 5r 2 10rt 15rs. You will observe that
5 is a common factor and r is also a common factor. If you take out this common factor (5r), you
will have 5r 2 10rt 15rs  5r (r  2t  3s).
Examples
Factorise the following expressions.
1. 5r 10rt 15r 2 s
2. 10r 2 t  20r 2 t 2  30r 2 ts
3. 14rst  21r 2 s 2 t 2
4. 16ab 2  24a 2 b  4ab

5. 3xy  2abx  5rsx
6. x  y r  t   x  y r  3t 
7. 2r  3 y 2  5 y2r  3 y 
Solution
1. 5r 10rt  15r 2 s  5r 1  2t  3rs
2. 10r 2 t  20r 2 t 2  30r 2 ts 10r 2 t 1  2t  3S 
3. 14rst  21r 2 s 2 t 2  7rst2  3rst 
4. 16ab 2  24a 2 b  4ab  4ab 4b 6a 1

5. 3xy  2abx 5rsx  x3 y 2ab  5rs
100
6. x  y r  t  x  y r  3t  x  y r  t  r  3t 
= x  y r  t  r  3t  x  y  2r  2t   2 x  y r  t 
7. 2r  3 y 2  5 y2r  3 y  2r  3 y 2r  3 y   5 y 2r  3 y 2r  3 y  5 y

 2r  3 y 2r  8 y   2r  3 y 2r  4 y   22r  3 y r  4 y 
Self Assessment Exercise 2
Factorise the following expression.
1. ab  2a 2 b 2  3ab
2. 6rt 3t 12r 2 t

3. r  t 3 p  q  r  t  p  3q
3.3 Factorising Algebraic Expression Involving Fractions
When factorizing algebraic expressions involving fractions, the first step is to equalized
all the denominators. This is done by finding the lowest common multiple (L.C.M.) of the
denominators. For examples, in factorizing the expression;
a b

2x 4 y
You find the L.C.M of 2x and 4y which is 8xy. Therefore,
a b 4ay 2bx 2(2ay bx)
  
2x 4 y 8 xy 8 xy
2ay bx

4 xy
Also, consider the expression:
a 3 a  1

4 5
The L.C.M. of 4 and 5 is 20. Therefore,
a  3 a 1 5a  3  4a 1
 
4 5 20
5a 15  4a  4
=
20
a  19
=
20
101
3.4 Simplifying Algebraic Expressions Involving Fractions
To simplify a fractional algebraic expression, first factorise the expression then reduce
the resulting fraction to it’s lowest term.
Examples
Simplify the following expressions.
a 2 a  2 2 3
(1)  (4) 
2 3 a  1 a 1
(2)
a  b   b (5)
n

m
9 2n  1 2m  1
32a  b  x 1 x  1
(3) 5a   (6) 
11 x 3 x 3
Solutions
a 2 a  2
1. 
2 3
The L.C.M. of 2 and 3 is 6. Therefore
a 2 a  2 3a  2  2a  2
 
2 3 6
3a  6  2a  4 5a  2
= 
6 6
2.
a  b  b  a  b  b
9 9 9
The L.C.M. of 9 and 1 is 9. Therefore
a  b  b  a  b  9b  a  b  9b
9 1 9 9
a  10b
=
9
32a  b  5a 32a  b 
3. 5a   
11 1 11
5a 6a  3b 
= 
1 11
The L.C.M of 1 and 11 is 11.
5a 6a  3b  55a  6a  3b 49a  3b
   
1 11 11 11
102
2 3
4. 
a  1 a 1
L.C.M of a + 1 and a – 1 = (a + 1)(a – 1)
2 3 2a  1  3a 1 2a  2  3a  3
   2
a  1 a 1 a 1a  1 a  a  a 1
5a  1
=
a 2 1
n m
5. 
2n  1 2m  1
L.C.M of 2n + 1 and 2m-1 is (2n+1) (2m-1)
n m n2m  1  m2n  1 2mn  n  2mn  m
  
2n  1 2m  1 2n  12m  1 4mn  2m  2n 1
 n m
=
4mn  2m  2n 1
x 1 x 1
6. 
x 3 x 3
L.C.M of x + 3 and x – 3 is (x + 3)(x – 3)
x  1 x  1 x  3x 1  x  3x 1
 
x3 x 3 x  3x  3
=

x 2  3x  x  3  x 2  3x  x  3 
x 2  3x  3x  9
x 2  4 x  3  x 2  3x  x  3
=
x 2  3x  3x  9
 8x 8x
= 
x 9 9  x2
2

4x  3 1 1
(1)  3x (2) 
5 a b a b
5 6
(3) 
x2 x3
103
3.5 Solving Linear Equations
An equation is a mathematical statement that shows two algebraic expressions to be equal
in value. For example, 4P + 40 = 10P + 12 is an equation. The unknown in this equation is P.
Since the highest power of P in the equation is 1, the equation is called a linear equation. The
above equation can only be true if p has a particular numerical value. To solve an equation
means to find the particular numerical value of the unknown, in this case (P).
Examples:
Solve the following equations.
1. 4P + 42 = 10P + 12
2. 4s – 6 = 22
3. 11 = 9t – 16
4. 16 + 8p – 14 = 8 – p
5. 2t + 19 – 5t = t – 5
6. 3 – (3a – 7) = 43
7. 6(10r -2) = 8 (6r + 4)
8. 7(5p -4) – 10(3p – 2) = 0
9. 3(6 + 7y) + 2(1 – 5y) = 42
10. 3x – [3(1 + x) – 2x] = 3
Solutions
1. 4P + 42 = 10P + 12
Collect like terms by bringing the numbers together and the terms with P together. Remember
that when a term crosses an equality (=) sign, the sign of the term is changed.
42 – 12 = 10P – 4P
simplifying, we have
30 = 6P
Since 6 is a common factor of 30 and 6, we can divide both sides of the equation by 6. this gives:
30 6P

6 6
5 =P
or
P=5
104
2. 4s – 6 = 22
Collect like terms
4s = 22 + 6
4s = 28
Divide both side by 4
4s 28

4 4
s=7
3. 11 = 9t – 16
27 = 9t
Collect like terms
11 + 16 = 9t
Divide both sides by 9
27 9t

9 9
3=t
or
t=3
4. 16 + 8p – 14 = 8 – p
Collect like terms
8p + p = 8 + 14 – 16
9p = 22 – 16
9p = 6
9p 6

9 9
2
p=
3
5. 2t + 19 – 5t = t – 5
Collect like terms
2t – 5t – t = -5 – 19
2t – 6t = -24
105
-4t = -24
Divide both sides by -4
 4t  24

4 4
t=6
6. 3 – (3a – 7) = 43
Remove brackets
3 – 3a + 7 = 43
Collect like terms
-3a = 43 – 7 – 3
-3a + 43 - 10
-3a = 33
Divide both sides by -3
 3a 33

3 3
a – -11
7. 6(10r – 2) = 8(6r + 4)
Remove brackets
60r – 12 = 48r + 32
Collect like terms
60r – 48r = 32 + 12
12r = 44
12r 44

12 12
11 2
r=  3
3 3
8. 7(5p – 4) – 10(3p-2) = 0
Remove brackets
35p – 28 – 30p + 20 = 0
Simplify
35p – 30p – 28 + 20 = 0
106
5p – 8 = 0
5p = 8
5p 8

5 5
8 3
p= 1
5 5
9. 36  7 y   21  5 y   42
Remove brackets
18 + 21y + 2 – 10y = 42
Collect like terms
21y – 10y = 42 – 18 – 2
11y = 42 – 20
11y = 22
11y 22

11 11
y=2
10. 3x - 31 x   2 x  3
Remove the inner brackets
3x  3  3x  2 x  3
3x  3  3x  2 x  3
Simplify
- 3 + 2x = 3
Collect like terms
2x  3  3
2x  6
2x 6

2 2
x 3
107
Solving the following equations.
1. 12a  1  7a   31
2. 43n 1 11n  3n  4
3. 2  5 5t  2  93t  2
3.6 Solving Linear Equations Involving Fractions
To solve a linear equation involving fractions, the first step you should take is to clear the
fractions. This you can do by multiplying every term in the equation by the L.C.M. of the
denominators of the fractions. Consider the equation.
a a 1
 
2 3 2
The L.C.M of 2 and 3 and 2 is 6.
Multiply all the terms in the equation by 6. It gives;
a a 6 x1
6x  6x 
2 3 2
6a 6a 6
 
2 3 2
Simplifying further, we have
3a  2a  3
Collecting like terms gives
3a  2a  3
a=3
More examples are hereby solved to make it clearer.
Examples
Solve the following equations
4n 17 6n 1
(1)  
3 21 7
54 52
(2) 
2 p 7 3p  4
pS 3 2S 7
(3)   
10 5 5 10
108
6a  3 2a  1
(4) 
7 3
3x  2 2 x  3
(5)  3
5 3
Solutions
4n 17 6n 1
1.  
3 21 7
L.C.M. of 3, 21 and 7 is 21.
Multiply all the terms of the equation by 21.
21(4n) 21(17) 21(6n 1)
 
3 21 7
This is equal to:
7(4n) – 17 = 3(6n-1)
Remove brackets
28n – 17 = 18n – 3
Collect like terms
28n – 18n = -3 + 17
Simplify
10n = 14
Divide through by 10
10n 14

10 10
n 7 5
54 52
2. 
2 p 7 3p  4
L.C.M of the denominators is (2p + 7)(3p-4). Multiply each term in the equation by the L.C.M.
542 p  7 3 p  4 522 p  7 3 p  4

2p7 3p  4
This gives:
54(3p – 4) = 52(2p + 7)
Remove brackets
162p – 216 = 104p + 364
109
Collect like terms:
162p – 104p = 364 + 216
58p = 580
58 p 580

58 58
p = 10
9S 3 2S 7
3.   
10 5 5 10
L.C.M. of the denominators is 10
Multiply though by 10.
10
9S   10 3 10 2S  10 7
10 5 5 10
This gives
9S + 2(3) = 2(2S) + (7)
Remove bracket:
9S + 6 = 45 + 7
Collect like terms:
9S – 4S = 7 – 6
Simplify
5S = 1
5S 1

5 5
S=15
6 a  3 2a  1
(4) 
7 3
L.C.M of 7 and 3 is 21
Multiply through by 21
216a  3 212a 1

7 3
This gives:
110
3(6a + 3) = 7(2a – 1). That is
18a + 9 = 14a – 7
Collect like terms:
18a – 14a = -7 – 9
4a = -16
Divide through by 4.
4a 16

4 4
a  4
3x  2 2x  3
5.  3
5 3
L.C.M. of denominators is 15
Multiply through by 15, we have
153x  2 152 x  3
 15(3)
5 3
This gives:
3(3x + 2) -5 (2x + 3) = 15(3)
Remove brackets:
9x + 6 – 10x – 15 = 45
Collect like terms
9x – 10x = 45 + 15 – 6
Simplify
-x = 60 – 6
-x = 54
x = -54
4x  2 6x  2
1.  0
4 6
1 1
2. 
x  1 2x  4
111
5 x  16 x 4x  2
3.  
4 2 3
3.7 Solving Linear Equations Involving Word Problems
Word problems are problems stated in words rather than being expressed with numbers
and letter. In this case, you are expected to read the sentences carefully and based on your
understanding, formulate an equation from it. You can then solve the equation using the
procedures you have learnt. Consider the following examples.
(1) There exist a certain number. When the number is multiplied by 4 the result is the same
as adding 15 to the number. Find the number.
Solution
The first step is to carefully read through the question and understand it. Now, what is
this certain number? Make a representation for it. Let the certain number be x. multiply x by 4.
This gives 4 x. The question say 4 x is the same as adding 15 to x. That is:
4x = x + 15
Collecting like terms gives:
4x – x = 15
Simplify
3x = 15.
3x 15

3 3
x=5
2. The sum of 6 and one third of n is one more than twice n. Find the value of n.
Solution
The sum of 6 and one third of n can be expressed as:
1
6  n. That is
3
n
6  . Twice n can be expressed as 2n
3
One more than twice n can be expressed as:
2n + 1.
Therefore, the resulting equation is:
112
n
6  2n  1
3
Multiply all terms in the equation by 3. This is to eliminate the denominator 3. This give:
36  3
n  32n  1
3
Remove brackets and simplify
18 + n = 6n + 3
Collect like terms.
18 - 3 = 6n – n
15 = 5n
Divide both sides by 5.
3=n
or
n=3
3. The result of adding 15 to a certain number and dividing the answer by 4 is the same as
taking that number from 90 and dividing the answer by 3.
(a) Express this statement as an algebraic equation.
(b) Find the value of the number.
Solution
Let the number be x.
Adding 15 to the number and dividing by 4 can be expressed as
x  15
4
Taking that number from 90 and dividing by 3 can be express as.
90  x
3
Therefore,
x  15 90  x

4 3
L.C.M. of 4 and 3 is 12. Multiply through by 12
12 x 15 1290  x 

4 3
113
3(x + 15) = 4(90 – x)
Remove brackets
3 x + 45 = 360 - 4 x
Collect like terms: 3x + 4x = 360 – 45. Simplifying, we have:
7 x = 360 – 45
7 x = 315
x = 45
(4) Esther and Andrew shared N800.00 such that Esther get N25.00 more than Andrew.
Calculate how much each gets.
Solution
Let Andrew’s share be x.
 Esther’s share will be x + 25
The total amount shared = N800.00
That is
x + x + 25 = 800
2x + 25 = 800
2x = 800 – 25
2x = 775
x = N387.50
Andrew got N38.50
Esther’s share = 387.50 + 25 = N412.50
(5) A rectangle is 4 times as long as it is wide. If the perimeter of the rectangle is 50cm, find
(i) the wide of the rectangle (ii) the length of the rectangle
Solution
Let the width of the rectangle be x.
 Length (L) = 4 x
114
Perimeter of rectangle = L + W + L + W
That is:
4x + x + 4x + x = 50cm
10x = 50cm
x = 5cm
(i) The width of the rectangle = 5cm
(ii) The length of the rectangle = 4(5) = 20cm
A rectangle is 2 times as long as it is wide. If its perimeter is 48cm. Find the length of the
rectangle.
4.0 Conclusion
This unit considered factorization and linear equations. Procedures for expanding and
factorizing algebraic expressions were discussed. Solutions of linear equations including linear
equations from word problems and fractional linear equations were also discussed.
5.0 Summary
The highlights of the unit includes the following:
 When removing brackets in an algebraic expression, if there is a positive (+) sign in front
of the bracket, any sign connecting the terms inside the bracket must remain unchanged.
If there is a negative (-) sign in front of the bracket, any sign connecting the terms inside
the bracket must change.
 When factorizing an algebraic expression involving two or more terms, look for the
common factors among the terms and take it out.
 When factorizing a fractional algebraic expression, look for the L.C.M of the
denominators and multiply each term in the expression by it.
 To simplify a fractional algebraic expression, factorise the expression, then reduce the
resulting fractions to their lowest terms.
 To solve an equation means to find the particular numerical value of the unknown.
 An equation is linear if the highest power of the unknown is 1.
 The first step in solving fractional linear equations is to clear the fractions.
1 Remove brackets from the following expressions.
115
(a) 3S 1  7S  2 (b) 6S  6  5s  10
(c) 2P 1  32 p  12  33 p  1
2. Fractorise the following expressions.
(a) 6st + 2s2t2+ 4st
(b) 2n  3mm  n m  n6n  9m
3. Simplify the following
4 5
(a) 
x2 x3
(b)
x  3  3x
5
4. Solve the following equations.
(a) 6a – 2 (1-9a) = 58
(b) 5(10t – 2) – 9(3t +2) – 12 = 0
1 1
(c) 
a  1 2a  4
3 5 p 7 p  1
(d)  
2 3 3
5. A certain number is multiplied by 7 the result is the same as adding one third of the
number to 20. Find the number.
6. The length of a rectangular table top is 3½ times its width. If the perimeter of the table
top is 414cm, find (i) the width (ii) the length of the table top.
Channon, J.B. et. al (2002). New General Mathematics for Senior Secondary Schools. United
Galadima, I (2004). Teaching Secondary School Algebraic World Problem: A Heuristic

