Quality Assurance For The HBO
Quality Assurance For The HBO
Quality Assurance For The HBO
Assurance for a Hyperbaric Treatment Centre
Copy of the paper presented at the 9th European Committee for Hyperbaric Medicine (ECHM)
Consensus Conference: “Organisation of a Clinical Hyperbaric Therapy Centre and Related Health
Management Issues”; Belgrade, Serbia, September 2012.
Francois Burman Pr. Eng.
UHMS Associate Member
1. Executive summary:
We all wish to provide our patients with the highest quality of healthcare. The term “quality” implies
a variety of metrics, including service, safety, sound practice and cost‐effectiveness. Providing a clear
path to ensure all of these in a way that can be quantified is quite challenging; the process is
complicated by language barriers, cluttered by rules, regulations, expectations and, not infrequently,
confounded by misinformation and miscommunication. So, before we are able to address quality of
healthcare services, it is essential to standardise and clarify the language we use, the terms of
reference we apply and the methods of communication we employ.
Dedicated efforts in a few regions around the world have seen the development of structures and
methods that allow hyperbaric medicine practice to be assessed, improved and ultimately established
as a reliable, reproducible, safe and effective health intervention. Europe’s diversity of language and
culture and its long history of producing regulatory instruments make the task of consolidation and
finding uniformity in this respect especially challenging.
The broader field of quality management is a moving target. As service industries have grown, so also
have the models for defining, monitoring, improving and validating them.
In this paper, we will attempt to define more clearly the common terms used to communicate quality,
offer a review of where we currently stand and where other international hyperbaric treatment
programs stand, and then analyse suitable ways to connect all the existing elements in an effort to
provide a suitable pathway forward.
2. Objectives:
We would like to answer the following questions:
(1) What do we mean with the term Quality Assurance?
(We need consistency in the definition of our quality related terms and concepts.)
(2) What do we really need from Quality Assurance?
(We need safe, ethical and cost‐effective healthcare that is offered in a harmonised, integrated
and achievable system which is able to address the myriad of requirements across the regions.)
(3) Why do we need this?
(To assure compliance with statutory requirements while achieving good clinical outcomes on
a consistent basis.)
(4) How can we do this?
(By firstly achieving consensus on a suitable model for Quality Assurance, or at the least,
agreeing on the criteria for a proposal that will ensure a balanced focus on technical issues,
operations and patient outcomes.)
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September 2012 1
This paper is dedicated to providing substance and meaning to these initial answers so that we can
achieve greater clarity and intentionality for the path forward.
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3. Introduction:
3.1 Background:
The organic growth of the hyperbaric medicine service industry in Europe has generated an abundant
supply of regulatory and guidance documents. Some of these are already harmonised as European
standards, but there are many other legacy documents from individual member countries that remain
in force in these countries – either by local regulatory adoption or simply through expectation.
The majority of these documents contain valuable guidance towards assuring safe, effective and
appropriate practices. However, few, if in fact any, can be regarded as suitable to bear the title of a
true guide to the quality assurance of a hyperbaric treatment centre in the broadest sense of this
concept.
Most forms of external quality review provide essential safeguards and independent means for
assessing the appropriateness, effectiveness and professionalism of healthcare practices. What is
needed, however, is a consistent approach that accounts for the multitude of issues surrounding
hyperbaric medicine and that engenders a culture within operating centres that leads towards
compliance from within, rather than imposed from the outside.
All service industries require the assurance that the quality of their efforts meets client expectations
if they are in fact to grow and thrive amidst a changing healthcare climate. Hyperbaric medical centres
have many unique characteristics, in terms of the equipment, human and organisational resources;
the treatments provided; and the eventual improvement in the condition of the patients. Providing a
means of assessing and then improving such quality implies that a very specific approach is required.
In addition, errors or accidents can have devastating consequences to patients, staff and the
healthcare centres. Hyperbaric risks do not always fall into the regular categories of healthcare facility
hazards and require specific identification and risk management.