Approach. Lagos: Biga educational service.
Mathematical Association of Nigeria (2008). MAN Mathematics for Junior Secondary Schools
116
MODULE 2: UNITS 2
Unit 2: Quadratic and Simultaneously Equations
Content
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Body
3.1 Factorisation of Quadratic Expression
3.2 Quadratic Equations
3.3 Simultaneous Linear Equations
3.4 Simultaneous Linear and Quadratic Equations
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 Introduction
This unit is designed to give you insight into quadratic and simultaneous equations. It
will help you to understand the nature of these equations and the different methods of finding
solutions to them. In addition to the methods that will be discussed in this unit, we also employ
the use of graphs in finding solution to quadratic and simultaneous equations. This aspect
(graphical solution) will be considered in unit 3. You are encourage to study the unit carefully.
Make sure your understand one step before moving to the next.
2.0 Objectives
By the end of this unit, you should be able to do the following:
1. factorise quadratic expressions
2. solve quadratic equations
3. solve simultaneous equations using elimination method
4. solve simultaneous equations using substitution method
3.0 Main body
3.1 Factorisation of Quadratic Expressions
A quadratic expression is one in the form ax2 + bx + c where a, b, and c are constants and
a is not equal to zero. For example 2x2 – 5x + 3 is a quadratic expressions. It is also possible to
117
have more than one unknown in a quadratic expression. For example 3x2 + 5xy + 2y2 is a
quadratic expression with two unknown x and y. Note that the highest power of the unknown is
always two. There are three methods we can employ in factorizing a quadratic expression.
Method One: Difference of Two Squares
Note: The difference of the square of two quantities is equal to the product of their sun and their
difference. Consider the expression (a + b)(a - b).
Removing brackets we have
a2 – ab + ab – b2
Simplify, gives
a2 – b2. That is
(a + b)(a – b) = a2 – b2
Therefore when factorizing a term of difference of two squares, first write each term as a square.
Consider the following.
1. P2 – 4
P2 = (P)2
- 4 = -(2)2
P2 – 4 = P2 – 22
P2 – 4= (P + 2)(P-2)
2. 4a2 – 9
=(2a)2 – 32
= (2a + 3)(2a – 3)
3. 5P2 – 45q2
Neither 5 nor 45 is a perfect square. But 5 is a factor of 45. So divide both terms by 5. Which
give P2 – 9q2
Write each term as a square.
(P)2 – (3q)2
= (P + 3q)(P – 3q)
4. 16h2 - 25
= (4h)2 – (5)2
= (4h + 5)(4h – 5)
Method Two: Factorization by inspection
Suppose we want to factorise the expression a2 + 6a + 8.
118
Our goal is to write a2 + 6a + 8 in the form ( ) ( ) and fill the brackets. We know that a
will appear first in the brackets and a2 = a.a. Then, a2 + 6a + 8 = (a+…)(a+…).
The next step is to look for two numbers such that their product is + 8 and their sum is + 6. the
number pairs which have their product as + 8 are:
+8 and +1
-8 and -1
+4 and +2
-4 and -2.
In order to know the right pair to pick, check which of the pairs will have their sum to be +6.
(+8) and (+1) = +9
(-8) and (-1) = -9
(+4) and (+2) = +6
(-4) and (-2) = -6
Since +4 and +2 gives the correct sum, we conclude that
a2 + 6a + 8 = (a + 4)(a + 2)
Examples:
Factorise the following expressions.
i. x2 – 10x + 16
look for two numbers whose products is + 16 and sum is – 10.
16 = -8x – 2
- 10 = x -8 and -2
x2 – 10x + 16 (x – 8)(x – 2)
ii. m2 – 11m + 28
look for two numbers whose product is +28 and sum is -11. These are –7 and -4
2
m – 11m + 28 = (m – 7)(m – 4)
Method Three: Factorisation by Grouping
To factorise by grouping we must have a number of terms that we can put into groups.
For instance, if the quadratic expression has three terms you must find a way to make it four
terms so that you can group in twos. Consider the following examples.
1. x2 + 7x + 10
119
+ 7x can have be express as 5x + 2x. We have choosen + 5x and + 2x because the
product of 5 and 2 is 10 and the sum of 5 and 2 is 7. That is
x2 + 7x + 10 = x2 + 5x + 2x + 10
= (x2 + 5x) + (2x + 10)
= x(x + 5) + 2(x + 5)
= (x + 5)(x + 2)
2. x2 – 10x + 21
-10x = -7x – 3x
Note: that it is only -7 and -3 that have a product of + 21 and a sum of -10
x2 – 10x + 21 = x2 - 7x - 3x + 21
= (x2 - 7x) + (3x - 21)
= x(x - 7) - 3(x - 7)
= (x + 7)(x - 3)
Alternatively
Find the product of the 1st and last terms.
x2 x 21 = 21x2
Look for two numbers, such that their product is 21x2 and their sum is – 10x (the middle
terms).
Factors of 21x2 sum of factors
21x and x 22x
-21x and – x -22x
-7x and – 3x -10x
+7x and + 3x + 10x
The right factors are - 7x and – 3x. So we substitute these for – 10x in the expression.
x2 - 10x + 21 = x2 - 7x - 3x - 21
= (x2 - 7x) - (3x - 21)
= x(x - 7) - 3(x - 7)
= (x - 7)(x - 3)
3. 4x2 – 37xy + 9y2
-37xy can be express as - 36xy – xy
This is because 4x2 x 9y2 = 36x2y2. Two factors whose product is 36x2y2 and sum is -37xy (the
middle term) are – 36xy and –xy.
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=(4x2 – 36xy) – (xy – 9y2)
=4x(x – 9y) – y(x – 9y)
(x – 9y)(4x – y)
Factorise the following quadratic expressions
(i) Using inspection method (ii) Using grouping method
(a) t2 + 9t – 22
(b) 6p2 – 13p – 7
3.2 Quadratic Equations
Consider the equation
x2 – 3x + 2 = 0
The 1st step in solving this equation is to factorise the expression on the left hand side. You can
employ any of the methods of factorization discussed in section 3.1 that is most appropriate.
x2 – 3x + 2 = (x – 2)(x -1) that is (x – 2)(x – 1) = 0.
When the product of two terms is zero, is either of the terms is zero or both terms are zero. So if
(x – 2)(x -1) = 0.
either
x – 2 = 0 or x–1=0
if x – 2 = 0, then x = 2
if x – 1 = 0 then x = 1
 x = 2 or 1
These values (2 and 1) are called the roots of the quadratic equation. This implies that solving a
quadratic equation is the same as finding the roots of a quadratic equation.
Examples
Solve the following quadratic equations.
(1) x2 – 7x + 10 = 0
(2) 2P2 – 5P – 3 = 0
(3) 16n2 + 8n + 1 = 0
(4) 4t2 – 49 = 0
(5) 6m2 = m + 1
Solutions
1 x2 – 7x + 10 = 0
121
This can be factorised by inspection
(x -5)(x – 2) = 0
Either
(x – 5) = 0 or x–2=0
if x – 5 = 0 if x - 2 = 02
Then x = 5 then x = 2
That is x = 5 or 2
You can check whether your answer is correct by substituting the answers into the equation.
x2 – 7x + 10 = 0
When x = 5, x2 – 7x + 10
52 – 7 x 5 + 10 = 0
25 – 35 + 10 = 0
-10 + 10 = 0
When x = 2,
x2 – 7x + 10 = 22 – 7 x 2 + 10
=4 – 14 + 10 = -10 + 10 = 0
2. This shows that the answers x = 5 or 2 are correct
2p2 – 5p – 3 = 0
This can be factorised by grouping,
2P2 x -3 = -6p2
Two factors whose product is 6p2 and sum is – 5p are -6p and p.
Substitute these for -5p in the equation. That is
2p2 – 6p + p – 3 = 0
(2p2 – 6p) + ( p – 3) = 0
2p(p – 3) + (p – 3) = 0
(p – 3)(2p + 1) = 0
Either p – 3 = 0 or 2p + 1 = 0
If P – 3 = 0 then, P = 3
If 2P + 1 = 0, then, 2P = -1
1
P=-
2
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3. 16n2 + 8n + 1 = 0
This can also be factorised by grouping.
16n2 x 1 = 16n2
Two factors whose product is 16n2 and sum equal to 8n are 4n and 4.. Substitute these for 8n.
That is
16n2 + 4n + 4n + 1 = 0
(16n2 + 4n) + (4n + 1) = 0
4n(4n + 1) + (4n + 1) = 0
(4n + 1)(4n + 1) = 0
Either
4n + 1 = 0
n =  1 twice
4
4. 4t2 – 49 = 0
Note that the left hand side is a difference of two squares. So express each term as a square.
(2t)2 – (7)2 = 0
(2t + 7)(2t – 7) = 0
Either
2t + 7 = 0 or 2t – 7 = 0
t=+ 7 ,
2
5. 6m2 = m + 1
Rearrange the equation to give a quadratic expression on the left hand side and zero on the right
hand side. That gives
6m2 – m – 1 = 0
This can be factorised by grouping
6m2 x – 1 = -6m2
two factors whose product is -6m2 and sum equals –m are -3m and 2m. substituting these for –m
in the equation gives
6m2 – 3m + 2m – 1 = 0
(6m2 – 3m) + (2m – 1) = 0
3m(2m -1) + (2m – 1) = 0
(2m – 1)(3m – 1)
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Either
2m – 1 = 0 or 3m + 1 = 0
If 2m – 0 = 0 then 2m = 1 and m = 1
2
If 3m – 1 = 0 then 3m = 1 and m = 1
2
m = 1 or 1
2 3
Solving the following equations
1. q2 + 7q + 12 = 0
2. n2 – 4n = 0
3. 25t2 = 9
3.3 Simultaneous Linear Equations
Simultaneous Linear Equations are a pair of linear equations in two variables say x and y.
The pair of values of x and y are such that they satisfy the equations simultaneously (at the same
time). To solve a pair of simultaneous equations, you can use graphical method, elimination
method or substitution method. Elimination and substitution methods will be discussed in this
unit, while graphical method will be treated in unit 3.
Elimination Method
In this method of solving simultaneous linear equations, you eliminate one of the
unknowns and solve for the other. Then, the solved one is substituted into any of the equations to
find the value of the unknown earlier eliminated. Consider the following examples.
Examples
Using the method of elimination solve the following simultaneous equations.
1. a + b = 7; a – b = 3
2. 5p – 3q = 8; 2p – 5q = 7
1
3. 15s + 2t = 7; 10s + =3
2
Solutions
a + b = 7; a – b = 3
1. Write down the equations and label them.
a + b = 7 - - - - - - (i)
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a – b = 3 - - - - - - (ii)
Think of how to eliminate any of the unknowns, either a or b. Since the coefficients of b in both
equations are numerically the same, both having opposite signs, b will be eliminated if both
equations are added.
Equation(i) + Equation (ii) gives;
a+b+a–b=7+3
a+a=7+3
2a = 10
10
a= =5
2
substitute 5 for a in equation I (you can also substitute for a in equation ii).
This is gives
5+b=7
b=7–5
b=2
That is a = 5 & b = 2
(2) 5p – 3q = 8; 2p – 5q = 7
Let 5p – 3q = 8 - - - - - (i)
2p – 5q = 7 - - - - - (ii)
Find a way to equalize the coefficient of any of the unknowns in both equations. Multiply
equation 1 by 2 and equation ii by 5 and label them equation 3 and 4 respectively.
Equation (i) x 2 and equation (ii) x 5.
10p – 6q = 16 - - - - - (iii)
10p – 25q = 35 - - - - (iv)
Subtract equation (iii) from (iv)
10p = 25q – 10p – (-6q) = 35 – 16
-25q + 6q = 19
-19q = 19
19
q=  1
 19
125
Substitute -1 for q in equation (i).
5p – 3(-1) = 8
5p + 3 = 8
5p = 8 – 3p = 5
P = 5 5 1
(3) The solution is q = -1 & p = 1

t
15s + 2t = 7; 10s + = 3. Let
2
15s + 2t = 7 - - - - (i)
t
10s + = 3 - - - - (ii)
2
Multiply (i) by 1 and (ii) by 4
(i) x1 = 15s + 2t = 7 - - - - (iii)
(ii) x4 = 40s + 2t = 12 - - - (iv)
Subtract (iii) from (iv)
40s + 2t – 15s – 2t = 12 – 7
40s – 15s = 12 – 7
25s = 5
5
s=
25
s= 1
5
Substitute 1 for S in (i)