Quality assurance in healthcare facilities has received much attention over the past 5 decades and this
is clearly evident in the number of both national and international accreditation programs. Quality
assurance in hyperbaric centres, however, has yet to be defined in such a way that quality
improvement models and external review processes can be developed systematically.
3.2 Definition of quality and related terminology:
It is important to consider a uniform view of the many terms employed in describing “quality” as this
applies to hyperbaric treatment centres. The following list and definitions are specifically appropriate
to how such terms are viewed in this specific service sector. Three broad categories are employed to
show intended application.
The meaning of the term “quality” may appear self‐evident. However, the assumed understanding by
readers, institutions or individuals is anything but certain. Even where definitions are provided, these
are usually designed to differentiate what the term means rather than how it is to be achieved or
assured consistently.
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3.2.1 Quality related terms
(1) Quality The extent to which a treatment program meets its patients’ needs and
expectations.[1] Sometimes simplified as “conformance to specifications”.[2]
(2) Quality The activities used to monitor the quality of the treatment program, focusing
Assurance on systems & processes, analysing service delivery and enabling problem
solving & quality improvement. [1]
(3) Quality The inspection & defect detection activities to assure validity, reliability and
Control reproducibility of the hyperbaric treatment program. [1]
(4) Quality The effort to improve the level of performance of a key process, involving
Improvement measuring current performance, finding ways to improve and implementing
methods to facilitate improvement. [1]
(5) Quality The organizational structure, procedures, processes and resources needed to
Management assure consistent quality.
System
3.2.2 Assessment related terms
(1) Accreditation Process used by an external agency to determine the extent of the meeting
of predetermined standards – to assure the reaching of optimal standards.
Applies to facility performance & competence. [1] Voluntary
(2) Auditing Process of using criteria or standards to assess quality, effectiveness &
outcomes of hyperbaric treatments. [1] Internal or external; voluntary
(3) Certification Process by which a recognised authority evaluates and recognises that the
treatment program has met predetermined requirements. [3] Also applies to
specific equipment and personnel. Voluntary
(4) Compliance Being in accordance with established regulations, codes, standards,
specifications or guidelines. Mandatory or voluntary
(5) Licencing Statutory mechanism to grant permission for a hyperbaric treatment centre
to provide clinical services. [4] Mandatory
(6) Risk Including Hazard Identification & Risk Assessment (HIRA): Identifying,
Management monitoring, controlling and minimising risks to patients, staff and facilities.
Voluntary
3.2.3 Documentation terms
(1) Codes of Written guidelines issued by a recognised body or association to assist in the
practice compliance with the profession’s ethical, safe and/or effective standards.
Voluntary
(2) Guidelines Systematically developed statements to provide guidance regarding
appropriate practices, operations and activities in hyperbaric treatment
programs. Voluntary
(3) Regulations Issued by national government and prescribing minimum acceptable
standards. Compliance is generally mandatory
(4) Specifications Established, common norms that define good practice. Voluntary
(5) Standards An agreed, repeatable way of doing something and containing exact criteria
designed to be used consistently as a rule or guideline. Usually suggested by
professionals, then tested empirically, and finally accepted by consensus as the
appropriate balance between what is ideal and what is real. Mandatory or
voluntary
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3.3 Navigating a confusing landscape:
Growth in most healthcare sectors leads to a striving to establish suitable standards, specifications,
codes of practice and guidelines. Regulators then add requirements for compliance and regulation.
The public likewise demands that services must be of suitable quality, safe and available to all.
Documented efforts, quality programs and safety standards are all essential to meet these goals and
expectations, but with the added complexity of many nations gathered under a single union, the result
is an endless myriad of requirements.
The clearest postulation of appropriate quality in healthcare remains the enduring Process‐Structure‐
Outcome model. [5] We ultimately want to provide our patients with the highest quality of medical
care, so to apply this model in terms of the hyperbaric treatment programme, we achieve such quality
through the structure of the facilities and the interaction between the healthcare workers and the
patients, in order to lead to an improvement in the health of the patient.
Most efforts in healthcare focus on the process (i.e. treatments) rather than the structure (i.e.
equipment, resources and operational practices).
Hence it could be stated that Quality Assurance for a Hyperbaric Treatment centre is essentially the
understanding, application and implementation of, as well as compliance with, all the above stated
requirements.
Yet we need to do this in a less confusing manner to ensure consistency, appropriateness and
compliance. In addition, we need to determine a way to assess our progress, to provide tools so that
we can not only assess where we are, but how we can improve and then make progress in improving,
often by means of an iterative, continuous loop process.
The previous work done to achieve a uniform approach to quality assurance in hyperbaric treatment
centres resulted in the publication of a European Code of Good Practice (ECGP) in 2004. [6] What we
will now endeavour to achieve is further clarification of the concepts of quality assurance and
accreditation, and then to render a proposal to take this forward.
To initiate this, one must also clearly distinguish between the terms quality assurance and
accreditation as these apply to a hyperbaric treatment program. We already know from 3.2.1 (2)
above, that quality assurance comprises a series of quality monitoring activities, while from 3.2.2 (2)
above, accreditation is an external reviewing process. Quality assurance is also continuous whereas
accreditation is episodic. By way of analogy – accreditation is like an annual medical fitness
assessment whereas quality assurance is similar to ongoing performance assessment and health
surveillance. The ECGP [6] provided a pictorial representation of the various layers of a hyperbaric
treatment program, expanding from the hyperbaric chamber to the complete treatment centre. Using
the same expression, we can visualise the equipment, human and organisational resources as follows:
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Diagram 1: Layered Structure of the Hyperbaric Treatment Program
This clearly shows the relative development and location of “structure”, but we need to add
applicable, current standards and a progressive assurance of safety and quality. In addition, we would
like to see where the terms certification (applicable to equipment, training, procedures), hyperbaric
facility accreditation (applicable to equipment, resources and processes), and eventually healthcare
facility accreditation (which incorporates outcomes) lie in relation to this model.
Reworking the diagram into a progress‐indicating format provides us with the following visual
representation:
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Diagram 2: Patient Outcome vs. Organisational Effort
† ECGP [6] sought to provide guidelines to fulfill the requirements for criteria spanning all operational activities required
to provide effective hyperbaric oxygen therapy.
‡ There are currently over 25 different accreditation systems in place.
EN 13445 [7], ASME VIII [8], EN 14931 [9] EN ISO 14971 [10], PVHO‐1 [11] & ISO 9001 [12]
MDD – Medical Device Directive (Europe)
PED – Pressure Equipment Device (Europe)
The rather well defined standards, regulatory and peer‐review structures currently in place in the United States of
America are included in parenthesis.
PVHO – Pressure Vessel for Human Occupancy
FDA – Food and Drug Administration: Agency of the USA
UHMS – Undersea and Hyperbaric Medical Society (USA)
JCI/JCAHO – Joint Commission International and Joint Commission on Accreditation of Healthcare Organizations: Not‐
for‐profit based organisation (USA).
The current situation in Europe remains confusing, and while the USA prefers a more prescriptive
approach, it has at least allowed for the more uniform development of the overall quality
management of the provision of hyperbaric medicine. Australia provides a clear picture in terms of
quality assurance (but not as yet hyperbaric‐specific accreditation), but their social dynamics are
singular rather than the multiple systems of Europe. Africa and Latin America are as yet developing,
although there are some effective systems already in place. Asia remains relatively unknown to the
European region, primarily due to the significant language and communication differences.