5
1
15 x + 2t = 7
5
3 + 2t = 7
2t = 4
t= 4 =2
2
1
That is, S = and t = 2.
5
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Substitution Method
In this method of solving simultaneous linear equations, you write one of the unknown in
terms of the other unknown and substitute this expression into the second equation. Let us now
solve the examples above using substitution method.
(1) a + b = 7 - - - - - - (i)
a – b = 3 - - - - - - (ii)
From equation (i)
a=7–b
Substitute 7 – b for a in equation 2.
7–b–b=3
7 – 2b = 3
-2b = 3- 7
-2b = -4
4
b= =2
2
Substitute 2 for b in equation (i)
a+2=7
a = 7 -2
a=5
That is a = 5 and b = 2
(2) 5p – 3q = 8 - - - - - (i)
2p – 5q = 7 - - - - - (ii)
From equation (ii)
7  5q
p=
2
Substitute for P in equation (i)
 7  5q 
5  - 3q = 8 - - - (iii)
 2 
Multiply equation (iii) by 2 to clear the fraction.
5(7 + 5q) – 6q = 16
35 + 25q – 6q = 16
25q – 6q = 16 – 35
127
19q = -19
 19
q=  1
19
Substitute – 1 for q in equation (i).
5p – 3(-1) = 8
5p + 3 = 8
5p = 8 – 3
5p = 5
5
p=
5
p=1
That is q = -1 and p = 1
(3) 15s + 2t = 7 - - - - - (i)
t
10s + = 3 - - - - - (ii)
2
Multiply equation (ii) by 2 to clear fraction. That gives: 20s + t = 6 - - - (iii)
For equation (i)
7 15s
t= =7
2
7 15s
Substitute for t in - - - - - - (iii)
2
We have:
7 15s
20s + =6 - - - - - - - (iv)
2
Multiply (iv) by 2 to clear the faction.
40s + 7 – 15s = 12
40s – 15s = 12 – 7
25s = 5
5 1
s= 
25 5
Substituting 1 for s in (i) gives:

5
15 x 1 + 2t = 7
5
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3 + 2t = 7
2t = 4
4
t= 2
2
That is s = 1 & t = 2.
5
(i) by elimination method
(ii) by substitution method
(1) 2x + 3y = 24; 3x + 2y = 26
(2) 6a – 5b – 14 = 0; 3a + 2b – 16 = 0
3.4 Simultaneous Linear and Quadratic Equations
It is impossible to have a simultaneous equations in which one of the equations is linear
and the other quadratic. The equations can also be solved by adopting the methods discussed
earlier in this unit. All you need to do is to study the question carefully to find out whether
elimination or substitution method will be most appropriate at any point in time.
Examples
(1) 3x2 – 4y = -1; 2x – y = 1
(2) x2 – y2 = 27; x + y = 3
(3) 4x2 – y2 = 15
2x – y = 5
(4) 2x – 5y = 7
xy = 6
Solution
1. 3x2 – 4y = -1 - - - - - (1)
2x – y = 1 - - - - - - (2)
From equation (2)
y = 2x – 1 - - - - - - (3)
Substituting for y in equation 1.
3x2 -4(2x – 1) = -1
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3x2 -8x + 4 = -1
That is
3x2 – 8x + 5 = 0 – - - - - - (4)
Recall that 5 x 3x2 = 15x2
Two factors whose product is + 15x2 and sum is -8x are -5x and -3x substitute -5x and -
3x for -8x in equation (4). That gives
3x2 - 5x – 3x + 5 = 0
Factorise the expression on the left hand side.
3x 2

 3x  5  5x  = 0
That is:
 
3x x  1  51 x   0
That is
 3x1 x   51 x   0
1 x5  3x  0

either
1 -x=0 or 5 – 3x = 0
Then, 1 = x or 5 = 3x
5
and x
3
That is
x = 1 or 5
3
Substitute for x in equation 3.
When x = 1
y = 2(1) -1
y = 2 -1
y=1
When x is 5
3
130
5 10
y  2     1
 3 3
y= 7
3
The solution of the simultaneous equations are:
1,1, 5 3 , 7 3 
In each bracket, the 1st number is the value of x while the other is the value of y.
2. x2 – y2 = 27 - - - - - - (1)
x + y = 3 - - - - - - - - (2)
The left hand side of equation 1 is a difference of two squares. Then,
x  y x  y  27     (3)
From equation 2,
x+y=3
Therefore,
3x  y   27
x  y  9      (4)
Add equation 2 and 4 to eliminate one of the unknown.
x+y+x–y=3+9
2x = 12
x=6
Substitute 6 for x in 2.
6+y=3
y = 3- 6
y = -3
Solution = (6, 3)
3. 4x2 – y2 = 15 - - - - - - (1)
2x – y = 5 - - - - - - - - (2)
The expression on the left hand side of equation 1, is a difference of two squares. So express
each term as a square.
2 x 2  y  2 15. That is,
2x  y 2x  y 15      (3)
131
But 2x – y = 5 from equation 2. Substitute 5 for 2x – y in equation 3.
52 x  y  15
10x + 5y = 15 - - - - - - (4)
Multiply equation 2 by 5. Which gives
10x – 5y = 25 - - - - - - (5)
Subtract equation 4 from 5.
10x – 5y – 10x – 5y = 25 – 15
-10y = 10
y = 10  1
 10
Substitute -1 for y in equation 2.
2x – -1 = 5
2x = 4
x = 4 2
2
Solution
x = 2, y = -1 (2,-1)
(4) 2x – 5y = 7 - - - - - (1)
xy = 6 - - - - - - - - (2)
From 2,
6
y
x
Substitute for y in 1.
6
2x  5 x 7
x
Multiply through by x to clear the fraction. It gives
2x2 – 30 = 7x
2x2 - 7x – 30 = 0 - - - - - - (3)
30 x 20x2 = 60x2
Two factors whose product is 60x2 and sum – 7x are – 12x and + 5x
Substitute -12x and 5x for 7x in equation 3. That gives
132
2x2 - 12x + 5x – 30 = 0
(2x2 – 12x) + (5x – 30) = 0
2x(x – 6) + 5(x – 6) = 0
(x – 6)(2x + 5) = 0
either
x–6=0 or 2x + 5 = 0
then, if x – 6 = 0 if 2x + 5 = 0, then
2x = -5 and
5
x=6 x
2
5
That is, x = 6 or . Substitute for x in equation 2.
2
When x = 6
6
y 1
6
5
When x 
2
 5 2 12
y 6 x 6 x 
 2  5 5
Solution
  5 12 
6,1,  , .
 2 5
(1) x2 + y2 = 34; x + y = 2
(2) x2 – 4y2 = 9; x + 2y = 1
4.0 Conclusion
This unit x-rayed quadratic expressions, quadratic equations, simultaneous linear
equations and simultaneous linear and quadratic equations. Different methods of factorizing
quadratic expressions as well as methods of solving quadratic equations were discussed. Also,
different methods of solving simultaneous linear equations and simultaneous linear and quadratic
equations were considered.
133
5.0 Summary
The following are the highlights of the unit.
 A quadratic expression is one in the form ax2 + bx + c, where a, b and c are constants
and a is not equal to zero.
 A quadratic expression can be factorized by inspection, by grouping and by
difference of two squares.
 The difference of two squares of two quantities is equal to the product of their sum
and their difference.
 A simultaneous equation can be solved by elimination method or substitution method.
 Quadratic equation can be solved by factorization, by completing the squares and by
formular which is not discussed in this unit.

1. Factorise the following
(a) ab + bd2 + b2 c + bf
(b) 12x2y + 24x3y2 + 30x4y
(c) 3ac + 3ad + bc + bd
2. Solve the following equation
x3 – 10x + 25 = 0 by factorization
3. Solve the equation U2 – 14U – 3 = 0 by completing the square
4. Solve the following pairs of simultaneous equations
(a) 2x – y = 8; 3x + y = 17
5x y 1 2 x 3 y 2
(b)   ;  
8 20 4 3 3 15
(c) 4x2 - 9y2 = 19; 2x + 3y = 1
(d) 3x + y = 25; xy = 8
134
Channon, J.B. et al (2002). New General Mathematic for Senior Secondary Schools. United
Galadima, I. (2004). Teaching Secondary School Algebraic World Problems: A Heuristic,

Approach. Lagos: Biga education services.
135
MODULE 2: UNIT 3
UNIT 3: Algebraic Graphs
Content
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Body
3.1 Graphs of Linear Equations
3.2 Graphs of Quadratic Equations
3.3 Graphs of Simultaneous Linear Equations
3.4 Graphs of Simultaneous Equations, one Linear one Quadratic
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 Introduction
As mentioned in unit 2, equations (linear, quadratic, simultaneous) can be solved using
graphs. These graphs are called algebraic graphs. Solving equations graphically involves
calculating a range of values of the unknown for which the equation is true or are true
simultaneously. These points are then plotted on a Cartesian plane. Using a graph paper. The
vertical and horizontal lines drawn on the plane are called axes, y is used to label the vertical axis
while x is used to label the horizontal axis. This unit is designed to give an understanding of how
to solve different types of equations using graphs.
2.0 Objectives
By the end of this unit, you should be able to pilot:
1. graphs of linear equations
2. graphs of quadratic equations
3. graphs of simultaneous equation
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3.0 Main Body
3.1 Graphs of Linear Equations
Consider the equation,
y–x=3
This is a linear equation. Note that the highest power of the unknown is one.
From that equation, we have:
y = 3 – x.
Pick a range of values of x and calculate the corresponding value of y.
Suppose x = -1,0,1,2,3,4.
When x = (-1)
y = 3 – (-1)
y=4
When x = 0
y=3–0=3
When x = 1
Y=3–1=2
When x = 2
y=3–2=1
When x = 3
y = 3 -3 = 0
Representing this in a table gives
x -1 0 1 2 3
y 4 3 2 1 0
The figure below is the graph of ( x + y = 3)

The scale is 1cm to 1 unit. If scale is not given, you can choose your own scale.
137
Note that the graph is a straight line graph. Linear equations always give a straight line graph.
Consider another example.
Using a scale of 2cm to 1 unit on the x axis and 1cm to 1 unit on the y axis, plot the graph of
y = 3x + 5 with values of x ranging from -2 to +2.
Solution
y = 3x + 5. When x = -2.y = 3(-2) + 5 = -6 + 5 = -1
When x = -1
y = 3(-1) + 5 = -3 + 5 =2
When x = 0
y = 3(0) + 5 = 0 + 5 = 5
When x = 1
138
y = 3(1) + 5 = 3 + 5 = 8
When x = 2
y = 3(2) + 5 = 6 + 5 = 11
x -2 -1 0 1 2
y -1 2 5 8 11
The scale of the vertical and horizontal axes can be the same and they can also differ.
Plot the graphs (1) y = 2x + 5 for values of x ranging from 0 to 5 (2) 2x + y = 1 for values of x
ranging from 8 to 8.
139
3.2 Graphs of Quadratic Equation
Recall that in a quadratic equation, the highest power of the unknowns is two. Graphical
solution of quadratic equations follows the same procedure as graphical solution of linear
equations. A table of values of x and y is developed by calculating corresponding values of y for
a range of values of x. Consider the following examples.
(1) Plot the graph of the quadratic equation:
y = 2x2 – 2. That is, values of x from – 3 to 3
Solution
y = 2x2 – 2
When x = -3
y = 2(-3)2 – 2 = 2(9) – 2 = 18 – 2 = 16
When x = -2
y = 2(-2)2 -2 = 2(4) -2 = 8 – 2 = 6
When x = 1
y = 2(-1)2 – 2 = 2(1) – 2 = 2 – 2 = 0
When x = 0
y = 2(0)2 – 2 = 2(0) – 2 = 0 – 2 = -2
When x = 1
y = 2(1)2 – 2 = 2(1) -2 = 2 – 2 = 0
When x = 2
y = 2(2)2 – 2 = 2(4) -2 = 8 – 2 = 6
When x = 3
y = 2(3)2 – 2 = 2(9) – 2 = 18 – 2 = 16
x -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
y 16 6 0 -2 0 6 16
140
Scale: 1cm to 2 units on y axis. 2cm to 1 unit on x axis. Note that the graphs cut the x = -1 and
+1. the points x = -1, +1 are called the roots of the equation.
(2) Plot the graph of the following quadratic equation and find its’ roots.
y = x2 – 3x – 2 for 0 < x < 4
When x = 0
y = 02 – 3(0) – 2 = 0 – 0 – 2 = -2
When x = 1
y = (1)2 – 3(1) – 2 = 1 – 3 - 2 = -1 – 5 = -4
When x = 2
y = 22 – 3(2) -2 = 4 – 6 – 2 = -4
When x = 3
y = 32 – 3(3) – 2 = 9 – 9 – 2 = -2
141
When x = 4
y = 42 – 3(4) -2 = 16 – 12 – 2 = 2
x 0 1 2 3 4
Y -2 -4 -4 -2 2
The roots of the graph are the points at which the graph cuts the x axis;
Roots is x = -0.6, 3.5.
Note that the graph of a quadratic equation is always a curve. When the power of the
unknown is positive, it will have a minimum value at the burning point. But it is negative the
graph will have a maximum value at the burning point.
Plot the graphs of the following quadratic equations and find their roots.
1. y = x2 – 4x – 2 for -3 < x < 3.
2. y = (x + 1)(x -2) for -2 < x < 3
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3.3 Graphs of Simultaneous Linear Equations
Simultaneous equations are a pair of equations having a range of values of x and y for
which the equations are true at the same time. To solve simultaneous equations graphically,
develop a table of values for each equation and plot the two sets of points on the same axes.
Consider the following examples.
1. Plot the graph of the following simultaneous equations.
x+y=4
2x – y = 6 for -1 < x < 6
Solution
Let x + y = 4 - - - - - - - (1) and
2x – y = 6 - - - - - - - - -- (2)
From (1)
x + -y = 4
y=4–x
When x = 1
y = 4 – -1 = 4 + 1 =5
When x = 0
y=4–0=4
When x = 1
y=4–1=3
When x = 2
y=4–2=2
When x = 3
y=4–3=1
When x = 4
y=4–4=0
When x = 5
y = 4 – 5 = -1
When x = 6
y = 4 -6 = -2
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The values are represented in the table below.
x -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
y 5 4 3 2 1 0 -1 -2
From (2)
2x – y – 6
y = 2x – 6
When x = -1
y = 2(-1) – 6 = -2 6 = -8
When x = 0
y = 2(0) -6 = 0 – 6 = -6
When x = 1
y = 2(1) – 6 = 2 – 6 = -4
When x = 2
y = 2(2) – 6 = 4 – 6 = -2
When x = 3
y = 2(3) -6 = 6 -6 = 0
When x = 4
y = 2(4) – 6 = 8 – 6 = 2
When x = 5
y = 2(5) – 6 = 10 – 6 = 4
When x = 6
y = 2(6) -6 = 12 – 6 = 6
x -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
y -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6
Plot the two sets of points on the same axis.
144
Intersection and it represent the solution of the simultaneous equations.
(2) Using graphical method, find the solution of the simultaneous equations.
2x + 3y = 6
x+y=5 for -2 < x < 5
Solution
Let
2x + 3y = 6 - - - - - - - 1
x+y=5---------2
From (1)
6  2x
y
3
When x = -2
6  2(2) 6  4 10
y    3.3
3 3 3
145
When x = -1
6  2(1) 6  2 8
y    2.7
3 3 3
When x = 0
6  2(0) 6  0 6
y   2
3 3 3
When x = 1
6  2(1) 6  2 4
y    1.3
3 3 3
When x = 2
6  2(2 6  4 2
y    0.7
3 3 3
When x = 3
6  2(3) 6  6 0
y   0
3 3 3
When x = 4
6  2(4) 6  8 2
y     0.7
3 3 3
When x = 5
6  2(5) 6  10  4
y    1.3
3 3 3
When x = 6
6  2(6) 6  12  6
y    2
3 3 3
x -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
y 3.3 2.7 2 1.3 0.7 0 -0.7 -1.3 -2
From 2.
y =5–x
When x = -2
y = 5 – -2 = 5 + 2 = 7
146
When x = -1
y = 5 – -1 = 5 + 1 = 6
When x = 0
y=5–0=5
When x = 1
y=5–1=4
When x = 2
y=5–2=3
When x = 3
y=5–3=2
When x = 4
y=5–4=1
When x = 5
y=5–5=0
When x = 6
y = 5 – 6 = -1
x -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
y 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 -1
147
Scale: 1cm represent 1 unit on both axis
Solution: y = 9 & y = -4
Using graphical method, find the solution of the following simultaneous equations.
3x + y = 1
2x – y = 4 for -3 < x < 5
3.4 Graphs of Simultaneous Equations, One Linear And One Quadratic
Recall that the graph of a linear equation is always a straight line, while the graph of a
quadratic equation is always a curve. To solve linear quadratic simultaneous equations, follow
the procedure described in section 3.3. The result will be a curve and a straight line graph on the
same axes with one or more points of intersection.
Examples
1. Solve graphically the pair of equations.
y = 2x
y = 3x2 – 5x + 3 for -2 < x < 4
Solution
Let y = 2x - - - - - - 1 & y = 3x2 – 5x + -3 - - - - - - 2
From (1)
y = 2x
when x = -2
y = 2(-2) = -4
When x = -1
y = 2(-1) = -2
When x = 0
y = 2(0) = 0
When x = 1
y = 2(1) = 2
When x = 2
y = 2(2) = 4
When x = 3
y = 2(3) = 6
148
When x = 4
y = 2(4) = 8
x -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
Y -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8
From (2)
y = 3x2 – 5x + 3
When x = -2
y = 3(-2)2 – 5(-2) + 3 = 12 + 10 + 3 = 25
When x = -1
y = 3(-1)2 -5(-1) + 3 = 3 + 5 + 3 = 11
When x = 0
y = 3(0)2 – 5(0) + 3 = 0 – 0 + 3 = 3
When x = 1
y = 3(1)2 -5(1) + 3 = 3 – 5 + 3 = 1
When x = 2
y = 3(2)2 – 5(2) + 3 = 12 – 10 + 3 = 5
When x = 3
y = 3(3)2 – 5(3) + 3 = 27 + 15 + 3 = 15
When x = 4
Y = 3(4)2 – 5(4) + 3 = 48 + 20 + 3 = 31
x -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
y 25 11 3 1 5 15 31
149
Scale: 1cm represent 5 units on y axis 1cm represent 1 unit on x axis.
The graphs meets at the points x = 0.6, y = 1 and x = 1.9 and y = 3.5
These are the solutions of the equations.
2. Solve graphically the pair of equations
y = 2x2 – 3x – 6 and
y = 1 – 3x for - 3 < x < 4
Hence find the solution of the equation
2x2 – 7 = 0
(b) Draw a tangent to the cure at x = -1, and find the gradient of the tangent at that point.
Solution
Let
y = 2x2 – 3x – 6 - - - - - - - (1) and
y = 1-3x – - - - - - - - - - - (2)
From (1)
When x = - 3
150
y = 2(-3)2 – 3(-3) – 6 = 18 + 9 – 6 = 21
When x = - 2
y = 2(-2)2 – 3(-2) – 6 = 8 + 6 – 6 = 8
When x = -1
y = 2 (-1)2 – 3 (-1) – 6
y = 2 + 3 -6 = -1
When x = 0
y = 2(-0)2 – 3(-0) – 6 = 0 – 0 – 6 = -6
When x = 1
y = 2(1)2 – 3(1) – 6 = 2 – 3 – 6 = - 7
When x = 2
y = 2(2)2 – 3(2) – 6 = 8 – 6 – 6 = - 4
When x = 3
y = 2(3)2 – 3(3) – 6 = 18 – 9 – 6 = -3
When x = 4
y = 2(4)2 – 3(4) – 6 = 32 – 12 – 6 = 14
x -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
y 21 8 -1 -6 -7 4 -3 14
From (2)
When x = -3
y = 1 – 3(-3) = 1 + 9 = 10
When x = -2
y = 1-3(-2) = 1 + 6 = 7
When x = -1
y = 1 – 3 (-1) = 1 + 3 = 4
When x = 0
y = 1 – 3(0) = 1 - 0 = 1
When x = 1
y = 1 – 3(1) = 1 – 3 = -2
When x = 2
y = 1 – 3(2) = 1 – 6 = -5
When x = 3
y = 1 -3(3) = 1 – 9 = -8
151
When x = 4
y = 1 – 3(4) = 1 – 12 = -11
x -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
y 10 7 4 1 2 -5 -8 -11
Equate equations 1 and 2. That is