As an aside, but perhaps providing a degree of common understanding, the USA comprises 50 States,
each with the authority to accept standards, codes and guidelines as their regulatory authorities deem
fit. The Food & Drug Administration (FDA) and the Occupational Safety and Health Administration
(OSHA) are federal (national) bodies with jurisdiction across all the States; however, the Undersea and
Hyperbaric Medical Society (UHMS) is truly the only peer review structure that has the ability to reach
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across State lines and play an influencing, uniform and ultimately determining role in steering the
industry sector in a relatively consistent direction.
3.4 Review of approaches elsewhere:
The pursuit of a suitable and practical quality assurance system for Europe should heed the progress,
achievements and lessons learned in other parts of the world.
However, before looking elsewhere, one should at least consider that there are in excess of 25
different national organisations already providing accreditation programs to healthcare facilities
within Europe. This implies a wealth of experience in assessing quality assurance and quality
improvement activities, and a review needs to consider the models for quality of care already in place.
The process of providing hyperbaric medicine may be unique, but it has sufficient similarities with
many other forms of medical treatments.
As in Europe, the amount of literature available internationally is extensive, although very few, if in
fact any, of the available articles or publications focus purely on quality assurance. Using the definition
provided in 3.2.1 (2), we are able to refine the available resources to glean quality assurance models
rather than following boarder concepts of quality in healthcare and in patient care.
A leader in the hyperbaric medical sector remains the United States with its lattice of codes, standards,
guidelines and then the integrating effect of the peer group led accreditation system. Most of these
documents and systems are well known. The only additional comment to offer would be that while
their accreditation does achieve many of the quality assurance goals, quality assurance itself is not a
clearly identified and demarcated management system. As such it cannot be used pro‐actively in a
consistent way, at least not until uncovered and analysed during the accreditation process. In addition,
this accreditation system is prescriptive beyond the accepted philosophy of a higher degree of self‐
governance accepted in Europe.
Extending the search to focussed quality assurance models elsewhere reveals interesting cases in
Southern and West Africa, as well as in Australia.
The Australian hyperbaric sector has well defined quality assurance documents that meet many of the
requirements. However, this sector currently lacks an accreditation model, implying that there are
distinct gaps in hyperbaric quality assurance monitoring activities. Healthcare accreditation models
are in place and access to some of the required evaluation information would be available.
South Africa has a somewhat unique hyperbaric accreditation system that is a less prescriptive blend
of self‐and statutory‐regulated approaches. The strength of the peer review body, the Southern
African Undersea and Hyperbaric Medical Association (SAUHMA), provides both push and pull forces
to the extent that all medical treatment facilities submit willingly to accreditation. However, once
again there are gaps in the monitoring of processes and patient outcomes to the extent needed to
facilitate quality improvement. However, quality assurance is simplified to statutory compliance and
then fitness‐for‐purpose and risk management processes.
The applicable references referred to in this literature survey are included in 7. below.
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3.5 Synopsis
We have endeavoured to provide greater clarity as well as a degree of substantiation to the terms
used, what quality assurance means and why we need it. However, what remains as a gap is how one
goes about putting this in place and then how it is monitored, assessed and maintained.
Clearly quality assurance is measured through assessing how things perform to pre‐determined
standards. If a standard is met, why then should we seek to improve?
Quality improvement then takes us forward to improve levels of performance of the process of
providing treatments.
Based on this premise, we recommend a process of:
(A) Certification to record at a given time point that the established standards of quality assurance
have been met, whereas
(B) Accreditation is used to record that (1) quality assurance requirements are met, (2) processes are
conducted safely, (3) quality improvement is on‐going, and finally, using the general term peer review,
(4) that overall professional performance is achieved.
What is needed to achieve this are the required criteria for quality assurance for a hyperbaric
treatment program and the ways they should be met so that a sensible proposal can be made.
4. Recommended criteria for a conceptual quality assurance model
The path to trying to postulate a single model is littered with challenges. Providing the general criteria
that need to be considered, together with the means to apply these to this specific healthcare sector,
does allow for many of the shortcomings to be addressed.
While there is usually a best method for a given situation, we also need consistency; the range of
requirements is confusing enough.
Interestingly, statistical evidence suggests that up to 85% of quality problems are caused by system
flaws, whereas only 15% of problems arrive as a result of individual performance.[13] Quality
improvement falls outside the scope of this article, but this statistic certainly prompts us to pay
particular attention to our processes. In addition to this, risk management techniques applied to case
reviews of incidents and accidents will ensure that our processes eliminate causes of quality‐related
failings.
The primary criteria for consideration in the quality assurance model include:
(1) Management of resources (both human and technical), also referred to as “structure”.
(2) Implementation of processes (operations & healthcare).
(3) Evaluation and monitoring of processes and outcomes.
(4) Hazard identification and risk assessment (HIRA).
(5) Incorporation of patient perspectives.
These criteria may, in a large part, be met through:
(1) Compliance with standards, resulting in certification of equipment and procedures
(2) Compliance with guidelines, codes of practice and specifications, resulting in certification of
processes
(3) Auditing, to determine effectiveness and on‐going compliance through structured review
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(4) HIRA using a risk assessment, mitigation and removal process
(5) Accessing the results of external accreditation surveys
While all the above can be achieved using internal methods, expert external authorities can be
contracted either by the hyperbaric centre or the healthcare centre to perform these functions.
Processes such as those envisaged under the ISO 9001 and the Joint Commission International (JCI)
models (if applied to the healthcare centre), or dedicated hyperbaric centre accreditation surveys such
as the UHMS system or a suitably developed model for the European hyperbaric sector will provide
access to patient perspectives.
Suitable, existing standards, guidelines, codes of practice, specifications and even risk assessment
guides are all available in Europe and need only be compiled into a single, quality assurance “system”
that can then be consistently applied to all those who elect to participate.
At this stage, as accreditation is always going to be the externally applied compliance review process,
it is necessary to at least take cognisance of these efforts as a well‐structured, appropriate and
effective quality assurance “system” will make up a key element of any accreditation system.
Europe currently has access to various country or region‐specific healthcare accreditation systems,
none of which encompass hyperbaric medicine much beyond medical practices and basic equipment
requirements. However, there are three possible models that could be used in such a way as to focus
attention on the specific equipment, practices and processed used by our sector, viz. ISO 9001, a
system that addresses a quality management system; JCI, an international healthcare accreditation
scheme; and a dedicated scheme established by a peer group such the European Committee for
Hyperbaric Medicine (ECHM), following on from the example set by the UHMS.
Table 1 below is an attempt to assemble and list the relevant, existing European documents into a
single quality assurance system. The notable gaps are identified in bolded, italicised text.
Documents† Validation Notes
Structure
Hyperbaric chamber PED 97‐23‐EC CE marking Pressure vessels in Europe require CE marking.
MDD 93‐42‐EEC In addition, all medical devices require CE
(ASME PVHO‐1) (Nameplate) marking.
Pressure vessel EN 13445 Certification Several other pre‐existing vessel design &
(ASME VIII) (U‐stamp) construction codes & specifications still exist in
practice.
Acrylic windows ASME PVHO‐1 Certification PVHO‐1, a USA publication, is recognised for
use in Europe. DIN 7080 is sometimes referred
to.
Hyperbaric system MDD 93‐42‐EEC CE Marking The completed hyperbaric chamber with all
EN ISO 14971 Report systems also requires CE marking. EN ISO 14971
(ASME PVHO‐1) (Nameplate) requires that a risk assessment report be issued
prior to release of the medical device.
System design EN 14931 Certification, This standard contains minimum requirements
(NFPA 99) CE Marking for new chambers.
Air quality EN 12021 Certification Contains maximum contaminant amounts for
(NFPA 99) breathing air.
Fire extinguishing EN 16081 Certification Allows for compliance with NFPA‐99 deluge
(NFPA 99) system requirements, as well as other systems.