2x2 – 3x – 6 = 1 – 3x. Then
2x2 – 3x + 3x – 6 – 1 = 0
2x2 – 7 = 0
The solution of 2x2 – 7 = 0 is given by points P and q on the graph.
P = (1.8, 4.5) & q = (-1.9, 7).
AC
b. Gradient (AB) =  8 cm
CB
On the same axis, draw the graph of y + 2 = x(x+1) and y = 2x for -3 < x < 3
(b) From your graph, find the solution of the equation x2 + x – 2 = 0
4.0 Conclusion
In this unit, graphical solutions of different types of equations were discussed. This
includes graphical solution of linear equations, quadratic equations, simultaneous linear
152
equations and simultaneous equations, are linear are quadratic. Solution of gradient to a curve at
a point was also discussed.
5.0 Summary
The following are the highlights of the unit.
 A linear equation always give a straight line graph
 The graph of a quadratic equation is always a curve
 The scale on the x and y axes may or may not be the same
 In a quadratic graph, the points at which the curve cuts the x axis are called the roots
of the equation.
 The points of intersection of the graphs of simultaneous equations represents the
solution of the equations.
A quadratic graph may have a maximum value or a minimum value at the turning point.
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignments
(1) Plot the graphs of the following equations.
(i) y = 3x + 5 for -2<x<4
(ii) y = 2x2 + 3x – 6 for -2 < x < 2
(2) Using graphical method, find the solution of the following simultaneous equations.
2x – y = 4 and 3x – 2y = 6
for - 3 < x < 6
(3) Solve graphically, the pair of equations.
y = 2 + 3x - x2 and y = 3x + 2
for – 4 < x < 4
hence find the solution of the equation
4 – x2 = 0
(b) Draw a tangent to the curve at x = 4, and find the gradient of the tangent at that point.
7.0 Reference/Further Reading
Mathematical Association of Nigeria (2008). MAN Mathematics for Senior Secondary Schools
Books 3 (3rd ed). Ibadan: University Press Plc.
153
MODULE 2: UNIT 4
Content
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Body
3.1 Subject of Formulae
3.2 Changing Subject of Formulae
3.3 Substitution in Formulae
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
7.0 Reference/Further Readings
1.0 Introduction
In this unit, you will be exposed to the topic, change of subject of formula. The process
involved in changing the subject of a formula will be explicitly discussed. You are therefore
encouraged to read through the unit carefully and get acquainted with the facts.
2.0 Objectives
1. explain the meaning of subject of formulae
2. identify the subject of a formula
3. change the subject of a formula
4. substitute in formula to find the numerical value of a named variable
3.0 Main body
3.1 Subject of Formulae
A formula is an equation which contains two or more variables. The equation describes
the relationship between the different variables. For example, the equation
V = U + at
is a formula which represents the velocity of a moving object where
V = Final Velocity
U = Initial Velocity
154
a = acceleration
t = time taken
Also, the equation
PTR
I 
100
is the formula for simple interest
I = simple interest
P = Principle
T = Time
R = Rate
The first variable of the formula, that is, the variable which is expressed in terms of the other
variables, is called the subject of the formula. In the examples above, V and I are the subjects of
the first and second formulae respectively. In the same vain the formulae y = MC2 and 2x2 + 1 =
y have y as subject in each case.
Identify the subject in each of the following
1 2 2a  11 1 1 1
1. S  Ut  at (2) F = Ma (3) y (4)  
2 2 S v u
3.2 Changing Subject of Formulae
In a formula there are many variables. the variable which is expected in terms of the
others is called, the subject of the formula. The subject of a formula can be changed by
rearranging the formula to express another variable in term of others. The procedure is like that
of solving equation, solving for the variable to be made the subject of the formula as solution of
the equation. For example.
V = U + at
Subtract at from both sides.
V – at = U or U = V – at
The subject of the formula V = U + at has been changed from V to U
a or t can also be made the subject of the formula. Consider the following steps.
V = U + at
155
Subtract U from both sides.
V – U = U + at - U
Simplifying, we have
V – U = at
Divide both sides by t
V U at

t t
This gives
V U V U
 a or a 
t t
Again,
V = U + at
Subtract U from both sides. It gives
V – U = at
Divide both sides by a. This gives
V U V U
 t or t 
a a
A question that is likely to be on your mind at this junction is how do I know the arithmetic
operation to carry out? How do I know when to add, subtract, divide or multiply? The guiding
rules are as follows.
The subject of a formula must stand alone on its side of the equation. Therefore, operation that
will result in removing all the other variables from that side of the formula is what must be
carried out.
(1) Make x the subject of each of the following
x 1 2
(i) n = 4ax (ii) P  (iii) y = 3x + 5 (iv) y  x a
2 3
Solution
(i) n = 4ax
Divide both sides by 4a
156
n 4ax

4a 4a
n n
 x or x 
4a 4a
x
(ii) P
2
Multiply both sides by 2
x
Px2 x2
2
2P = x or x = 2P
(iii) y = 3x + 5
Subtract 5 from both sides
y – 5 = 3x + 5 – 5
y – 5 = 3x
y  5 3x

3 3
y 5 y 5
 x or x 
3 3
1 2
(iv) y  x a
3
1 2
3x y  x a x3
3
3y = x2a
Divide both sides by a
3y x2a

a a
3y
 x2
a
Take the square roof of both sides
3y
 x2
a
157
3y 3y
 x or x 
a a
 qb 2
2. Give that P – q =  q 
 a 
Make a the subject of the formula.
Solution
 qb 2
P–q=  q 
 a 
Square both sides
 qb 
P  q 2    q 2  2
 a 
P  q 2  qb  q 2
a
Multiply through by a
aP  q   qb  q 2
2
Collect like terms.

aP  q   qb2  aq 2
2
Factorise the left hand side


a P  q   q 2  qb
2

Divide both sides by the coefficient of a
qb
a
P  q 2  q 2
qb
a
P  2 pq  q 2  q 2
2
qb
a
P  2 pq
2
qb
a
P P  2 pq 
158
PRT
(1) Make R the subject of the formula I 
100
1
(2) Given that y = Mx. Make M the subject of the formula.
2
3.3 Substitution in Formula
It is important for you to be able to find the numerical value of a variable in a formula
when the values of the other variables are given. The process is called substitution. It involves
replacing the variables with the values given, then simplifying to get the numerical value of the
variable whose value was not given. Consider the following examples.
(1) Given that S = 5t + 3t2. Find S when t = 2, 4 and 6.
Solution
S = 5t + 3t2
When t = 2
S = 5(2) + 3(2)2
S = 10 + 3(4)
S = 10 + 12
S = 22
When t = 4
S = 5(4) + 3(4)2
S = 20 + 3(16)
S = 20 + 48
S = 68
When t = 6
S = 5(6) + 3(6)2
S = 30 + 3(36)
S = 20 + 108
S = 138
(2) Given that V = 9x + 5. Make a table of values of y when x = 2, -1, 0, 1, 2,3,4.
159
Solution
y = 9x + 5
When x = -2
y = 9(-2) + 5 = -18 + 5 = -13
When x = -1
y = =9(-1) + 5 = 9 + 5 = -4
When x = 0
y = 9(0) + 5 = 0 + 5 = 5
When x = 1
y = 9(1) + 5 = 9 + 5 = 14
When x = 2
y = 9(2) + 5 = 18 + 5 = 23
When x = 3
y = 9(3) + 5 = 27 + 5 = 32
When x = 4
y = 9(4) + 5 = 36 + 5 = 41
These values can be presented in a table as shown below.
x -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
y -13 -4 5 14 23 32 41
(3) Given that A = 5 + r2. Find the value of r when A = 30

Solution
A = 5 + r2
When A = 30
30 = 5 + r2
30 – 5 = r2
25 = r2
Take the square root of both sides.
25  r 2
5 = r or r = 5
160
4. Given that S = t  4, find the value of t when S = 2
Solution
Z= t 4
When S = 2
S= t 4
Square both sides
22 =  t 4 
4=t–4
4+4=t
8=t
1. Given that y = 4x2 + 1, find the value of y when x = 3 and the value of x when y = 195.
2. If 2S2 = 50t find the value of S when t = 1
4.0 Conclusion
This unit discussed change of subject of formulae. The meaning of subject of formulae as
well procedure of changing the subject of a formula and substituting in a formula were
explained.
5.0 Summary
The main points in this unit are summarized below.
1. A formula is an equation which contains two or more variables.
2. A formula describes the relationship between variables.
3. The subject of a formula is the variable that stands alone being expressed in terms of
other variables.
4. The subject of a formula can be change by rearranging the formula.
5. The process of changing the subject of a formula is the same as solving for an unknown
in an equation.
6. The process of finding the numerical value of a variable in a formula, when the values of
the other variables are given is called substitution.
161
1. Identify the subject of the formula is each of the following.
(a) 2x + 6 = y (b) F(x) = 3x3 + 2x – 5x – 3
2. In each of the following, make x the subject of the formula.
(a) 5x2 + 4y – 3 = 0 (b) 5x + 5y + 10 = -5
1
3. Given that A = h(x + y). Express y in terms of A, h and x
3
4. Find the value of the following when y = -4
(a) 2y (b) 3y2 (c) y – 4 (d) 32  y

Galadima, I. (2004). Teaching Secondary School Algebraic World Problem: A Heuristic
Approach. Lagos: Biga Educational Services.
Channon, J.B. et al (2002). New General Mathematics for Senior Secondary Schools. United
Kingdom: London Group (FE) Ltd.
162
MODULE 2: UNIT 5
Content
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Body
3.1 Inequalities in one variable
3.2 Combined inequalities
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 Introduction
This unit is designed to given an understanding of the topic linear inequalities. The form
of linear inequalities is similar to that of linear equations except that instead of the symbol =
(equality) in linear equations, some other symbols are used in linear inequalities. These symbols
and their meanings includes the following:
> is greater than
< is less than
> is greater than or equal to
< is less than or equal to
 is not equal to
Consider a class in a school having x number of students. If x is equal to 50, then, it can be
expressed as x = 50.
This is an equation. But if there are less than 50 students in the class, then, x < 50. This is an
inequality. The procedure for solving inequality is the same as that for solving linear equations
except that when an inequality is divided or multiplied by a negative number, the inequality sign
is reversed.
2.0 Objectives
At the end of this unit, you should be able to;
163
1. Solve inequalities in one variable
2. Solve combined inequalities
3.0 Main Body
3.1 Inequalities in one Variable
Inequality is said to be in one variable if there is only one unknown in the inequality.
That, is there is only one variable to be solved for.
Solve the following inequalities
(1) 5 – 2y < y – 4 (2) 3n + 3 > 9
Solution
1. 5 – 2y < y - 4
Collect like terms
5 + 4 <y + 2y
9 < 3y
Divided both sides by 3
3 < y or y > 3
2. 3n + 3 > 9
Collect like terms
3n > 9 – 3
3n > 6
Divide both side by 3.
n>2
The answer of an inequality can be represented on a number line. Consider the following
examples.
3. 3x – 8 < 5x
Collect like terms
3x – 5x < 8
-2x < 8
Divide both sides by – 2
x > -4
164
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 2 3
The shaded circle () implies that the value – 4 is included in the range of values of x
5 x 1 1  2 x
4.   8 x
3 5
Simplify the left hand side
55 x 1  31  2 x 
 8 x
15
25 x  5  3  6 x
8  x
15
31x  8
8 x
15
31x – 8 < 120 + 15x
Collect like terms
31x – 15x < 120 + 8
16 x < 128
128
x
16
x<8
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
The unshared circle (0) implies that the value 8 in not included in the range of values of x.
Solve the following in equalities
(1) y > 3 – 7y (2) -2(y-3) > - 3(y+2)
165
3.2 Combined Inequalities
It is also possible to solve a pair of inequalities simultaneously. Consider the following
examples.
(1) Solve simultaneously the inequalities.
3 + x < 5 and 8 + x > 5
Solution
3+x<5 and 8+x>5
Collect like terms Collect like terms
x<5–3 x>5–8
x<2 x>-3
Combining the results, we have
-3 < x < 2
This answer can be represented on a number line as follows.
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
2. What is the range of values of y for which 2y – 1> 3 and y – 3 < 5 are simultaneously
true?
Solution
2y – 1 > 3 and y–3<5
Collect like terms Collect like terms
2y > 3 + 1 y<5+3
2y > 4 y<8
4
y
2
y2
Combing the results gives
2<y<8
This solution can also be represented on a number line as follows.
166
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

1. Draw number line to show the following.
(a) 0<x<5 (b) -3<n<2
2. If 4x – 7 < 3x and 3x < 5x 8, for what range of values of x are both inequalities
simultaneously true?
4.0 Conclusion
This unit considered inequalities in one variable. The meaning of inequality and the
symbols involved in inequalities were explained. The unit also considered solution of linear
inequalities in one variable as well as solution of combined inequalities.
5.0 Summary
The following are the main points in the unit.
1. > means, is greater than
2. < means, is less than
3. > means, is greater than or equal to
4. < means, is less than or equal to
5.  means is not equal to
6. Solution of linear inequalities adopt the same procedure as solution of linear equations.
7. When an inequality is multiplied or divided by a negative number the inequality sign is
reversed.
8. To find solution of a pair of inequalities, they are solved separately and the answers are
combined.

1 Illustrate the following inequalities in a number line.
(a) x < 2 (b) x < 5 (c) x < -4 (d) x > 2 (e) -2 < x < 5 (f) 0 < x < 4
(g) 0 < x < (h) -3 < x < 3
167
2. If y is positive, for what range of values of y is 6 + 2y < 12 true?
3. Solve simultaneously
6n < 27 – 3n and n – 8 < 3n
4. Given that m is an integer, find the three highest value of m in each case
(a) 2m + 5 < 16 (b) 10 – 3m > 8
5. Given that s is an integer, find the three lowest values of s in each case.
(a) 18 + s > 1 (b) 7 – s < 9s

Mame, H.F.; Kalejaiye, A.O.; Chima, Z.I.; Garba, G.U. and Ademosu, M.O. (2006). New
General Mathematics for Senior Secondary School 2. (3rd ed). Malaysia: Congman
Publishers.
168
MODULE 3: Geometrical Solids and Shapes
Unit 1: Triangles
Unit 2: Circle
Unit 3: Area and Volume of various Geometrical Solids and Shapes
Content
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objective
3.0 Main Body
3.1 Triangles
3.2 Properties of Triangle
3.3 Conditions for Congruency
3.4 Similar Triangles
3.5 The Mid-Point and Intercept Theorem
3.6 Pythagoras’s Theorem
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 Introduction
A triangle is a three sided plane shape with three angles. They are of various types. It can
be identify by the size of the lines and their angles.
2.0 Objectives
1. Identify by name the various typed of triangles
2. Identify the general properties of triangles and specific properties of each type.
3. Solve problems on any basic type of triangles.
4. Know some of the theorems of triangles.
3.0 Main Body
3.1 Triangles
Definition: A triangle is a plane shape, bounded by three straight lines.
169
Types
(1) Scalene triangle
(2) Isosceles triangle
(3) Equilateral triangle
(4) An acute-angled triangle
(5) A right-angled triangle
(6) An isosceles right angled triangle
(1) Scale Triangle: This is a triangle in which no sides are equal and angles are also equal.
C
A B
Scalene Triangle
(2) Isosceles Triangle: This is a triangle in which two of the three sides are equal. The two
angles facing the equal sides (i.e. angels at the base) are also equal.
/PQ/=/QR/ & < RPQ = <PQR R
P Q
PQ is called the base of isosceles triangle RPQ

(3) Equilateral Triangle: In this type of triangle all three side are equal and the three angels
are also equal (i.e 600).
/AB/=/BC/=/CA/
<ABC = <BCA = <CAB = 600 A
B C
170
4. An acute-angled Triangle: In this triangle the three angles are acute angles (all three are
angles less than 900).
X
600
720 520
Y Z
5. A right-angle Triangle: This is a triangle in which one of the angles is a right-angle (i.e
900).
<UVW = 900
U
V W
Right-angled triangle
6. An Isosceles Right-angled Triangle: This is a triangle in which the two sides that
contain the right-angle are equal. Since the two sides are equal, the two angle are also
equal. A
C
B
Isosceles Right-angle triangle
171
3.2 Properties of Triangle
Theorem 1: The exteriors angle of a triangle is equal to the sum of two interior opposite angle.
Given: ABC
Prove: that <ABC + <BAC = <ACD
A
B C
Construction: Through point C draw a line parallel to line AB (or AB) produce line BC to point
D.
A
a F
a1
b c
b1
B D
C
Proof: From the above diagram
a = a1 (alternative angles AB//CF)
b = b1 (corresponding angles AB//CF)
 a + b = a1 + b1
<ACD = <ABC + <BAC
Theorem 2
The sum of the angles of a triangle is two right angles i.e. 1800
Proof. Using the above diagram and from the proof above.
We have shown that  a + b = a1 + b1 + c. Let us add angle c to both side
We have a + b + c = a1 + b1 + c.
But a1 + b1 + c are adjacent angles on a straight line. (Angles on straight is 1800)
 a1 + b1 + c 1800
 a + b = c = 1800
Hence the sum of angles of ABC = 2 right angles.
172
Examples
In the diagram below find < x given /AB/=/AC/, BC//DE & <ADE = 680
x
B
C
D E
Solution
Given /AB = /AC/
BC/DE and < ADE = 680
<ADE = < ABC = 680 (corresponding angles since BC//DE)
Since /AB/ = /AC/, which means <ABC = <ACB = 680 (base angles of an isosceles triangle)
<ABC + x = 1800 (adjacent angles on a straight line)
x = 1800 - < ACB
x = 1800 – 680 = 1120
3.3 Conditions for Congruency
Two triangles are congruent if they are equal in all respect in terms of sides, angles and
area.
(1) Two triangles are congruent if each of their corresponding sides are equal. (i.e if the three
are sides equal an abbreviation for reference is SSS).
A Z Y
B C
X
/AB/=/XZ/,/BC/=/YZ/ and /AC/=/YX/
173
So ABC = XYZ (SSS).
(2) There is said to be congruent in two triangles, if two sides and the included angle of one
triangle are equal to the corresponding two side and the included angle of the other
(abbreviation for reference is SAS).
P
V W


Q R U
/PQ/=/UV/, /QR/=/VW/
<PQR=<UVW and PQR=UVW(SAS)
3. Two triangles are said to be congruent if two angels and one side of one triangle are equal
to the corresponding angles and one side of the other triangle (abbreviation for reference
is ASA)
A
Q P
q x
y
x
B C O
/BC/=/PQ/, <ABC = <OPQ and <BCA = <PQO

 <ABC = OPQ (AAS)
4. Two triangles are said to be congruent if the two triangles are right-angled such that, the
hypotenuse and one side of the triangle are equal to the hypotenuse and corresponding
side of the other triangle (abbreviation for reference is RHS).
X
A C
Y Z B
174
/XY/=/AB/, /XZ/=/AC/, and <XYZ = <ABC = 900
 XYZ = ABC (RHS)
3.4 Similar Triangles
(i) Definition
Two triangles are said to be equiangular to each other, if the angles of one triangle, taken
in other, are respectively equal to the angles of the other in the same order.
1. Two triangle are said to be similar if they are equiangular to one another.
A P
B C Q R
<A = <P, <B = <Q, <C = <R

ABC and PQR are similar.
2. If two triangles are equiangular then their corresponding sides are proportional.
3. If two triangles are equiangular then they are similar and hence their corresponding sides
are proportional (from the above diagram).
Hence ABC, & PQR are similar implies that
AB BC AC AB PQ
  or 
PQ QR PR BC QR
Examples
P
1
X
Z
Q R
Y
175
From the above diagram X, Y, Z are points on the sides of PQR such that /QX/ = /RY/ & /RZ/
= /QY/, If /PQ/=/PR/, prove that
(i) /XY/ = /YZ/
(ii) Angle XYZ = Angle XQY or <XYZ = <XQY
Solution
Proof: From the figure above.
In s XQY and YRZ /XQ/=/YR/ (given)
<XQY = <YR Z (base of isosceles)
XQY = YRZ (SAS)
(i) Hence /XY/ = /Y Z)
(ii) <XQY = 1800 – (<QXY+ <XYQ) (Sum of angles in a ) and
<XYZ = 1800 – (<XYQ+ <ZYR) (Sum of angles on a straight line)
Since <QYX = <ZYR = <XYZ is common
 <XYZ = <XQY
A A
2.
V 9cm
X y y
6cm 6cm
7cm 7cm
B C B C
Find the value of V in the above diagram

Solution
Consider AXY and ABC, <AXY = <ABC (corr. agnles XY//BC)
<AYX = <ACB (Corr. angles XY//BC, <A is common).
s ABC, AXY are similar and hence
AX AY
 AX  V , , / AB /  V  6CM
AB AC ,
176
/AY/ = 9cm and /AC/ = 9cm + 7cm = 16cm
V 9cm
Hence  16V  9V  54
V  6cm 16cm
 16V – 9v = 54
7V = 54
54
 7.714
V= 7
 7.7cm
3. In the figure below
/AD/ = 4cm, /DE/ = 6cm and /AC/ = 8cm find /BC/
A
600
D
8cm
4cm
6cm
600
B C
E
Solution
In ABC and EDB
<BAC = <BED (given 600)
<CBA = <EBD (same angle)
<EDB = <ABE (sum of angles of a )
EDB is similar to ABC
/ EB / / BD / / DE /
  
/ AB / / BC / / CA /
Substituting the given value
/ EB / 4 6
  
AB / / BC / 8
4 6 / BC / 8
  or  
/ BC / 8 4 6
4 x 8 32 3 1
/ BC /   5  5 cm
6 6 6 3
177
3.5 The Mid-Point and Intercept Theorem
1. The Mid-Point Theorem
The line joining the mid-points of two sides of a triangles is parallel to the third side and
equal to half of it.
A
M
N
B C
/ BC /
If M, N are the mid-points of AB and AC respectively. Than (i) /MN/ //
2
/MN/ /BC/
(ii) MN/BC
3.6 Pythagoras’ Theorem
It says that the square of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the square of the other two
sides in a right-angled triangle. [The hypotenuse in the use side facing the right-angle (900)].
hypotenuse (h)
Opposite
(O)
B adject (a) C
(Hypotenuse)2 = (opposite)2 + (adject)2

(AC)2 = (AB)2 + (BC)2 i.e h2 = O2 + a2
Applications of the Pythagoras Theorem
The Pythagoras, rule can help to solve many problem such as calculating lengths when
two sides of a right angled triangle are known.
178
Examples
(1) Find the length of AC in the figure below
A
6cm
B C
8cm
By Pythagoras rule
AC2 = AB2 + BC2
AC2 = 62 + 8
= 36 + 64 = 100
AC  100  10cm
(2) Find the value of x is the figure below.
x
5cm
900
4cm
2 2 2
5 =x +4
25 = x2 + 16
25 – 16 = x2
9 = x2
x= 9 3
Calculate the value of x in the quadrilateral ABCD.
A 4cm
X B
X
2cm 3cm
C
D
179 X
Draw the diagonal AC in ABC, since <ABC = 900 & <ADC = 900
First calculate AC and then CD.
AC2 = AB2 + BC2 (by Pythagoras’ theorem)
AC2 = 42 + 32
= 16 + 9 = 25
AC = 25  5
AC2 = AD2 + CD2
52= 22 + y2
25 = 4 + y2
y2 = 25 -4
y2 = 21
y 21
 4.58cm
4.0 Conclusion
The unit considered triangle and its properties. Three theorems were also discussed.
5.0 Summary
 Triangles and its various types
 Condition for congruency and similarity
 Mid-point, intercept and Pythagoras’s theorems and their application
(1) What is the value of the angle marked x in the figure below.
250
+0
300
180
(2) Isosceles triangles ABC & ABC are drawn opposite sides of a common base AB if <ABC
= 822 and <ADB = 1800, calculate <ACB & <CBD. See the diagram below.
820
A B
1080
(3) A wire 16cm long goes from top to a 8 metre pole to a point on a vertical wall 20m above
the ground. What is the angle between the wire and the wall? (assume that the wire is
stretched tight).
(4) Calculate the length of hypothesis of the figure below:
A
10cm
B 8cm C
(5) Find the length x, y, w, p, in the diagrams below