Process
Hyperbaric facility
ECGP Certification Contains requirements for staff, operational
(NFPA 99) and emergency procedures, maintenance,
safety and equipment monitoring.
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ECHM Certification Contains recommendations for facility
recommendations management, equipment and procedures.
(UHMS guidelines)
Hyperbaric centre
Accreditation ISO 9001, JCI, other Certification There are no hyperbaric centre‐specific
accreditation documents currently available; a significant
schemes gap in the European hyperbaric sector. The
UHMS Accreditation manual fills this role in
(UHMS accreditation
the USA.
manual)
Evaluation ECGP, ECHM, facility Reports & A second gap in the current European
manuals certification hyperbaric sector. Elements exist and some
(NFPA 99) external certification bodies offer this as a
service.
HIRA ECGP Reports The ECGP contains a degree of guidance in risk
assessment but other publications [14] contain
(ATMO: Risk more comprehensive hyperbaric facility
Assessment Guide) assessment approaches.
Outcomes
Patient perspectives ISO 9001, JCI, other Reports There are no hyperbaric‐specific documents
accreditation that assemble this information. Some
schemes healthcare accreditation schemes, ISO 9001
and JCI do require this information and would
(UHMS accreditation
be a suitable source for quality assurance
manual)
purposes.
Table 1: How Quality Assurance Criteria may be met using existing documents
†
Closest applicable US regulating or guidance document noted in parenthesis under the application
European document.
5. Proposal
We have existing and well‐established quality assurance documentation; we have mechanisms for
achieving certification; and we have at least a core of appropriate criteria for a quality assurance
system that can be effectively met. What we lack are firstly a cohesive program or compiled system
that presents this in a uniform and comprehensive manner, and then we have noted gaps in terms of
hyperbaric‐specific accreditation, quality monitoring, comprehensive system risk assessment and
patient monitoring structures.
Until such time as an appropriate European Norm for hyperbaric facility accreditation can be
established, it is proposed that the ECHM consider a solution to the requirement for a uniform quality
assurance system by establishing an experienced sub‐group with a mandate to:
(1) Review the analysis contained in this paper and provide final recommendations for criteria
for acceptance by the ECHM.
(2) Select an interim practical and incremental approach towards identifying, achieving and
endorsing appropriate QA methods within hyperbaric systems using other existing
internationally available schemes and risk assessment principles as a guide whilst meeting
applicable statutory requirements. In doing so, the ultimate choice of accreditation schemes
will better assure and monitor actual quality and meet patient expectations.
(3) Draft a consensus document that contains the updated data for Table 1 as an overall quality
assurance model, together with suggested structured output documentation so that
consistency during external accreditation can be encouraged.
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6. Concluding remarks
For as long as we fail to provide clear processes and structured means to address quality assurance,
we will miss the target of providing safe, effective and reliable hyperbaric treatments.
The analysis provided in this paper should have provided some clarity as to where quality assurance
applies to a hyperbaric treatment program, the span of the term quality improvement, and how this
all garners structure (equipment) and process (operations) towards an increase in the improvement
of outcomes (patient care and improved outcomes) ‐ the enduring Donabedian quality process.
Quality assurance in hyperbaric medicine is no different to that for other medical, industrial or service
sectors, and includes the identification of clear objectives, ensuring compliance with the accepted
requirements, monitoring the outcomes and then re‐adjusting both technical and operational aspects
to ensure we meet our objectives.
We should follow the well proven path that lead to the adoption of our existing standards: utilising
professional input, testing a system empirically, carefully considering the sense of the results, and
then accepting a final approach through consensus of our peers.
Effective quality assurance will allow us to progress towards quality improvement and will ultimately
ensure that we achieve the desired patient care and outcomes.