A
6 7
8
D E
4 y
B x C
181
8
(b)
4 6
P
9
Mame, H.F.; Kalejaiye, A.O.; Chima, Z.I.; Garba, G.U. and Ademosu, M.O. (2006). New
General Mathematics for Senior Secondary School 2. (3rd ed). Malaysia: Congman
Publishers.
182
MODULE 3: UNIT 2
Unit 2: Circles
Content
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Body
3.1 Definition of Circle
3.1.1 Theorem 1
3.1.2 Theorem 2
3.1.3 Theorem 3
3.2 Angle Properties of Circles
3.2.1 Theorem 1
3.2.2 Theorem 2
3.2.3 Theorem 3
3.3 Tangent Properties
3.3.1 Theorem 1
3.3.2 Theorem 2
3.4 Cyclic Quadrilaterals
3.4.1 Theorem 1
3.4.2 Theorem 2
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 Introduction
A circle is a plane shape (figure) which is bounded by a closed curve which is called the
circumference of the circle. The distance from the centre of the circle to any point on the
circumference is equal.
2.0 Objective
183
(i) identify and define the various parts of a circle as a plane shape
(ii) identify the chord properties and angle properties of a circle
(iii) identify the properties of a cyclic quadrilateral
(iv) state properties of tangent to the circle and angle to alternative segments of a circle.
(v) solve any problem involving properties of circle
3.0 Main Body
3.1 Definition of Circle
A circle is a plane figure bounded by a closed curve. From the centre every point on the
circumference of a circle is equidistance. It has a radius which is a straight line drawn from the
centre of the circle to any point on the circumference. A chord of a circle is a straight line joining
any two points on the circumference. A diameter of a circle is a chord which passes through the
centre of the circle. The diameter (d) is twice the radius (r) of a circle i.e d = 2r.
3.1.1 Theorem 1
A line jointing the centre of a circle to the mid-point of a chord is perpendicular to the
chord.
A B
N
AB is a chord. The line ON joins the centre of circle to the mid-point of chord. AB line ON is
said to be perpendicular to chord AB and angles ONA and ONB are 900 each.
3.1.2 Theorem 2
Equal chords are equidistance from the centre. In the figure below, if /AB/ = /CD/ then
/OM/=/ON?
A O
N
M
D
B
184
3.1.3 Theorem 3
Equal chords stand on equal arcs i.e from the figure above, if chord AB = chord CD then
arc AB = arc CD.
Examples
1. A chord of a circle is 18cm long. The radius of the circle is 15cm. Calculate the distance
of the mid-point of the chord from the centre of the circle.
O
15cm
A B
9cm C 9cm
From the figure O is the centre of circle /AB/= 18cm, /AO/ = 15cm = radius.
C is the mid-point of AB.
 /AC/=/CB/ = 9cm i.e. /AB/=/AC/ + /CB/.
In ACO,
/AO/2 = /AC/2/ + /CO/2 (Pythagoras rule)
/CO/2 = 225 – 81 =144
/CO/ = 144  12
2. Find the length of a chord of a circle of radius 36cm if chord is 12cm from the centre of
the circle.
Solution
O
12cm
36cm
N
185
From the diagram /AO/ = 36cm, /ON/ = 12cm
/AO/2= /AN/2 + /NO/2
362 = /AN/2 + 122
/AN/2 = 362 – 122
/AN/2 = 1296 – 144
AN = 1152  33.94cm
The length of chord AB = 2 x AN
= 2 x 33.94
= 67.88cm
= 68cm
3.2 Angle Properties of Circles
3.2.1 Theorem 1: The angle which an arc of a circle subtends at the centre of the circle is
double that which it subtend at any point on the circumference.
A
a2 b2
O
b1
a1
2a 2b
B C
A circle <ABC with centre O.

<BOC = <2BAC
3.2.2 Theorem: Angles in the same segment of a circle are equal. (Angles subtends by the
same chord or arch at the circumference are equal).
A D
x1 x2
b2 b1
1
O C
B
186
A and D are any points on the major of circle ABCD.
BAC = BDC i.e x1 = x2
3.2.3 Theorem 3: The angle in a semicircle is a right angle.
B
A O
<AOB = 2 <AXB (angles at centre = 2X angle at circumference)

AôB = 1800 (angle on a straight line)
 2 AXˆB  180 0
180 0
AXˆB   90 0
2
Examples
Find the lettered angle in the diagrams below. O is the centre of each circle.
a.
A
480
O
<BOC = 2BAC
B P
0
C
<P = 2 x 48
 P = 960
b. P
1240
O x
Q
R
P Ô R = 2P Q̂ R
187
1240 = 2 < x
124 0
x  62 0
2
 x  62 0 Y
c. a
O
X b
Z
1190
 O = 2 X Ŵ Z
 O = 2 x 1190
 O = 2380
 b +  O = 3600 (angles at a point)
 b = 3600 – 2380 ie 360o -  0
 b = 1220
1220 = 2  a
122
a =  610
2
 a = 610
2. In the figure below ABC are points on a circle O. ÔB C = 380, what is the size of
 BAC.
B 380
C
/BO/ = /OC/ = radius (equal)

IF ÔB C = 380  O Ĉ B = O B̂ C = 380 (sum of  s in a )
188
 BOC = 1800 - 2 x 38 0 
= 1800 – 760 = 1040
BOC = 2B Â C
104 = 2B Â C
104 0
 BAC =  52 0
2
3. Find the lettered angles in the figures below, with the centre O.
1300
r
O
x w
Solution
a.  r + 1300 = 1800 (angles on a straight line)
 r = 1800 – 1300 = 500
 w = 2 x 500 = 1000 (ie <w=<r)
 w = 1000
 x -  y +  w = 1800 (sum of angles in )
 x =  y (base angles of isosceles )
 2  x = 1800 -  w, 2  x = 1800 – 1000, 2  x = 80
80 0
 40 0
 x= 2
x = 400 i.e  x =  y = 400
189
3.3 Tangent Properties
3.3.1 Theorem 1: The tangent at any point of a circle is perpendicular to the radius.
B
A O
If /AB/ and /AC/ are tangents to the circle and touch the circle at B and C then O B̂ A = O Ĉ A =
900.
3.3.2 Theorem 2: If two tangents AB and AC are drawn to touch the circle at B and C
respectively from a point A outside the circle (see figure above) then
(i) /AB/ = /AC/, (ii) B Â O = C Â O, (iii) A Ô B = A Ô C

3.4 Cycle Quadrilaterals
3.4.1 Theorem 1: The opposite angles of a cyclic quadrilateral are supplementary.
B
2y
A O
C
2x
y
2x + 2y = 3600 (angles at a point) D
2A B̂ C = A ÔC = 2y
A B̂ C + ADˆ C = 1800
 x + y = 1800
190
3.4.2 Theorem 2: The exterior angle of a cyclic quadrilateral is equal to the interior opposite
angle.
X Y
a1
a V
b a2
W V
Z
(angles on a straight line)
b + a1 = 1800 (opp. Angles of cycle guard).
b + a2 = 1800 (angle on a straight line)

W XˆY  Y Ẑ V  a1 = a2 180 0  b 
Examples
1. Find the marked angles in the figures below. Where O is the centre of the circle.
a B
a 560
A
O
From theorem 3.3.2: A B̂ C = 900

 a +  ABC + 560 = 1800 (sum of  s in a )
 a = 1800 -  90 0  56 0 
a = 340
191
B
620 850 x
A E
D
From theorem 3.4.2

 BAD  DAC = 620
 CDE = 1800 – 850 = 950 (  s on a straight line)
620 + 950 + x0 = 1800 (sum of  s in a )
x0 = 1800 – 1570 = 230
1. In the figures below find the values of the marked angels.
1500
x
y
0
45
2. AD, BE, & CF are straight line intersecting at O find the marked angles.
C E
y
x w
A D
400 500
u
B
F
192
3. In the figure below O is the centre of the circle, QR is a tangent to the circle. Calculate
the angle y.
O
400
Q y
R
6. Solve for a, b, & c below.
b 850
a c
1060
4.0 Conclusion
The unit considered circle and its properties. Some theorem were also considered.
5.0 Summary
The highlight of the unit includes the following.
 Some circle theorem
 The angle properties
 The Tangent properties
 Cyclic Quadrilaterals

(1) An isosceles triangle of side 13cm, and 10cm is inscribed is a circle. What is the radius of
the circle?
2. Find the lettered angles is the figure below. Where a point O is the centre of the circle.
193
y
1200
3. Calculate the value of x in the figure below.
3x0
800
A
x0
D E
4. Find the values of angles a, b, & c.
b
A
c
1200
5. Solve for the marked angles
O
A C
u 600
v
194
7.0 References/Tutor Reading
Galadima, I (2004): Teaching Secondary School Algebraic World Problem: A Heuristic,

Approach. Lagos: Biga educational serviced.
195
MODULE 3: UNIT 3
UNIT 3: Area and Volume of Various Geometrical Solids and SHAPES
Content
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Body
3.1 Formula for Area of Plane Shapes
3.2 Formula for Solid Shapes
3.3 Area of Plane and Solid Shapes
3.4 Volume of Plane and Solid Shapes
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
7.0 Reference/Further Reading
1.0 Introduction
Plane shapes are flat surface which extends to all directions without end. Any figure
drawn on a plane is called a plane figure (shape).
These are shapes like rectangle, square, triangle parallelogram, trapezium and circle.
Solid shape are those shape in solid form. Such as cube, cuboid, prism, cylinder, cone and
spheres.
We can calculate the area of plane shapes the area as well as the volume of solid shape.
2.0 Objective
(i) calculate the surface area of various geometrical solids and plane shapes.
(ii) calculate the volumes of various geometrical solids shapes.
3.0 Main Body
The outer view of solids and plane shapes are called its surface. A face is any of the
pieces which make up a surface. Plane shape can be of various dimension regular and irregular
shapes. Some of the regular shapes are rectangle, square triangle, circle parallelogram, trapezium
while solid shapes are those that have surface as well as volume.
196
3.1 Formula for Area of Plane Shapes
Shapes Area
Rectangle sides S2
Rectangle length 1 1b
Breadth
Triangle 1
Base b, length 1 bh
2
Parallelogram 1b
Base b, length 1
Trapezium
Length 1
1
a  b h
2
Parallel line a & b
Circle 2
Radius r
Sector of circle 
radius r r 2
360
angle 
3.2 Formula for Solid Shapes
Shapes Area Volume

Cube 6S2 S3
Cuboid 2(ib + bh + 1h) 1bh
Length 1
Breadth b,
Height h
Prison - Ah
Height h
Base area A
Cylinder 2rh + 2r2 r2h
Radius r 2r(h + r)
Height 1
Cone rl + r2 1 2
r h
Radius r r(1 + r) 3
Slant height 1
Height 1
Sphere 4r2 4 3
Radius r r
3
197
3.3 Area of Plane and Solid Shapes
1. What is the area of the figure below.
13cm
B 3cm
8cm A C
4cm 3cm
Solution
Area of rectangle = length x breadth
Area of section A = 8 x 4 = 32cm2
Area of section B = 6 x 3 = 18cm2
Area of section C = 8 x 3 = 24cm2
Area of the figure = (32 + 18 + 24)cm2
= 74cm2
2. Calculate the area of the shaded portion in the figure below with diameter of the big
circle as 30cm and the small circle as 10cm.
Solution
p
r
Let the big circle diameter be D and the radius be R.

The small circle diameter is d and the radius is r.
D = 30cm  R = 15cm
d = 10cm  r = 5cm
22 15 15
Area of big circle = R 2  x x
7 1 1
= 707.14cm2
198
22 5 5
Area of small circle = r 2  x x
7 1 1
= 78.57cm2
Area of the shaded portion is
(707.14 – 78.57)cm2 = 628.57cm2+
or
Area of shaded portion
 R 2  r 2

  R2  r2 

22 2
7

15  5 2 
22
 15  515  5  22 x 20 x 10
7 7
4400
  628.57cm 2
7
3. The parallel sides of a trapezium are 10cm and 16cm. If the area of the trapezium is
98cm2. Calculate the distance between the parallel sides.
Solution 16cm
20cm
Area of trapezium = ½ (sum of //sides) x height
98 
1
20  16h
2
98 x 2  36h
196
h   5.44cm
36
4. Calculate the area of the parallelogram in the figure below.
199
A B
Solution
6cm
5cm
D
C
Solution
The height ofthe parallelogram is 6cm the base is 5cm.
Area = 6 x 5 = 30cm2
5. Find the area of a sector of a circle with radius 14cm and 1600 as angle at the centre.
Solution

Area  r 2
360
160 22 14 14
 x x x
360 7 1 1
 273.78cm 2
6. Calculate the area of the curved surface of a cylinder shown below
28cm
30cm
Solution
Given: diameter = 28cm  radius = 14cm height = 30cm
Area of curved surface (A) = 2r h
22 14 30
A  2x x x  2640cm 2
7 1 1
7. Calculate the total surface area of a solid cylinder of radius 7cm and height 20cm. Total
surface area = Area of the top + Area of base + Area of curved surface.
(i) Area of top = r2 (ii) Area of base = r2 (iii) Area of curved surface = rh2
Total surface area = 2r2 + r2 + rh
200
22 7 7
i. Area of top = r2 = x x  154cm 2
7 1 1
22 7 7
ii. Area of base = r2 = x x  154cm 2
7 1 1
22 7 20
iii. Area of curved surface = 2rh = 2 x x x  880cm 2
7 1 1
Total surface area = 154  154  880cm 2
= 1180cm2
(a) What is the length of the cylinder with curved surface area 186cm2 and diameter 14cm.
Solution
2rh = 186
22 7
i.e 2 x x x h  186
7 1
Curved surface area of cylinder = 2rh
44h = 186
186
h   4.22cm
44
10. Find the total surface area of the cone below.
28cm
Solution
Total surface of a cone = Area of base + Area of curved surface
Area of base = r2
Area of curved surface = rl.
Total surface area = r l + r2
= r (l + r)
22 25 25
Area of base = rl = x x
7 2 2
201
22 14 14
= x x  616cm 2
7 1 1
22 14 10
Area of curved surface = rl = x x
7 1 1
= 440cm2
Total surface area = (616 + 440)cm2
= 1056cm2
3.3 Volume of Plane and Solid Shapes
1. Calculate the volume of a cylinder in the figure below.
6cm
6cm
21m
Solution
D = 6cm, r = 3cm, h = 21cm
22 3 2 21
Volume = r2h = x x x  594cm 3
7 1 1 1
2. Which of the cylinder has the lower volume; a cylinder with height 15cm and diameter
8cm or a cylinder with height 8cm and diameter 15cm?
Solution
Volume of cylinder = r2h
Volume of the first cylinder = r2h
22 15
 x 4 x4 x
7 1
 745.29cm 3
Volume of the second cylinder = r2h

22 15 15 8
 x x x
7 2 2 1
 1,414.29cm 3
The cylinder with diameter 8cm has the lower volume.
202
4. Calculate the volume of the cone below.
14cm
4cm
4cm
1 2
Volume of cone = r h
3
1 22 4 4 4
 x x x x
3 7 1 1 1
 234.67cm 3
4. Calculate the volume of the figure below.
h
10cm
6cm
Solution
Height (h) is not known so we have to calculate for h first.
102 = h2 + 62
100 – 36 = h2
h2 = 64
h= 64  8
1 2
volume of cone = r h
3
1 22 6 6 8
 x x x x
3 7 1 1 1
 301.71cm 3
203
6. The upper part of the cone in the figure below is cut off from the cone. What is the
volume of the cone left.
8cm
4cm
10cm
8cm
Solution
1 2
Volume of the whole cone = r h
3
1 22
 x x 8 x8 x h
3 7
Height of full cone
18
h
8
h2 + 82 = 183
h2 = 324 – 64
h2 = 260
h= 260 16.12cm
height of the upper cone
204
h2 + 42 = 82
h2 = 64 – 16
h = 6.93cm
1 2
Volume of full cone = r h
3
1 22 8 8 16.12
 x x x x
3 7 1 1 1
 1,080.81cm 3
1 2
Volume of the upper cone r h
3
1 22 4 4 6.93
 x x x x
3 7 1 1 1
 116.161cm 3
The volume of the cone left =

(1080.81 – 116.16)cm3
= 964.65cm3
1. What is the difference between the total surface area of the three-dimensional shapes in
the figure below.
18cm
8cm
9cm
8cm
8cm
2. A cylinder point container is of height 55cm and radius 22cm. calculate the total surface
area.
205
3. A cylinder cake of height 12cm and diameter 36cm, wishes to be wrap by the cake
designer.
a. How many cm2 paper wrapper would be need to the nearest cm2.
b. If a centimeter square paper cost N1.50k, how much would be spend in buying the paper
to the nearest naira.
4. A cone has the radius of the base as 8cm and the slant height 21cm. Calculate.
a. The curved surface area.
b. The total surface area of the cone. To the nearest cm2.
5. A cone of diameter 8cm and height 6cm and a cylinder of diameter 14cm and height 6cm.
Find the difference in the total surface area.
6. A cone of base diameter 20cm and height 28cm is placed in a cylinder of the same
dimensions as in the figure below. Find the volume of space tying between the cylinder
and the cone to the nearest cm3.
28cm
20cm
4.0 Conclusion
This unit considered the area of plane and solid shapes as well as the volume of plane and
solid shapes.
5.0 Summary
The highlight of the unit includes the following
 Formula for area of plane shapes.
 Formula for area of solid shapes.
(arc and volume)
 Area of plane and shapes
 Volume of plane and solid shapes.
206
1. Find the total surface area of a cylinder whose radius is 14cm and whose height is 30cm.
14cm
30cm
2. A cylindrical water tank is closed at both ends. If the radius of the rank is 21cm and the
height is 80cm. find the total surface area of the tank.
3. Calculate the curved surface area of the object below.
6cm
18cm
18cm
10cm
4. Material is needed to cover up the roof of a church in from of a cone as in the diagram
below. If the material cost N215 per square metre, how much would be needed for the
cover to the nearest naira.
20cm
50cm

Galadima, I (2004): Teaching Secondary School Algebraic World Problem: A Heuristic,
Approach. Lagos: Biga educational serviced.
207
MODULE 4: MEASUREMENT
Unit 1: Length and Perimeter
Unit 2: Areas of Circles, Sectors and Segment of a Circle
Unit 3: Surface Area of Cube, Cuboid, Cylinder and Cone
UNIT 1: Length and Perimeter

Content
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Body
3.1 Basic Definitions
3.2 Length of Chord of a Circle
3.3 Length of an Arc of a circle
3.4 Perimeter of Segment and Sector of a circle
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 Introduction
This unit is on length and perimeter. The length of chord and arc of circles are discussed.
The perimeter of segment and sector of circles are also discussed. You are encouraged to study
the unit carefully from section to section. Make sure you understand one section before you
move to the next.
2.0 Objectives
At the end of this unit, you should be able to calculate; (i) the length of a chord of a
circles; (ii) the length of an arc of a circle; (iii) the perimeter of a segment of a circle and (iv) the
perimeter of a sector of a circle.
208
3.0 Main Body
3.1 Basic Definitions
1. Circumference: This is the line around a circle.
Circumstance
2. Chord: A line that joins any two points on the circumstance.
A B
Line AB is a chord
3. Diameter: This is a chord that passes through the centre of the circle.
S T
Line ST is a diameter
4. Radius: This is defined as half of a diameter. That is a line from any part of the
circumstance to the centre of the circle.
r is a radius
5. Arc: An arc is a part of a circumstance. A chord that is not a diameter divides that
circumstance into two arcs of different lengths. The longer arc is called the major arc
while the shorter arc is called the minor arc.
Major arc
Chord
Minor arc
209
6. Segment: This is the space bounded by an arc and a chord. A chord also divides a circle
into a major segment and a minor segment.
Major segment
Minor segment
7. Sector: A sector of a circle is the space bounded by two radial and an arc.
Sector
8. Trigonometric Ratio: In a right angled triangle, the following ratios are defined.
A
C
B
Opposite BC
Sin  
Hypothenus AC
Adjacent AB
Cos   
Hypothenus AC
210
Opposite BC
Tan   
Adjacent AB
3.2 Length of a Chord of a Circle
A chord of a circle is a line that join any two points on the circumstance of the circle.
For example
A B
AB in the figure above is a chord.

From chord properties of a circle, you will recall that:
1. A line joining the centre of a circle to the mid-point of a chord is perpendicular to the
chord, that is, the line meet the chord at angle 90 0. Conversely, the perpendicular drawn
from the centre of a circle to a chord, bisects the chord.
2. A perpendicular from the centre of chord to the centre of the circle bisect the angle
subtended by the chord at the centre of the circle.
These are illustrated in the diagram below.
x y
A B
M
AM = MB
<AOM = <BMO
and
<x = <y
Consider the following problems
1. The distance of a chord of a circle of radius 5cm, from the centre of the circle is 4cm.
Calculate the length of the chord.
Solution
State the information given in the question
211
Radius = 5cm
Distance from chord to centre = 4cm
Length of chord = ?
Represent the information in a diagram
5cm
O
5cm
4cm
A B
C
The required calculation is the length of AB which is the chord, applying Pythagoras theorem.
52 = 42 + CB2
25 = 16 + CB2
CB2 = 25 – 16
CB2 = 9
CB = 9  3cm
Recall that AC = CB
 AC = CB
i.e., AB = 3 + 3 = 6cm
The length of the chord is 6cm.
2. The radius of a circle is 12cm. A chord of the circle is 16cm long. Calculate the distance
of the chord from the centre of the circle. Give the answer to 1 decimal place.
Solution
State the information given in the question,
Radius = 12cm
Chord = 16cm
Distance of chord from centre = ?
212
Represent this information in a diagram
A
12cm
8cm B 8cm
The required calculation is AB which is the distance of the chord from of the centre the circle.
Recall that
122 = AB2 + 82
144 = AB2 + 64
AB2 = 144 – 64
AB2 = 80
AB = 80  8.94427cm
- 8.9cm to 1dp
3. A chord of length 24cm is 13cm from the centre of the circle. Calculate the radius of the
circle. Giving the answer to 2 decimal places.
Solution
State the information given length of chord = 24cm.
Distance between chord and centre = 13cm
Radius = ??
Represent the information in a diagram.
3cm
A B
12cm C 12cm
The required calculation is BD which is the radius of the circle.

Recall that;
213
BD2 = 132 + 12
BD2 = 169 + 144
BD2 = 313
BD = 313 17.6918
BD = 17.69 to 2dp
(4) A chord subtends an angle 940 at the centre of a circle of radius 4cm find the length of the
chord. Give the answer to 2 decimal places.
Solution
State the information given in the question
Angle subtend by chord at the centre = 940
radius = 4cm
length of chord = ?
represent the information is a diagram
94
 47 0
2
0
4cm
0
47
A B
C
Since the perpendicular bisects the angle subtend, the required calculation is AB which is the
length of the chord.
Recall that AB = 2CB
CB
Sin 470 =
4
CB = 4sin 470
CB = 4(0.73134)
= 2.93CM
 2CB = 2 x 2.93.
= 5.86 to 2 decimal place
214
The radius of a circle is 8cm. The length of a chord of the circle is 14cm. Calculate the distance
of the chord from the centre of circle.
3.3 Length of an arc of a Circle
O
r
 r
A
Consider the diagram above. The length of the arc AB is defined by the formula.

AB = x 2
360 0
Where r is the radius of the circle and  is the angle subtend by the arc at the centre of the circle.
The following examples will clarify the idea.
Worked Examples
(1) An arc of a circle of radius 4cm subtends an angle of 850 at the centre of the circle.
 22 
Calculate the length of the arc  take   , give the answer to 2dp.
 7 
Solution
radius = 4cm
 = 850
Length of Arc = ??
Let Length of arc be AB

AB = x 2
360 0
85 22
 x2 x x 4.
360 7
= 5.94cm
215
2. An arc of a circle of radius 7cm is 14cm long. What angle does the arc subtend at the
 22 
centre of the circle?  take   .
 7 
Solution
Radius = 7cm
22

7
Length of arc = AB = 14cm.
=?

AB = x 2r
360
Substituting into the formular.
 22
14  x2x x7
360 7
 x 2 x 22 x7
14 
360 x 7
Make  the subject of the formula
14 x 360 x7 35280
    114.5454
2 x22 x7 308
  114.55 0
An arc of radius subtends an angle of 1050 at the centre of the circle. Calculate the length
22
of the arc. Take   and give the answer to 2dp.
7
3.4 Perimeter of Segment and Sector of a Circle
3.4.1 Perimeter of a Circle
(a) Perimeter of a circle is the circumference of the circle = 2r.
(b) A segment is that part of a circle which lies on either side of a chord. The perimeter of a
  
segment = length of arc + length of chord  x 2r  2r Sin  
360 2
216
(c) Perimeter of a sector
r
θ
arc
Examples
 22 
(1) Find the perimeter of a circle of a radius 7.cm  take   
 7 
Solution
Perimeter of a circle = 2r
22
 2x x 7.0
7
 44.0cm
Solution

Length of arc  x 2r
360
Perimeter of a sector = length of arc + 2r
60 22 8.5
Length of arc  x2 x x
360 7 1
1 44 8.5
 x x  8.90cm
6 7 1
Perimeter of the sector = 8.90 + 2 (8,5)
= 8.9 + 17 = 25.9cm
(1) Calculate the length of a chord that is 6cm from the centre of the circle and circle is of
radius 4cm.
(2) Calculate the length of the arc of a circle of radius 6.5cm and subtend the angle of 600 at
the centre of the circle. Also calculate the perimeter of the arc.
217
4.0 Conclusion
This unit discussed basic definitions in respect to circle, length of chord and arc of a
circle and the perimeter of segment and sector of a circle and the perimeter of segment and sector
of a circle.
5.0 Summary
In this unit, you have learnt the following:
 The length of chord and an arc of a circle.
 The perimeter of segment and sector of a circle.
 22 
 take   
 7 
(1) A chord subtends an angle of 960 at the centre of a circle of radius 6cm. Find the length
of the chord.
(2) An arc of a circle of radius 9cm is 18cm long. What angle does the arc subtend at the
centre of the circle.
(3) The angle of a sector of a circle is 1000, if the radius of the circle is 3.5cm, find the
perimeter of the sector.
(4) A rope of length 20m is used to form a sector of a circle of radius 7.5cm on a school
playing field. Find the perimeter.

218
MODULE 4: UNIT 2
Unit 2: Areas of Circles, Sector and Segments of a Circle
Content
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Body
3.1 Area of a Circle
3.2 Area of a Sector of a Circle
3.3 Area of a Segment of a Circle
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 Introduction
A circle can be defined as a plane shape bounded by a closed curve called the
circumstance. In module 3, unit 1, the definition of sector and segment of a circle were given. In
this unit, you will be exposed to how to calculate area of a circle as well as areas of sectors and
segments of a circle. It is important that you study the unit carefully.
2.0 Objectives
At the end of this unit, you should be able to calculate.
i. area of a circle
ii. area of a sector
iii. area of a segment
3.0 Main Body
3.1 Area of a Circle
The area of a circle is given by the formula r2, where r is the radius of the circle and  is
a constant.
219
r
Area = r2
22
1. Use the value for  to find the area of a circle of radius.
7
(a) 4.5cm (b) 70cm
Solution
(a) Area of a Circle = r2
22
= , r = 4.5
7
22
Area of circle = x (4.5)2
7
22
= x 20.25
7
= 63.64cm2
(b) Area of Circle = 2
22
 = , r = 70
7
22
Area of Circle = x (70)2
7
22
= x 4900
7
= 15.400m2
22
2. The area of a circle is given as 3850m2 if  is a given as , calculate the radius of the
7
circle.
Solution
Area of circle = r2
Area = 3850
22
 =
7
r=?
220
22
3850 = x r2
7
22 x r 2
3850 =
7
7 x 3850 = 22 x r2
26,950 = 22r2
26950
r2 =
22
r2 = 1,225
r = 1,225
r = 35M
(3) Use the value 3.14 for  to find the area of a circle of radius
(a) 6cm (b) 14cm
Solution
(a) Area of circle = r2
 = 3.14
r=6
 Area = 3.14 x 62
= 3.14 x 6 x 6
= 113.04cm2
(b) Area of circle = r2
 = 3.14
r = 14m
 Area = 3.14 x 142
= 3.14 x 14 x 14
= 615.44m2
22
The radius of a circle is 6cm. Calculating the area of the circle if (a)  is (b)  is 3.14.
7
221
3.2 Area of a Sector of a Circle
As defined earlier, a sector is the space bounded by an arc and two radia. Area of a sector
is given by the formula.

x r 2 where r is the radius of the circle and  is the angle between the two radius.
360
r r
x
x
Area of the minor sector x r 2
360
y 360  x
Area of the major sector x r 2 or x r 2
360 360
1. An arc AB subtends an angle of 600 at the cenre O of a circle of radius 4cm. calculate (a)
 22 
the area of the minor sector (b) the area of the major sector.  take   
 7 
Solution
4cm 4cm
600

(a) Area of minor sector x r 2
360
60 22
x x 4x4
360 7
60 x 22 x 4 x 4 21,120

360 x 7 2,520
= 8.38cm2
222
Area of minor sector is equal to 8.38cm2
<y = 3600 – 600 = 3000
22

7
360  
b. Area of the major sector x r 2
360
800 22
Area = x x4 x4
360 7
300 x 22 x 4 x 4 105600
  41.90cm 2
360 x 7 2520
Area of major sector is equal to 41.90cm2
2. The angle of a sector of a circle is 2950. Calculate the radius if the area of the sector is
35.2cm2.
Solution
 = 2950
Area = 35.2cm2
r=?