7. References, Relevant Literature
7.1 References
[1] Berwick, D.M., Godfrey, A.B. & Roessner, J. Quality Systems and Public Health, Diagnosis (Pty) Ltd, Australia,
1998
[2] Crosby, P.B. Quality Without Tears. McGraw‐Hill, New York, 1984
[3] Mathieu, D. Handbook on Hyperbaric Medicine, Springer, Dordrecht, The Netherlands, 2006. 3.2 (2.4.2) 648 –
649
[4] George P. Purvis, G.P., Jacobs, D. & Kak, N. International Health Care Accreditation: Models and Country
Experiences: Introductory Report on Options for the Republic of South Africa, University Research Co., LLC 2010
[5] Donabedian, A. Evaluating the quality of medical care. Milbank Memorial Fund Quarterly, 1966. 44 (3), 166‐206
[6] COST B14. Working Group “Safety” European Code of Good Practice for Hyperbaric Oxygen Therapy, May 2004
[7] EN 13445. Unfired pressure vessels (Parts 1 – 9). European Committee for Standardisation (CEN), Belgium,
2002.
[8] ASME VIII. Rules for construction of pressure vessels (section VIII). American Society of Mechanical Engineers.
USA, 2010.
[9] EN 14931:2006. Pressure vessels for human occupancy (PVHO) – Multi‐place pressure chamber systems for
hyperbaric therapy ‐ Performance, safety requirements and testing. European Committee for Standardisation
(CEN), Belgium, 2006.
[10] EN ISO 14971:2007. Medical devices – Application of risk management to medical devices. European
Committee for Standardisation (CEN), Belgium, 2007.
[11] ANSI/ASME PVHO‐1‐2007. Safety Standard for Pressure Vessels for Human Occupancy. American Society of
Mechanical Engineers, New York, USA, 2007.
[12] ISO 9001:2008. Quality management systems – Requirements. Switzerland, 2008.
[13] Wakefield, D.S. & Helms, C.M. The role of peer review in a healthcare organisation driven by TQM/CQI. Joint
Commission Journal on Quality Improvement, USA 1995. 21, 227‐231.
[14] Burman, F. Risk Assessment Guide for installation and operation of clinical hyperbaric facilities. International
Atmo, USA, 5th Edition, 2010.
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7.2 Relevant Literature
1 ECHM Recommendations for Safety in Multiplace Medical Hyperbaric Chambers. European Committee for
Hyperbaric Medicine. Lille, France, 1998.
2 (BS) EN 12021:1999. Respiratory protective devices – Compressed air for breathing apparatus. European
Committee for Standardisation (CEN), Belgium, 1999.
3 (BS) EN 16081: 2011. Hyperbaric chambers – Specific requirements for fire extinguishing systems –
Performance, installation and testing. European Committee for Standardisation (CEN), Belgium, 2011.
4 James, B.C. Quality Management for Health Care Delivery. The Hospital Research & Education Trust – American
Hospital Association, USA, 1989.
5 Kalblinger, J. & Bishu, R.R. Use of Six Sigma Methodology in the Health Care Sector: A Model. University of
Nebraska – Lincoln, 2008.
6 Legido‐Quigley, H., McKee, M., Nolte, E. & Glinos, I.A. Assuring the Quality of Health Care in the European
Union. World Health Organization, UK, 2008.
7 NFPA‐99: Health Care Facilities Code. National Fire Protection Association, USA, 2012.
8 UHMS Clinical Hyperbaric Facility Accreditation Manual (Rev. 1). Undersea and Hyperbaric Medical Society,
USA, 2005.
9 Vallejo, B.C., Flies, L.A. & Fine, D.J. A Comparison of Hospital Accreditation Programs. Journal of Clinical
Engineering, January/March 2011 33 – 38.
10 Whittaker, S., Shaw, C., Spieker, N., Linegari, A. Quality Standards for Healthcare Establishments in South
Africa. SA Health Review, 2011 (Health Systems Trust, Durban).
11 Workman, W.T. Hyperbaric Facility Safety: A Practical Guide. Best Publishing, USA (due for publishing 2012).
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