Area of sector  x r 2
360
295 22 2
i.e, 35.2 = x xr
360 7
6490r 2
35.2 =  2.575P 2
2.520
35.2
r2 =
2.575
r2 = 13.67
r = 13.67
r = 3.7cm
3. The length of arc bounding a sector of a circle of radius 3cm, is 7cm, calculate the area of
the sector.
223
Solution
0
r = 3cm

A
B
Arc AB = 7cm, radius = 3cm

First find angle .

Arc AB = x 2 r
360
 22 3
7 x2 x x
360 7 1
132 132
7 
7 x 360 2520
7 x 2520
 
132
 = 133.640

Area of sector = r 2
360
133.64 22
Area = x x 32
360 7
= 10.5cm2
3.3 Area of a Segment of a Circle
The segment of a circle is the space bounded by an arc and a chord.
B
A
C
Area if segment
ABC is given by: (Area of sector OACB) – (Area of Triangle OAB)
224
Examples
(1) Find the are of the shaded segment of the circles below
(a) 7cm (b) 7cm
7cm 7cm
7cm
(c) 7cm
(a)
Solution

Area of Sector = x r 2
360
 22 7 7
 x x x
360 7 1 1
1386

360
= 38.5m2
Area of square = Length x breath
=7x7
= 49cm2
Area of shaded portion = (49 – 38.5cm2)
= 10.5cm2
225
(b)

Area of sector = x r 2
360
90 22 7 7
 x x x
360 7 1 1
97020

2520
Area of triangle = ½ base x Length
1 7 7
 x x
2 1 1
= 24.5cm2
Area of shaded portion = (38.5 – 24.5)
= 14cm2
(c)

Area of sector = x r 2
360
90 22 7 7
 x x x
360 7 1 1
 38.5cm 2
Area of triangle = ½ bh
1
 x 7 x 7  24.5cm 2
2
Area of shaded portion = (38.5 – 24.5)cm2
= 14cm2
For the two sides mean
14cm2 x 2 = 28cm2
(1) Find the area in terms of  and v, of the shaded portion of the semi-circular shape in the
diagram below.
600
600 600
226
4.0 Conclusion
This unit discussed the area of circle. The area of sector of a circle and the segment of a
circle.
5.0 Summary
The following are the main points in this unit.
 Area of a circle = r2

 Area of a sector of a circle = x r 2 were  is the angle of the sector & r is
360
radius.
 Area of a segment of a circle. = (Area of sector) – (area of triangle).
(1) In the figure below, O is the centre of the circle of radius 2.3cm. If <BAC = 320 calculate
to 2d.p the area of the (i) minor sector (ii) shaded part.
2.3cm O
A 520
B
(2) In the figure below, O is the centre of the circle of radius 4.5cm, <AOB = 600 calculate
 22 
the area of the (i) minor sector (ii) major sector  Take   
 7 
0
4.5cm
o
60
B
A
227
(3) In the diagram below POQ is a sector of the circle centre O. MNO is an equilateral
triangle of area 8cm2. If the radius of the circle is 3cm, calculate the shaded portion of the
 22 
triangle  Take   
 7 
P Q
M N

228
MODULE 4: UNIT 3
Unit 3: Surface Area of Cube, Cubiod, Cylinder and Cone
Content
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Body
3.1 Surface Area of Cube
3.2 Surface Area of Cuboids
3.3 Surface Area of Cylinder
3.4 Surface Area of Cone
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 Introduction
From previous works, you have learnt how to find the area of some solid shapes. In this
unit, you are going to learn how to find the surface area of cube, cuboid, cylinder and cone.
Surface area is the total area of the solid. The formula for the various solid shapes are as follows.
(1) Surface area of a cube is 6l2cm2 where 1 is length of one side
(2) Surface area of cuboids is 2(1h+1h+bh) where 1 is length, b is breadth and h is height of
the cuboid .
(3) Surface area of cylinder is 2rh
Where r is radius, he is height
(4) Surface Area of cone is (curved surfaced area of closed end) i.e r (1+r).
2.0 Objectives
At the end of this unit you should be able to:
(1) State the expression for the surface area of (i) cube (2) cuboid (3) cylinder (4) cone
(2) Use the expression to solve problems.
229
3.0 Main Body
3.1 Surface Area of Cube
If a side of the cube is lcm, then area of each surface area of the cube (S) = 6 x 12cm2
S = 612cm2
(since a cube has six faces)
Examples
l = 8cm
S = 6 x 12 = 6 x 82 = 6 x 64 = 384cm2
(2) What is the total surface area of a cube of side 5cm?
Solution
1 = 5cm
Surface area = 6 x 12
= 6 x 52
= 6 x 25 = 150cm2
3.2 Surface Area of Cuboid
For a cuboid of length 1, width b, height h, the surface area is given by
S = 21b + 21h + 2bh
There are six faces with two equal faces. That is:
i.e S = (1b + 1b) + (1h + 1h) + (bh + bh)

21b + 21h + 2bh
= 2(1b + 1h + bh) sq. unit
Examples
1. Calculate the surface area of a cuboid of length 5cm, width 5cm and height 8cm.
230
Solution
1 = 5cm, b = 6cm, h = 8cm
S = 2 (1b + 1h + bh)
=2 (5 x 6 + 5 x 8 + 6 x 8)
= 2(30 + 40 + 48)
= 2(118)
= 236cm2
(2) What is the total surface area of a cuboid of length 5cm, width 6cm and height 12cm.
Solution
1 = 5cm, b = 6cm, h = 12cm
S = 2(1b + 1h + bh)
=2(5 x 6 + 5 x 12 + 6 x 12)
=2(30 + 60 + 72)
=2(162)
=324cm2
3.3 Surface Area of a Cylinder
Given a cylinder of radius rcm and height hcm.
The curved surface area is given by the formula:
S = 2rh
Area of a closed end = r2
 for a cylinder with one end close total surface area is:
S = 2rh + r2
= r (2h + r)
But for a cylinder with two ends closed total surface area
S = 2rh + 2r2
231
=2 r (h + r)
Examples
(1) What is the total surface area of a cylinder of radius 3cm and height 7cm if
(i) both ends are closed
(ii) one end is closed
Solution
(i) Both ends are closed
Curved surface are a = 2r
22
 2x x 3 x7
7
 132cm 2
Area of two closed end = 2r2
22
 2x x 3 x3
7
396 2
 cm  56.57cm 2
7
Total surface area = (132 + 56.57)cm2
= 188.57cm2
(ii) When one end is closed.
Curved surface area = 2rh
22
 2x x 3 x7
7
 132cm 2
Area of one closed end = r2
22
 x 3 x3
7
 28.29cm 2
Total surface area = (132 + 28.29)cm2 = 160.29cm2
2. A cylinder has a radius of 6cm, and a height of 4cm. What is the area of the curved
surface?
Solution
Area of curved surface = 2rh = s
232
r = 6cm, h = 4cm
22
S 2x x 6 x4
7
1056 2
cm
7
 150.86cm 2
(3) Calculate the surface area of a yellow cylinder which is closed at one end, if the base
radius is 3.5cm and height 8cm.
Solution
r = 3.5cm, h = 8cm
Surface area = 2rh + r2
= r(2h + r)

22 3.5
x 2 x 8  3.54
7 1

77
19.5
7
 1119.5cm 2
 214.5cm 2
(4) Calculate the radius of the circular base of a cylinder whose height is 7cm and curved
surface area is 88cm2.
Solution
Curved surface area = 88cm2
Height = 7cm, radius = ?
22 7
88  2 x x xr
7 1
88  44r
88
r
44
r  2cm
(5) What is the height of a cylinder, whose radius is 4cm and the area of the curved surface is
352cm2?
233
Solution
Curved surface area = 352cm2
Radius = 4cm, height = ?
22 4
352  2 x x xh
7 1
176
352  h
7
352 x7
h
176
h  14cm
(1) Find the total surface area of a cylinder whose radius is 14cm and height 20cm.
(2) Calculate the curved surface area of a cylinder whose base diameter is 14cm and height
5cm.
(3) A cylindrical water tank is closed at both ends. If the radius of the tank is 0.5cm and the
height is 0.75cm. Find the total surface area of the tank to the nearest square metres.
3.4 Surface Area of Cone
If a cone has base radius r and slant height 1,
Curved surface area = r1
Total surface area = r1 + r2
= r (1 + r)
S = r (1 + r)
Examples
(1) Calculate the total surface area of a cone of slant height 5m and radius 2m.
Solution
Slant height (h) = 5m
Radius (r) = 2m
22 220 2
 x 2 x5 m
7 7
234
Area of closed end = r2
22 88
 x2 x2
7 7
 220 88  2
Total surface area =   m
 7 7
308 2
m
= 7
 44m 2
(2) Calculate the curved surface area of a cone of base radius 5cm and slant height 6cm.
Solution
r = 5cm, h = 6cm
curved surface area (S) = r1
22 5 6
S x x
7 1 1
660 2
cm  94.29cm 2
7
(3) A cone is made from a sector of a circle of radius 14cm and angle 900. What is the area of
the curved surface of the cone to the nearest whole number.
Solution
 r

360 1
 = 900, r = ?, 1 = 14cm
90 r

360 14
90 x 14
r
360
7
r 
2
235
Area of curved surface = r1
22 7 14
 x zx
7 2 1
 154cm 2
(4) Find the radius of the base of the cone in the figure below. If the figure is the net of the
curved surface of the cone.
Solution
Then the curved surface area.
 r

360 1
240 r

360 7
240 x 7
r
360
14
r   4.6
3
22 14 7
 x x
7 3 1
22 x 14
3
 102.67cm 2
236
(5) Find the total surface area of a solid cone of slant height 10cm and the base diameter
14cm.
Solution
1 = 10cm, d = 14cm i.e r = 7cm
total surface area = (curved surface + area of closed end)
Total surface area = = r1 + = r2
= r1 (1 + r)
x 710  7 
22

7
 2217 
 374cm 2
(6) Find the surface area of a right circular cone whose height is 7.2cm and slant height is
7.5cm.
Solution A
7.5cm
7.2cm
O B
r
h = 7.2cm, 1 = 7.5cm, r = ?
AB2 = AO2 + BO2
(7.5)2 = (7.2)2 + r2
56.25 = 51.84 = r2
12 = 56.25 – 51.84
r2 = 4.41
r = 2.1
Total surface area = r (l + r)
x 2.1 7.5  2.1

22
= 7
 63.36  63.4cm 2
237
(1) Calculate the area of the curved surface of a cone with radius 7cm and length of slanting
side 15cm.
(2) What is the radius of a cone, with slant side of the length 10cm and curved surface area
of 220cm2.
(3) Calculate the slant height and the curved surface area of a cone of base radius 5cm and
height 11cm.
4.0 Conclusion
This unit discussed the surface area of cube, cuboid, cylinder and cone. The relationship
between the real height and slant height of cylinder and cone. How to form a cone from the
sector of a circle.
5.0 Summary
In this unit, we have learnt that the total surface area of
(1) a cube of side 1 is 612
(2) a cuboid of length 1, breadth b and height h is
2(1b + 1h + bh)
(3) a cone of radius r and slant height 1 is
r (1 + r)
(4) a cylinder of radius r and height h is
2r (h + r)
When one side is opened, and
2r (h + r)
When both side are closed
(1) A cone has a base radius of 5cm and a height of 12cm calculate.
(a) Its slant height (b) its total surface area r leave your in term of .
(2) The sector of a circle of radius 156cm and angle 1922 is bent to form a cone. Find the
following.
(a) The radius of the basic of the cone.
(b) The curved surface area of the open cone.
238
(3) Calculate the total surface area of a solid cone of slant height 25cm and base diameter
14cm.
(4) Calculate the total surface area of a solid cone of vertical height 24cm and base diameter
14cm.
(5) A cylindrical cup has a circular base of diameter 14cm and height 20cm. Calculate (a) its
curved surface area (b) the area of its circular base (c) total surface area.
(6) A cylindrical water tank is closed to both ends. If the radius of the tanks is 21 x m and the
height at 35cm. Find the total surface area of the tank.

239

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COURSE GUIDE

PED 236: ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS

COURSE DEVELOPER- PROF G. A. BADMUS

COURSE WRITTER DR LUCY ERAKHUEME

COURSE EDITOR PROF G. A. BADMUS

OFFICER IN CHARGE DR DOROTHY OFOHA

COURSE COORDINATOR DR C. A. OKONKWO

Working through this Course

How to get the most from this course

Tutors and tutorials

PED 236: ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS

Module 2: Algebraic Processes

UNIT 1: Basic Arithmetic Operation in Integers

Figure 2: Positive Number Line

Figure 3: Negative number line

Fig. 6: The four cardinal point.

(i) The distance of A is – 15km

-15 -14 -13 -12 -11 -10 -9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3

Therefore (-7) +(-6) = -13.

7.0 References/Further Reading

UPE Teacher Education Project (1977)

(2) Express 18 as a product of power of its prime

Self Assessment Test

(2) 6b  = 62b4x2 = 36b8

(3) 10M  = 10M2x3 = 10M6 2 3

3.4 Rules for Fractional, Negative and Zero Indices

16 2 81 4 (3) 64 5 (4) 625 4

(d) 5a 2 

202 5a 0 121

On anti-log table find 14 under 4 i.e 1393 1 + 0 = 1 final answer = 1.393

6.623 0.8211 6.6234 0.8211 x 4

 '  3.141592....., the decimal containing without recurring. Other examples

3  1.752050..., 28  5.291502.... etc

These factors are useful when simplifying surds.

(1) Simplify (a) 8, (b) a 2 b, (c) 128, (d) 75

(d) 2 75  2 25 x 3  2 25x 3  2 x5x 3  10 3

(c) 8 4  82 x 4  64 x 4  64 x4  256

(a) 50 x 75 (b) 3 32 x 5 8 x 3 18 (c) 5 5 2

 12 x 10 x9 8  1080 x 2 2

 6 10 4 x15  2 5 10 x10

squares. For example, to rationalize M  n we multiply it by M  n to give  M 2

which is a rational number M  n and M  n are said to be conjugate of another.

Self Assessment Test

3.2 Equivalent Fractions

7(a) 91.21  36.82  45.78

3.9 Changing Fractions to Decimals

Self Assessment Question

 132,571 = 1 x 105 + 3 x 104 + 2 x 103 + 5 x 102 + 7 x 101 + 1 x 100

Binary Value in Powers of 2 Binary Numbers (base ten)

We can also convert 15610 to base 5

Conversion of 15610 to base 8

3.3 Conversion Of Numbers From One Base To Another

2. Express 101100112 to base 5

You then add both number since they are in base 2

7.0 References/Further Reading

National Teacher’s Institute, Kaduna (2002).

6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment

7.0 References/Further Reading

National Teacher’s Institute, Kaduna (2002).

UNIT 1: Factorisation and Linear Equations